System Life Cycles 2 Process Inputs .docx

System Life Cycles
2
Process Inputs
•Customer/Stakeholder
Needs &Objectives &
Requirements
•Technology Base
• Prior Developments
• Program Decision
Rqmts
• Spec/Std Rqmts
•Environments
•Constraints
Process
Outputs
Requirements Loop
Design
Loop
Requirements Analysis
Analyze Mission and Environments
Identify Functional Requirements

Define/Refine Performance and Design
Constraint Requirements
Synthesis
Transform Architectures (Functional to Physical)
Define Alt System Concepts, CI’s and Sys Elements
Select Preferred Product and Process
Solution
s
Define/Refine Physical Interfaces (Internal/External)
Functional Analysis & Allocation
Decompose to Lower-Level Functions
Allocate Performance and Other Limiting Requirements
To All Functional Levels
Define/Refine Functional Interfaces (Internal/External)
Define/Refine/Integrate Functional Architecture
System Analysis

And Control
(Balance)
Trade Studies
Risk Mgmt
Config Mgmt
Interface Mgmt
Data Mgmt
Perf Measurement
TPM
Tech Reviews
Verify
& Validate
to an operational system that meets the performance
requirements, cost and schedule

design,
with the objective of satisfying an operational mission
need in the most cost-effective manner
IOCBA
System Development
& Demonstration
Production &
Deployment
Systems Acquisition
Operations &
Support

C
User Needs &
Technology Opportunities
Sustainment
Capability
FRP
Decision
Review
FOC
LRIP/IOT&E
Design

Readiness
Review
Pre-Systems Acquisition
(Program
Initiation)
Concept and Technology
Development
Concept
Decision
MNS ORD
Disposal
Or
Retirement
Pre Phase A

Adv Studies
Phase A
Analysis
Phase B
Definition
Phase C
Design
Phase D
Development
Phase E
Operations
• Mission
Feasibility

• Mission
Definition
•Sys Def
•Prelim Design
• Final Design
• Fab & Integ
• Deploy Prep
• Deployment
& Op Ver
• Mission Ops
• Disposal
MCR MDR SDR PDR
SRR

CDR SAR ORR DR FRR
Major
Reviews
consistent with the business case and funding and
schedule constraints (budget).

till viable?
program can be approved or terminated (or
anywhere in between)
Stages or Phases Purpose
Exploratory Research •ID Stakeholder needs
•Explore ideas and technologies
Concept Development •Refine SH needs
•Explore feasible concepts

•Propose viable solutions
Development •Refine sys requirements
•Create solution
•Build system
•V&V
Production •Produce systems
•Inspect and verify
Operations •Field systems for operations
Disposal or Retirement Store, archive, deactivate
to play at every level of the life cycle
9

Testing
Stakeholder Rqmts Stakeholder
Requirements
System
Requirements
SubSystem
Requirements
Component
Requirements
Component
Test
Integration
Test
System
Test
Acceptance

Test
The
beginning
The
End
Time and System Maturity
The waterfall model is a sequential design process in which
progress is
seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through
the life cycle
phases
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it/&ei=PMo5UrvUPLCQyQHagoG4Bw&psig=AFQjCNEsI8AQ_
b4e8kQj3-_YIvfK9U0DIw&ust=1379605437024644
incremental development, where requirements and
solutions evolve through collaboration between self-
organizing, cross functional teams.
and delivery, a time-boxed iterative approach, and
encourages rapid and flexible response to change.
delivering small increments of working software.

◦ Planning – Identify requirements
◦ risk analysis – “What if” and alternate solutions
◦ Engineering – Development and testing
◦ Evaluation – Customer validation
iterations (called Spirals in this model).
ase,
requirements are gathered and risk is assessed.
•Planning •Risk Analysis
•Engineering •Evaluation

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tp://courses.cs.vt.edu/csonline/SE/Lessons/Spiral/&ei=Ms05Uo
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very close in concept to lean manufacturing principles:
◦ Eliminate Waste – must add value
◦ Amplify Learning – run tests as soon as code is written
◦ Decide as late as possible – make decisions based on fact
◦ Deliver as fast as possible – the sooner the better
◦ Empower the team – everyone is in play
◦ Build integrity in - separate components work well together as
a whole
with balance between flexibility, maintainability, efficiency,

and
responsiveness
◦ See the whole (picture) – systems are not only the sum of the
parts but
the product of their interactions
Think big, act small, fail fast; learn rapidly
MOD 3 RUBRIC:
Module 03 Written Assignment - Digital Media Channels
Scoring Rubric:
Criteria
Weight
Defined five different types of digital media channels
30
Compared and contrasted strengths and limitations of each
channel
30
Provided at least one example for each digital media channel

30
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated
ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of
sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Followed APA rules for attributing sources
10
Total
100%
Sir Name 10
Name
Professor’s Name
Course
Date
Risk Management of a Complex System
An aero plane or airplane is a complex system so, its
manufacture and purchase requires a lot of thought. Before
purchase of one, a business or person needs to identify and
analyze the risks involved as well as ways in which to mitigate
their impacts (Stultz 23).
Definition of a Plane
Powered by an engine, a plane receives a thrust from the engine
which propels it through the air. It has but, engines are not the
key to flight. Other things like birds or gliders fly without

engines. There are forces that have to be overcome to maintain
a plane in air. When a ball is thrown in the air, it comes down
quickly but when a paper is coming down is does so slowly. The
difference observed has to do with the weight of the object and
the air resistance. The weight pulls the objects down due to
gravity. The air resistance is an opposite force to gravity
(Federal Aviation Administration 44).
When the weight is more than the air resistance then an object
goes down. A paper has a small weight which almost balances
with the air resistance and that why it comes down slowly.
Similarly a plane with passengers is heavy, and left on its own
it wouldn’t stay in air. The fixed wings of any plane are
designed to counter the weight of the plane. The wings give the
plane lift force which counters the force of gravity.
The air resistance causes a drag that pulls the plane backwards.
However, the thrust of the engines provide the force that
counters and exceeds the drag force and allows the plane to
move forward. As the plane moves through air at high speed, it
cuts through air. The air flows rapidly over the wings throwing
it downwards; the lift force is then generated by the air below
the wings (Stultz 37).
Wings are ultimately responsible for flight. The shape of a
plane’s wings enables the lift force to be generated more
effectively. Most wings have an upper surface that is curved
while the lower surface is flatter. The cross-sectional shape

formed is called an airfoil or airfoil. Bernoulli law states that
fast moving air has lower pressure than slow moving air. At the
wings, this law comes into effect. The rapidly moving air on the
upper surface produces a low pressure zone.
The slow moving air at the bottom of the wing has high pressure
and the result is an atmospheric lift force. The shape of the
airfoil helps generate the lift force more effectively. Newton’s
law of action and reaction also apply at the wings. The outline
of an airfoil often slants downward so that air is pushed down.
The lift force produced is a reaction force that pushes the plane
upward. It’s important to note that lift force is not solely
responsible for flight otherwise planes would not be able to fly
upside down (Federal Aviation Administration 19).
A loss of lift is called stall. In order to increase lift, simply
increase the contact of air with the lower surface. As a result,
bigger wings generate more lift. This is not to say that more lift
can only come from bigger horizontal wings. Small wings can
generate more lift by rotating faster like those of a helicopter.
Now, the plane described above can only travel in a straight
line. However, a plane often changes directions as a result of
steering. Changing the direction and velocity of a plane requires
a force and acceleration (Stultz 30).
Normal vehicles or bicycles are in contact with the road. When
changing direction or taking a bend the force comes from
friction between the road and the tires. Around a curve the

centripetal force comes from leaning towards the bend and
friction between tires and road. This force provides the force
required for steering. A plane is steered in different directions
but where does the steering force come from. The plane tilts
when changing direction. This is called banking.
The lift is split and some of it acts upwards while the rest acts
sideways. The sideways lift force produces centripetal force for
steering. All this is done in a plane’s cockpit. Fuel tanks supply
power to the engines and the fuel is stored inside the wings of a
plane. Landing gears have rubber tires which help the plane
land and take off. They are retracted into the underbody of the
plane because they would otherwise increase drag when the
plane is the air. The radio and radar systems of a plane are used
to navigate planes in the sky. There are many planes in the air
so without the radar planes can collide.
Pressurized cabins are a counter measure to a fall in
atmospheric pressure as the plane gains altitude. The higher one
goes the air becomes rarefied making it harder to breathe. This
phenomenon is often experienced by mountaineers. This means
that oxygen decreases. Pressurized cabins have heated air that is
pumped into them to allow passengers to breathe freely.
Pressurized suits and face masks also help with the problem.
They are often used by military pilots.
Risk Management
This is a management tool that is employed by corporate firms

or non-financial entities to access the cost involved in
undertaking a certain venture. Firms cannot afford to take
positions that are speculative in nature. The management of any
organization is often under pressure to maximize the value of
the firm year in year out. Risk management is defined as the
process of identifying and assessing risk in a certain
undertaking. In this case, buying and operating a plane comes
with its own risks. The cost associated needs to be justified
against the benefits it will bring. Once risk is assessed, a course
of action is decided upon and the results are evaluated. Often
risks have a cost associated with them. Risk management in
essence prioritizes these costs controls, minimizes, and reduces
the impacts should the unfortunate happen (Stultz 72).
Risk Management Associated With Planes
This ingenious means of travel has some staggering risks. The
most known being death .This instrument can be used to manage
costs associated with running a plane. Pilots and passengers
also take risks when they decide to board an aero plane.
Fortunately, the benefits of travel by aero plane far outweigh
the risks
The value of a plane will be assessed based on present value
invested in it and its productive value in the future. However
this value is determined by the market. The market is known to
be volatile and hence the need for the owners of any plane to
manage the cost of running it. The fuel prices, the management

incentives, taxes, financial distress are some of the reason one
should maximize value of a plane using risk management tools.
The rationale for financial value maximization causes aero
plane owners to engage in hedging activates for risk
management. A hedging activity can either lose or make money.
Thus an optimal risk management tool has to minimize exposure
to identified risk as well as have a profit maximizing goal
In order to mitigate losses from operations of a plane, risks such
as accidents and catastrophes need to be assessed and
prioritized. Financial risk management strategies and policies
have to be established once the plane is in operation. Risks in
aviation cannot be fully removed nor fully catered to. They have
to be managed to an acceptable level. To fully remove risks
associated with flight would mean to ground a plane. Risk
mitigation policies and measures are not all economically viable
or practical. Therefore a balance has to be achieved and some
form of hedging has to be engaged in. Risk management is used
by plane owners to take on more risks but keep them at an
acceptable point (Federal Aviation Administration 32).
Elements of Risk Management
Risk management has three important elements namely: hazard
identification, risk assessment and risk mitigation.
Risk Identification
Airplanes generally have a low profit margin of approximately

1.9 percent. This is due to high capital and labor costs. Poor
cost management and risk management eventually cause most
airlines to post losses. Risks involved with planes are both
operational and financial.
Operational Risks of an Airplane
Accident causes vary from the weather, pilot caused, improper
maintenance, mishaps and mechanical failure. Accidents that
are related to the pilots are those that are caused by lack of
planning ahead of the flight, failure in decision making and
phases of flight which are considered high risk. Unfortunately
many accidents are caused by pilots. Research shows that those
pilots that cause a majority of the accidents are highly trained.
A huge proportion of the rest of accidents are caused by
mechanical failure. Mechanical failure can be caused by lack of
proper maintenance or servicing.
Hazards must be perceived before they can be attended to.
Concise assessment of risk helps in good risk management.
Education experience and training helps a pilot or mechanical
engineer to assess a hazard comprehensively. Identified hazards
are then assessed for severity and the probability of accident
taking place due to the hazard. Risk is dynamic and pilots and
the rest of the flight maintenance team may have to look at the
cumulative effects of multiple hazards. Pilots must differentiate
between high a high-risk flight and low-risk flight ahead of
time. Each pilot must have a risk mitigations strategy to for

flights (Federal Aviation Administration 56).
Financial Risks of a Plane
These are factors that affect the profit margins a plane produce.
As shown the value of a plane is in the potential benefits. When
these benefits are eroded due unseen factors then the plane
operates at a loss. Terrorism threats, natural disasters that affect
tourism, political instability and economic instability all
contribute to lower profit margins because there are not
passengers to carry.
Increase in passengers does not necessarily mean increase in
revenue because the industry is highly competitive. Low fares
and ticket price discount all affect the bottom line. Saddled with
a high capital cost airplane owners may find it hard to generate
cash flow internally. The poor margins also affect the owner’s
ability to get financing (Federal Aviation Administration 38).
The biggest costs associated with operating planes are salaries,
benefits and wages and fuel costs. These often experience
volatility and account for half of the airplane’s cost. Big
international airlines may be able to successfully pass on the
increased cost of fuel to passengers by way of increased fares.
Low cost airplanes may not be able to do so because they don't
have many customers.
Risk Assessment
Several risk assessment models exist to help pilots determine
the severity of a risk or cumulative effects of risk. Once risks

are identified they need to be quantified. Assessment forms are
often filled before flights depart. Such forms have a value
assigned to each factor being measured. Such forms take into
consideration the fatigue of the pilot in terms of hours of sleep,
the weather, the pilot’s health, preflight planning and the time
of flight (night or day). The total scores are added and the result
is checked on a risk assessment program. Aircraft
airworthiness, performance and equipment s checked to ensure
the airplane is in good shape. Despite all these measures, which
cost money, plane owners often override the necessary
precaution in favor of profits.
Risk Mitigation
In aviation pilots seldom have opportunities to learn from small
errors because even those can be fatal. To mitigate risk means
to reduce the chance of an accident happening. Use of preflight
planning checklists is a good guide that helps one to examine
areas of concern in the plane. As a policy, each plane should
have a set standard of procedure. PAVE is a framework used to
identify risk, on planes. PAVE stands for Pilot-in-command
(PIC), Aircraft, Environment, and External pressures.
When the risks of a flight are identified, a pilot or owner must
decide whether the risk or cumulative risks may be successfully
or safely managed. Decisions have to be made to cancel the
flight if the answer is negative. If the answer is positive, then

the strategies should be developed to manage the risk. It is
prudent to set personal minimums for each risk. A pilots
experience and proficiency in flight determines what the
minimums (limits) will be.
The IMSAFE checklist is used by pilots to assess whether their
health, alcohol level or fatigue will affect the performance in a
flight. As a policy, scheduled service appointments cannot be
missed not for any reason. Understanding what is safe or smart
from the pilots experience is often different from what is legally
permitted by the regulations. These are important concepts for
pilots and owners ale to differentiate (Federal Aviation
Administration 91).
The owner or pilot of a plane must assess the environment,
airplane, and the pilot and then determine if the interactions
meets the purpose of the flight. A clear evaluation of risks in
all these areas must be undertaken to mitigate financial and the
material loss of the plane. The evaluations fulfill due diligence
and determine the desirability of taking each flight. The result
is effective management of risks while maximizing the value of
the plane financially. An optimal risk management tool or
strategy has to minimize exposure to identified risk as well as
have a profit maximizing goal, and this is due to the fact that
airlines are in business to make profits.
Conclusion
This paper has addressed a number of issues relating to risk

management in complex systems. The particular system that has
been discussed as an example is an airplane. A host of issues
have been addressed, and these relate to issues of finances,
damage or loss of airplanes, as well as possible injuries. Planes
are delicate systems and without proper planning, catastrophic
losses may be incurred; and the organization in question may
never recover. The uncertain economic times which have been
experienced in the recent past have indicated that in case of a
negativity, then the organization suffers serious losses, and its
recovery becomes extremely difficult.
Risks are the root causes of uncertainties in organizations. This
is why it is important for organizations to focus on the
identification of these challenges, and also find the means of
having them managed in the most effective manner possible.
Once risks are managed, those operating complex systems are
able to act more confidently, and this means that the future
business decisions are made on the foundation of certainty.
Every stakeholder has to realize that they have a role to play,
and thus make the organization as stable as possible. This is
especially in instances where such complex systems as planes
are involved. The bottom-line is coming up with an appropriate
planning, and ensuring that the plans in question are
implemented in the most reliable manner possible.
Works Cited

Federal Aviation Administration. Risk Management Handbook.
Washington DC: Government Press, 2014
Stultz, R. Rethinking Risk Management. Journal of Applied
Corporate Finance, Volume 1(10), 9-24, 2013
Alawad
Name
Course:
Date: 4/20/2015
General Risk Management of a Complex System for aircraft
An aero plane or airplane is a complex system so, its
manufacture and purchase requires a lot of thought. Before
purchase of one, a business or person needs to identify and
analyze the risks involved as well as ways in which to mitigate
their impacts (Stultz 23).
Definition of a Plane
Powered by an engine, a plane receives a thrust from the engine
which propels it through the air. It has but, engines are not the
key to flight. Other things like birds or gliders fly without
engines. There are forces that have to be overcome to maintain
a plane in air. When a ball is thrown in the air, it comes down
quickly but when a paper is coming down is does so slowly. The

difference observed has to do with the weight of the object and
the air resistance. The weight pulls the objects down due to
gravity. The air resistance is an opposite force to gravity
When the weight is more than the air resistance then an object
goes down. A paper has a small weight which almost balances
with the air resistance and that why it comes down slowly.
Similarly a plane with passengers is heavy, and left on its own
it wouldn’t stay in air. The fixed wings of any plane are
designed to counter the weight of the plane. The wings give the
plane lift force which counters the force of gravity.
I need here an obstruction no more 100 words
The air resistance causes a drag that pulls the plane backwards.
However, the thrust of the engines provide the force that
counters and exceeds the drag force and allows the plane to
move forward. As the plane moves through air at high speed, it
cuts through air. The air flows rapidly over the wings throwing
it downwards; the lift force is then generated by the air below
the wings (Stultz 37).
Wings are ultimately responsible for flight. The shape of a
plane’s wings enables the lift force to be generated more
effectively. Most wings have an upper surface that is curved
while the lower surface is flatter. The cross-sectional shape
formed is called an airfoil or airfoil. Bernoulli law states that
fast moving air has lower pressure than slow moving air. At the

wings, this law comes into effect. The rapidly moving air on the
upper surface produces a low pressure zone.
The slow moving air at the bottom of the wing has high pressure
and the result is an atmospheric lift force. The shape of the
airfoil helps generate the lift force more effectively. Newton’s
law of action and reaction also apply at the wings. The outline
of an airfoil often slants downward so that air is pushed down.
The lift force produced is a reaction force that pushes the plane
upward. It’s important to note that lift force is not solely
responsible for flight otherwise planes would not be able to fly
upside down (Federal Aviation Administration 19).
A loss of lift is called stall. In order to increase lift, simply
increase the contact of air with the lower surface. As a result,
bigger wings generate more lift. This is not to say that more lift
can only come from bigger horizontal wings. Small wings can
generate more lift by rotating faster like those of a helicopter.
Now, the plane described above can only travel in a straight
line. However, a plane often changes directions as a result of
steering. Changing the direction and velocity of a plane requires
a force and acceleration (Stultz 30).
Normal vehicles or bicycles are in contact with the road. When
changing direction or taking a bend the force comes from
friction between the road and the tires. Around a curve the
centripetal force comes from leaning towards the bend and
friction between tires and road. This force provides the force

required for steering. A plane is steered in different directions
but where does the steering force come from. The plane tilts
when changing direction. This is called banking.
The lift is split and some of it acts upwards while the rest acts
sideways. The sideways lift force produces centripetal force for
steering. All this is done in a plane’s cockpit. Fuel tanks supply
power to the engines and the fuel is stored inside the wings of a
plane. Landing gears have rubber tires which help the plane
land and take off. They are retracted into the underbody of the
plane because they would otherwise increase drag when the
plane is the air. The radio and radar systems of a plane are used
to navigate planes in the sky. There are many planes in the air
so without the radar planes can collide.
Pressurized cabins are a counter measure to a fall in
atmospheric pressure as the plane gains altitude. The higher one
goes the air becomes rarefied making it harder to breathe. This
phenomenon is often experienced by mountaineers. This means
that oxygen decreases. Pressurized cabins have heated air that is
pumped into them to allow passengers to breathe freely.
Pressurized suits and face masks also help with the problem.
They are often used by military pilots.
Risk Management
This is a management tool that is employed by corporate firms
or non-financial entities to access the cost involved in
undertaking a certain venture. Firms cannot afford to take

positions that are speculative in nature. The management of any
organization is often under pressure to maximize the value of
the firm year in year out. Risk management is defined as the
process of identifying and assessing risk in a certain
undertaking. In this case, buying and operating a plane comes
with its own risks. The cost associated needs to be justified
against the benefits it will bring. Once risk is assessed, a course
of action is decided upon and the results are evaluated. Often
risks have a cost associated with them. Risk management in
essence prioritizes these costs controls, minimizes, and reduces
the impacts should the unfortunate happen (Stultz 72).
Risk Management Associated With Planes
This ingenious means of travel has some staggering risks. The
most known being death .This instrument can be used to manage
costs associated with running a plane. Pilots and passengers
also take risks when they decide to board an aero plane.
Fortunately, the benefits of travel by aero plane far outweigh
the risks
The value of a plane will be assessed based on present value
invested in it and its productive value in the future. However
this value is determined by the market. The market is known to
be volatile and hence the need for the owners of any plane to
manage the cost of running it. The fuel prices, the management
incentives, taxes, financial distress are some of the reason one
should maximize value of a plane using risk management tools.

The rationale for financial value maximization causes aero
plane owners to engage in hedging activates for risk
management. A hedging activity can either lose or make money.
Thus an optimal risk management tool has to minimize exposure
to identified risk as well as have a profit maximizing goal
In order to mitigate losses from operations of a plane, risks such
as accidents and catastrophes need to be assessed and
prioritized. Financial risk management strategies and policies
have to be established once the plane is in operation. Risks in
aviation cannot be fully removed nor fully catered to. They have
to be managed to an acceptable level. To fully remove risks
associated with flight would mean to ground a plane. Risk
mitigation policies and measures are not all economically viable
or practical. Therefore a balance has to be achieved and some
form of hedging has to be engaged in. Risk management is used
by plane owners to take on more risks but keep them at an
acceptable point (Federal Aviation Administration 32).
Elements of Risk Management
Risk management has three important elements namely: hazard
identification, risk assessment and risk mitigation.
Risk Identification
Airplanes generally have a low profit margin of approximately
1.9 percent. This is due to high capital and labor costs. Poor
cost management and risk management eventually cause most

airlines to post losses. Risks involved with planes are both
operational and financial.
Operational Risks of an Airplane
Accident causes vary from the weather, pilot caused, improper
maintenance, mishaps and mechanical failure. Accidents that
are related to the pilots are those that are caused by lack of
planning ahead of the flight, failure in decision making and
phases of flight which are considered high risk. Unfortunately
many accidents are caused by pilots. Research shows that those
pilots that cause a majority of the accidents are highly trained.
A huge proportion of the rest of accidents are caused by
mechanical failure. Mechanical failure can be caused by lack of
proper maintenance or servicing. (I need you to write more
about medication plan, give some percentage. Also, write like
theory about 1- how we can minimize cost. 2- Do not drop
down risk limit in maintenance.
Hazards must be perceived before they can be attended to.
Concise assessment of risk helps in good risk management.
Education experience and training helps a pilot or mechanical
engineer to assess a hazard comprehensively. Identified hazards
are then assessed for severity and the probability of accident
taking place due to the hazard. Risk is dynamic and pilots and
the rest of the flight maintenance team may have to look at the
cumulative effects of multiple
Higher pilot with at least 5 years’ experience

If pilot will operate Boeing 777, pilot supposes has experience
with the same module
Set some pilot and flight crew and ground crew
hazards. Pilots must differentiate between high a high-risk
flight and low-risk flight ahead of time. Each pilot must have a
risk mitigations strategy to for flights (Federal Aviation
Administration 56). ( need for electrical engineering employ,
with 5 years experience) +(implement multipole engineering
employs and they do not have high hours working, because they
need to be very focus)
Financial Risks of a Plane
These are factors that affect the profit margins a plane produce.
As shown the value of a plane is in the potential benefits. When
these benefits are eroded due unseen factors then the plane
operates at a loss. Terrorism threats, natural disasters that affect
tourism, political instability and economic instability all
contribute to lower profit margins because there are not
passengers to carry. ( medication plan should take some points
from the file that attached “ System life cycles” take
PDER point with budget percentage. And use phases to more
explanation.
Increase in passengers does not necessarily mean increase in

revenue because the industry is highly competitive. Low fares
and ticket price discount all affect the bottom line. Saddled with
a high capital cost airplane owners may find it hard to generate
cash flow internally. The poor margins also affect the owner’s
ability to get financing (Federal Aviation Administration 38).
The biggest costs associated with operating planes are salaries,
benefits and wages and fuel costs. These often experience
volatility and account for half of the airplane’s cost. Big
international airlines may be able to successfully pass on the
increased cost of fuel to passengers by way of increased fares.
Low cost airplanes may not be able to do so because they don't
have many customers.
Risk Assessment
Several risk assessment models exist to help pilots determine
the severity of a risk or cumulative effects of risk. Once risks
are identified they need to be quantified. Assessment forms are
often filled before flights depart. Such forms have a value
assigned to each factor being measured. Such forms take into
consideration the fatigue of the pilot in terms of hours of sleep,
the weather, the pilot’s health, preflight planning and the time
of flight (night or day). The total scores are added and the result
is checked on a risk assessment program. Aircraft
airworthiness, performance and equipment s checked to ensure
the airplane is in good shape. Despite all these measures, which

cost money, plane owners often override the necessary
precaution in favor of profits.
Explain what this is
Risk Mitigation for operational Risk
In aviation pilots seldom have opportunities to learn from small
errors because even those can be fatal. To mitigate risk means
to reduce the chance of an accident happening. Use of preflight
planning checklists is a good guide that helps one to examine
areas of concern in the plane. As a policy, each plane should
have a set standard of procedure. PAVE is a framework used to
identify risk, on planes. PAVE stands for Pilot-in-command
(PIC), Aircraft, Environment, and External pressures.
When the risks of a flight are identified, a pilot or owner must
decide whether the risk or cumulative risks may be successfully
or safely managed. Decisions have to be made to cancel the
flight if the answer is negative. If the answer is positive, then
the strategies should be developed to manage the risk. It is
prudent to set personal minimums for each risk. A pilots
experience and proficiency in flight determines what the
minimums (limits) will be.
Explain what this is
The IMSAFE checklist is used by pilots to assess whether their

health, alcohol level or fatigue will affect the performance in a
flight. As a policy, scheduled service appointments cannot be
missed not for any reason. Understanding what is safe or smart
from the pilots experience is often different from what is legally
permitted by the regulations. These are important concepts for
pilots and owners ale to differentiate (Federal Aviation
Administration 91).
The owner or pilot of a plane must assess the environment,
airplane, and the pilot and then determine if the interactions
meets the purpose of the flight. A clear evaluation of risks in
all these areas must be undertaken to mitigate financial and the
material loss of the plane. The evaluations fulfill due diligence
and determine the desirability of taking each flight. The result
is effective management of risks while maximizing the value of
the plane financially. An optimal risk management tool or
strategy has to minimize exposure to identified risk as well as
have a profit maximizing goal, and this is due to the fact that
airlines are in business to make profits.
Conclusion
General
This paper has addressed a number of issues relating to risk
management in complex systems. The particular system that has
been discussed as an example is an airplane. A host of issues
have been addressed, and these relate to issues of finances,

damage or loss of airplanes, as well as possible injuries. Planes
are delicate systems and without proper planning, catastrophic
losses may be incurred; and the organization in question may
never recover. The uncertain economic times which have been
experienced in the recent past have indicated that in case of a
negativity, then the organization suffers serious losses, and its
recovery becomes extremely difficult.
Risks are the root causes of uncertainties in organizations. This
is why it is important for organizations to focus on the
identification of these challenges, and also find the means of
having them managed in the most effective manner possible.
Once risks are managed, those operating complex systems are
able to act more confidently, and this means that the future
business decisions are made on the foundation of certainty.
Every stakeholder has to realize that they have a role to play,
and thus make the organization as stable as possible. This is
especially in instances where such complex systems as planes
are involved. The bottom-line is coming up with an appropriate
planning, and ensuring that the plans in question are
implemented in the most reliable manner possible.

Works Cited
(1)Federal Aviation Administration. Risk Management
Handbook. Washington DC: Government Press, 2014
(2)Stultz, R. Rethinking Risk Management. Journal of Applied
Corporate Finance, Volume 1(10), 9-24, 2013

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