This document summarizes key aspects of planning and communication discussed in Session 6. It explains the definition of communication, the process of interpersonal communication between a sender and receiver, and common methods of interpersonal communication. It also discusses organizational communication, including formal vs informal communication, different directions of communication flow, and types of communication networks. Lastly, it outlines the use of information technology in communications and some common communication issues in today's organizations.

1. Planning and communications
Session 6
Communication and information technology
This session explains:
6.1 Understanding communications
Communication is defined as the transfer and
understanding of meaning. Transfer means the
message is received in a form that can be interpreted by the
receiver. Understanding the message is
not the same as the receiver agreeing with the message.
For example, a message of increasing
salary by 5% can be communicated from management to
employees but may not be agreed by the
employees as a whole.
In a closer group, there is interpersonal communication between
two or more people. In a wider
scope, there is organisational communication that deploy all the
patterns, network, and systems of
communications within an organisation.
There are four functions of communications, namely control,
motivation, emotional expression, and
information.

2. Control: Formal and informal communications act to control
individual's
behaviours in business organisations
Motivation: Communications clarify for employees what is to be
done, how
well they have done it, and what can be done to improve
performance
Emotional expression: Social interaction in the form of work
group communications provides
a way for employees to express themselves
Information: Individuals and work groups need information to
make decisions or
to do their work
6.2 The process of interpersonal communications
To define the process of interpersonal communication, there are
sender and receiver. The meaning
is transferred in the form of a message. The message should be
encoded to be transmitted through
the channel in use. The message should be decoded upon
delivery to receiver. In all stages, there
are various kinds of noise that may degrade the quality of
communication.
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Planning and communications
Sender: a person or an organisation that has a message to
deliver

3. Message: encoded in the form of a language fit for transmitted
in the communication channel
e.g. very short keywords like “meet @0800 lobby” if the cost is
high
Medium: the communication channel e.g. a piece of paper, an
audio tape, electric wire
Receiver: a person or persons or organisations that decode the
message and may give feedback
e.g. reply the message in the form of a message
Noise: disturbances that interfere the communications e.g. dirt
on paper, distraction nearby
6.2.1 Distortions in communications
There are various causes of distortions in various stages of
communications.
Message encoding: The effect of the skills, attitudes,
knowledge, and cultural background of the
sender on the process of encoding the message e.g. experts may
encode
a message using technical terms without detailed explanations
The message: Symbols used to convey the message e.g.
emoticons, hand signs
The choice of message format e.g. a formal business report
The channel: The sender selected channel or channels e.g. by
both email and web site
announcement may cause confusions
Receiver: The effect of the skills, attitudes, knowledge, and
cultural background of the

4. receiver on the process of decoding the message e.g. perception
about the
sender prevents the receiver to accept the message
Feedback loop: The quality of feedback e.g. a smiling emoticon
(^o^) replying a sad message
would cause significant disgrace to the original sender
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Planning and communications
6.2.2 Methods of interpersonal communications
There are methods of communications for two or more persons.
Method Time constraint Location constraint
Face-to-face Same time Same place
Telephone Same time Anywhere with access to phone
Group meetings Same time Same place
Formal presentations Same time Same place
Memos Anytime Within offices and branches
Postal mail Anytime At the postal address
Fax Anytime Offices with fax machines
Publications Anytime Within offices and branches
Bulletin boards Anytime Within offices and branches

5. Audio / video tapes Anytime Offices with appropriate
equipment
Hotlines Same time Anywhere with access to phone
E-mail Anytime Anywhere with access to Internet
Computer conference Same time Anywhere with access to
computer
Voice mail Anytime Anywhere with access to phone
Teleconference Same time Anywhere with access to phone
Videoconference Same time Anywhere with appropriate
equipment
Evaluating the communication methods
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Note: Ratings are on a 1–5 scale where 1 = high and 5 = low.
Consumption time refers to who
controls the reception of communication. S/R means the sender
and receiver share control.
Planning and communications
6.2.3 Barriers to effective interpersonal communications
There are barriers to effective interpersonal communications.
Filtering: The deliberate manipulation of information to make it
appear more

6. favourable to the receiver
Emotions: Disregarding rational and objective thinking
processes and substituting
emotional judgements when interpreting messages
Information overload:Being confronted with a quantity of
information that exceeds an individual's
capacity to process it
Defensiveness: When threatened, reacting in a way that reduces
the ability to achieve
mutual understanding
Language: The different meanings of and specialised ways
(jargon) in which senders
use words can cause receivers to misinterpret their messages
National culture: Culture influences the form, formality,
openness, patterns, and use of
information in communications
To overcome the barriers, encourage feedback, use simplified
language, listen actively, constrain
emotions, and watch non-verbal cues.
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Planning and communications
6.3 Organisational communication
More complicated, the communication in organisation is more
sensitive and should be cautious.

7. Formal communication
Communication that follows the official chain of command or is
part of the communication required
to do one's job
Informal communication
Communication that is not defined by the organisation structure
ance by creating faster
and more effective channels
Direction of communication flow
Downward: Communications that flow from managers to
employees to inform, direct, coordinate,
and evaluate employees
Upward: Communications that flow from employees up to
managers to keep them aware of
employee needs and how things can be improved to create trust
and respect
Lateral: Communication that takes place among employees on
the same level in the
organisation to save time and facilitate coordination
Diagonal: Communication that cuts across both work areas and
organisational levels in the
interest of efficiency and speed
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Planning and communications

8. Types of communication networks
Chain: Communication flows according to the formal chain of
command, both up and down
Wheel: All communication flows in and out through the group
leader to others in the group
All-channel: Communications flow freely among all members of
the work team
The grapevine
An informal organisational communication network that is
active in almost every organisation.
communication channels
countered by open and honest
communication with employees
in elevators
among employees
Discussion
Who can get the most from the grapevine?
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Planning and communications

9. 6.4 Understanding information technology
Information technology is generally deployed in most
business organisations. The benefits of
information technology are:
• increasing ability to monitor individual and team performance
by analysing operational data
• supporting better decision-making based on more complete
information
• sharing information for collaboration effectively
• accessing to co-workers for better communications
Use of information technology in communications
• Intranet – an internal network that uses Internet
technology and is accessible only to
employees
• Extranet – an internal network that uses Internet
technology and allows authorised users
inside the organisation to communicate with certain outsiders
such as major customers and
business partners
• Internet – an open network accessible by most of the users
Information technology services for communications
• real-time services
◦ teleconference – good for a number of attendees from
anywhere using any phones
◦ videoconference – limited to three parties, supports viewing
documents and drawing
◦ web conference – good for a large group of users using
computers or smart phones

10. • store and forward services
◦ email – now a formal way of communication
◦ blogs – a mean for broadcasting information to selected
groups of recipients
◦ wikis – organised web sites for storing and retrieving
information
◦ voice-mail – a backup of telephonic communication
◦ instant messaging – text-based communication
• automated (without human interactions)
◦ electronic data interchange (EDI) – sending and receiving data
between systems
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Planning and communications
6.5 Communication issues in today's organisation
To manage communication in an Internet-based world, there
are:
• legal and security issues
◦ inappropriate use of company email and instant messaging
◦ loss of confidential and proprietary information due to
accidental or deliberate
dissemination
• lack of personal interaction
◦ being connected is not the same as face-to-face contact
◦ difficulties occur in achieving understanding and collaboration
in virtual environments

11. Being connected versus being concerned:
• managing Internet bully sites as a valuable resource for unique
insights into the organisation
◦ employee complaints
◦ customer complaints
• responding to Internet bully sites
◦ recognising them as a valuable source of information
◦ posting messages that clarify misinformation
◦ taking action to correct problems noted on the site
◦ setting up an internal bully site for employees only
◦ continuing to monitor the public bully site
Managing the knowledge in the organisation:
• building online information databases that employees can
access
• create communities of practice for groups of people who share
a concern, share expertise,
and interact with each other
Communication and customer service:
• recognising the three components of the customer service
delivery process:
◦ the customer
◦ the service organisation
◦ the service provider
• developing a strong service culture focused on the
personalisation of service to each
customer:
◦ listen and respond to the customer
◦ provide access to needed service information

12. References
Robbins, S and Coulter, M (2007) Management, 9th Ed, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
International.
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Planning and communications
Session 5
Foundations of planning
This is the second part of the module which has four sessions:
As the core of the planning and communications part, this
session explains:
What is planning?
How do managers plan?
Establishing goals and developing plans
Contemporary issues in planning
5.1 What is planning?
From the four major management functions, the first one
is planning. The planning process
involves defining organisation goals, establishing an overall
strategy for achieving those goals, and
developing plans for organisational work activities.

13. 5.1.1 Organisation goals
To define organisation goals, there is a reference model of
SMART goals.
S Specific
M Measurable
A Achievable
R Realistic
T Time-bound
For example, a study has a goal of finding
out the top three expectations of local
citizens on the Formula E Racing event.
Specific – expectations of local citizens such as ticket price,
racing schedule, entertainment
Measurable – top three of the study results being identified
based on scores
Achievable – as long as the study team can access the local
citizens
Realistic – as Hong Kong has organised such event before, local
citizens would have ideas about
Time-bound – the study should be completed before the end of
the event
5.1.2 Purposes of planning
The purposes of a planning process are to:
uncertainty
by setting the standards for
on-going controls
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14. Planning and communications
The planning process is closely relating to the performance of
the organisation. Formal planning is
associated with higher profits and positive business
reputations. The quality of planning and
implementation affects the performance of the organisation
rather than the documents made.
However, it takes time to see the effect of quality planning.
5.2 How do managers plan?
Managers start with reviewing organisation goals and then
develop plans to achieve the goals.
5.2.1 Types of goals
There are a number of different types of organisation goals.
Financial goals: relating to the expected financial performance
e.g. profit increased by 4%
Strategic goals: relating to the performance of the firm in
specific direction e.g. market leader
Stated goals: broadly-worded official statements e.g. achieve
20% market share in 2018
Hidden goals: relating to strategic direction that cannot be
disclosed for the time being
e.g. to acquire the third strongest market player in order to
compete with
the market leader
Examples of stated goals:
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15. Planning and communications
5.2.2 Types of plans
Plans are also found in different types and groups.
For the levels of plans, there are high-level strategic plans and
detailed-level operational plans.
Strategic plans: the plan applies to the whole organisation
the plan sets the direction to achieve the strategic goals
the plan covers extended periods of time
Operational plans: the plan specifies the details of how the
overall goals are to be achieved
the plan is to be executed by operational managers
the plan lasts for a short period of time
For the time frame, there are long term plans as well as short
term plans.
Long term plans: the plan may be set for five years e.g.
planning in 2017 for years 2018-2022
the plan cannot extend more than five years because of
unpredictable
changes in technology, environment, and expectations
Short term plans: the plan may cover up to 18 months only e.g.
major project timeline
the plan is less violated by changing environment and
requirements
For the specificity, there are directional plans and specific

16. plans.
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Directional plans: the plan sets out general guidelines and
provides focus for implementation
Specific plans: the plan is clearly defined and leaves no room
for interpretation
For the frequency of use, there are single-use plans and standing
plans.
Single-use plans: the plan is a one-time plan specifically
designed to meet a unique need
Standing plans: the plan is an on-going plan that provides
guidelines for activities performed
repeatedly
Discussion
Directional plans: 1. The ultimate goal is to increase the net
profit by 3% within 9 months
2. The new market segment to be explored is aged people of 60
to 70
3. The pricing strategy is low cost differentiated
4. There requires support to the end-users
Specific plans: 1. The ultimate goal is to increase the net profit
by 3% within 9 months
2. The new product should be sold at a price below $1,000

17. 3. To reduce marketing cost, no advertisements will be issued
4. To reach target market segment, use discussion forums to
encourage
mid-aged people to buy the products for their aged parents
5. To support the end-users, organise training sessions for them
State below the advantages:
Directional plan Specific plan
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5.3 Establishing goals and developing plans
There are ways to establish goals namely traditional goal
setting, hierarchy of goals, management
by objectives (MBO), and goal setting. After defining the
goals, plans can be developed to achieve
the goals.
5.3.1 Establishing goals
Traditional goal setting is a top-down approach. Broad goals
are set at the top of the organisation.
Goals are then broken down into sub-goals for each
organisational level. The reason for the top-
down approach is that the top management knows best because
they can see the “big picture” of the
situation. Goals are intended to direct, guide, and constrain
from the top to the lower levels of the
organisation. However, goals may lose clarity and focus
of lower level managers attempt to
interpret and define the goals for their areas of responsibility.

18. The downside of traditional goal setting:
Discussion
What is the problem from the top management? How can the
problem be resolved?
Problem:
Resolution:
Maintain the hierarchy of goals
The means-ends chain relies on an integrated network of goals.
Goals are not set at each level
without co-ordinations. Goals at any level should put
together to achieve an upper level goal.
Therefore, achievement of lower level goals is the means and
the higher level goals are the ends.
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Example of hierarchy of goals:
Management by objectives (MBO)
Specific performance goals are jointly determined by employees
and managers. Progress toward
accomplishing goals is periodically reviewed. Rewards are
allocated on the basis of progress
towards the goals. Key elements of MBO are:
• goal specificity
• participate decision making
• an explicit performance / evaluation period
• feedback to management and employees

19. Steps in a typical MBO program
1. The organisation's overall objectives
and strategies are formulated.
2. Major objectives are allocated among
divisional and departmental units.
3. Unit managers collaboratively set
specific objectives for their units with
their managers.
4. Specific objectives are collaboratively
set with all department members.
5. Action plans, defining how objectives
are to be achieved, are specified and
agreed upon by managers and
employees.
6. The action plans are implemented.
7. Progress toward objectives is periodically reviewed, and
feedback is provided.
8. Successful achievement of objectives is reinforced by
performance-based rewards.
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Potential problems with MBO programs
• It may not be effective in dynamic environments that require
constant resetting of goals.

20. • It may overstate on individual accomplishment troubling
teamwork.
• It may allow the MBO program to become an annual
paperwork shuffle.
Resolution to these potential problems:
• Top management should commit on the program.
• Top management should involve in the setting and
collaboration with employees.
• Employees should be empowered.
5.3.2 Developing plans
Plans should be developed according to goals. Moreover,
contingency plan should be an important
part of a formal plan for 'just in case'.
For example, if an outdoor wedding party is to be
organised in summer, the most possible threat is
raining. What can you do in terms of contingency?
A tent house can be hired for just in case.
Should an organisation does not have successful
plans for years, consider establishing a formal
planning department. A group of planning
specialists can help managers write their own
organisational plans. Just like a new couple may
hire wedding planner to organise the wedding party
instead of doing by themselves.
5.4 Contemporary issues in planning
There are criticisms of planning:
• planning may create rigidity and reduce flexibility
• plans cannot be developed for dynamic environments
• formal plans cannot replace intuition and creativity

21. Effective planning in dynamic environments:
• understand that planning is an on-going process
• change plans when conditions warrant
• persistence in planning eventually pay off
References
Robbins, S and Coulter, M (2007) Management, 9th Ed, Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
International.
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