The Categorical Imperative (selections taken from The Foundations of the Metaphysics of
Morals)
Preface
As my concern here is with moral philosophy, I limit the question suggested to this:
Whether it is not of the utmost necessity to construct a pure thing which is only empirical and
which belongs to anthropology? for that such a philosophy must be possible is evident from the
common idea of duty and of the moral laws. Everyone must admit that if a law is to have moral
force, i.e., to be the basis of an obligation, it must carry with it absolute necessity; that, for
example, the precept, "Thou shalt not lie," is not valid for men alone, as if other rational beings
had no need to observe it; and so with all the other moral laws properly so called; that, therefore,
the basis of obligation must not be sought in the nature of man, or in the circumstances in the
world in which he is placed, but a priori simply in the conception of pure reason; and although
any other precept which is founded on principles of mere experience may be in certain respects
universal, yet in as far as it rests even in the least degree on an empirical basis, perhaps only as to
a motive, such a precept, while it may be a practical rule, can never be called a moral law…
What is the “Good Will?”
NOTHING can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called
good, without qualification, except a good will. Intelligence, wit, judgement, and the other
talents of the mind, however they may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as
qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but these gifts of
nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them,
and which, therefore, constitutes what is called character, is not good. It is the same with the
gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being and contentment
with one's condition which is called happiness, inspire pride, and often presumption, if there is
not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind, and with this also to rectify the
whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end. The sight of a being who is not adorned with a
single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying unbroken prosperity, can never give pleasure to
an impartial rational spectator. Thus a good will appears to constitute the indispensable condition
even of being worthy of happiness.
There are even some qualities which are of service to this good will itself and may
facilitate its action, yet which have no intrinsic unconditional value, but always presuppose a
good will, and this qualifies the esteem that we justly have for them and does not permit us to
regard them as absolutely good. Moderation in the affections and passions, self-control, and calm
deliberation are not only good in many respects, but even seem to constitute part of th ...
If you are commenting only in this forum, then please post a brief comment on Kant's notion of the "good will." Explain whether you agree with Kant's view that "an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will."
Explain whether you agree with Kant's view that "an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will, so that nothing remains which can determine the will except objectively the law."
Please be sure to use proper punctuation, and to avoid words and phrases that are vague and general. Aim for precision. Use short quotations from the primary text (the reading below) to develop and support your argument. It is perfectly acceptable to discuss lines or ideas that confused you.
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (selections)
Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good, without qualification, except a good will. Intelligence, wit, judgement, and the other talents of the mind, however they may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but these gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore, constitutes what is called character, is not good. It is the same with the gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being and contentment with one’s condition which is called happiness, inspire pride, and often presumption, if there is not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind, and with this also to rectify the whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end. The sight of a being who is not adorned with a single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying unbroken prosperity, can never give pleasure to an impartial rational spectator. Thus a good will appears to constitute the indispensable condition even of being worthy of happiness… A good will is good not because of what it performs or effects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition; that is, it is good in itself, and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in favour of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all inclinations...
Now an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will, so that nothing remains which can determine the will except objectively the law, and subjectively pure respect for this practical law, and consequently the maxim that I should follow this law even to the thwarting of all my inclinations… Thus the moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from it, nor in any principle of action which requires to borrow its motive from this expected effect. For all these effects agreeableness of one’s condition and
Guidelines· Read the article at least twice before taking any.docxshericehewat
Guidelines:
· Read the article at least twice before taking any notes on it.
· Begin your presentation by stating your name and the title of your article.
· Explain the main point of the article or the central claim the author is trying to convey. For this part, you should be able to summarize in one sentence what the point of the article is, i.e. the conclusion. Use your own words to explain this, do not just read a quote from the article.
· Do not just summarize the entire article.
· I would like you to incorporate at least two interesting points that the author makes, which supports their premises. You may use quotes in this presentation, however, keep it to a minimal.
· You must note one of the thinkers we studied in this course and how they would react to this article.
· Try to relate an example to actual life.
Grading Rubric
Overall 20 pts.
Premise 1 15 pts.
Premise 2 15 pts.
Thesis Statement 15 pts.
Example 15 pts.
Thinker to Relate 20 pts.
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
J hn Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the leading English philosophe
o K ' h' 1 r of the nineteenth century. Whereas _ant s et ica system concentrates
exclusively on the reason for an act10n and does not take account of
its results, Mill's system focuses only on consequences. Mill defend
utilitarianism, the view that the supreme principle of morality is to ac:
so as to produce as much happiness as possible, each person counting
equally. By "happiness" Mill means pleasure and the absence of pain.
He grants, however, that some pleasures are more worthwhile than oth-
ers. "It is ... better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." His
evidence for this claim is that anyone who knew the lives of both would
choose the former rather than the latter.
Utilitarianism provides a means of dealing with the quandary of
conflicting obligations. For instance, suppose you promised to meet
someone for lunch but on the way encounter a child in need of imme-
diate aid. What should you do? Utilitarianism solves the problem by
telling you to give priority to helping the child because that course of
action will produce more happiness. Shouldn't we keep our promisesr
Mill says that usually we should because the practice of keeping one's
promises produces important social benefits. An exception should be
made, however, on those occasions when more happiness will be pro-
duced by not keeping a promise.
What Utilitarianism Is
· · · creed which accepts as the foundation of morals "utility"
or t e greate
st
happiness principle" holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to h d to
d h promote appiness· wrong as they ten pro uce t e reverse of ha · ' e
PPllless. By happiness is intended plea5ur
From John Stuart Mill, Utilitari~ism 0863).
118
CHAPTER 15 UTILITARIANISM 1] 9
and the absence of pain· by h · · · ·
. , un app1ness, pain ...
The Theory of Moral SentimentsBy Adam Smith, 1723–1790(excer.docxssusera34210
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
By
Adam Smith, 1723–1790
(excerpt)
Chapter 1: The principle of self-approval and self-disapproval
I now turn to the origin of our judgments concerning our own sentiments and conduct. The principle by which we naturally either approve or disapprove of our own conduct seems to be exactly the one by which we make such judgments about the conduct of other people. We approve (or disapprove) of another man’s conduct according to whether, when we bring his case home to ourselves, we feel that we can (or cannot) entirely sympathize with the sentiments and motives that directed it. And in the same way we approve (or disapprove) of our own conduct according to whether, when we adopt the situation of a spectator, viewing our conduct with his eyes (so to speak) and from his standpoint, we feel that we can (or cannot) entirely enter into and sympathize with the sentiments and motives that influenced it. The only way we can survey our own sentiments and motives, and the only way we can form any judgment about them, is to remove ourselves (so to speak) from our own natural station and try to view •them as from a certain distance; and our only way of doing that is by trying to view them with the eyes of other people, or as other people are likely to view them. Thus, any judgment we form about our own conduct tacitly refers to what others do judge concerning them, would judge concerning them if certain conditions were satisfied, or ought to judge concerning them. We try to examine our own conduct as we imagine any other fair and impartial spectator would examine it. If when we place ourselves in his situation we thoroughly enter into all the passions and motives that influenced it, we approve of it by sympathy with the approval of this supposed fair judge. If otherwise, we enter into his disapproval, and condemn the conduct. ·I’ll restate the ‘approval’ side of this story in different terms, just to make sure that it’s clear to you.
Chapter 3: The influences and authority of conscience
The approval of a man’s own conscience is in some special cases barely enough to content him; the testimony of the supposed impartial spectator, that great inmate of the breast, can’t always give him all the support he needs. Still, the influence and authority of this principle is always very great, and it’s only by consulting this inner judge that we can ever see our own character and conduct in its proper shape and dimensions, or make any proper comparison between our own interests and other people’s. We all know that to the eye of the body objects appear great or small not so much according to their real sizes as according to how far away they are. Well, the same is true for what may be called the natural eye of the mind, and we make up for the defects of both these ‘eyes’ in pretty much the same way. From where I am now sitting, an immense landscape of lawns, woods, and distant mountains seems to have barely the width of the little window ...
Ethical Dilemma #1 Answer the following question in an essay f.docxelbanglis
Ethical Dilemma #1
Answer the following question in an essay format. Your response should be a page in length, double-spaced, with 1” margins. Use proper grammar, punctuation, and paragraphing. Failure to comply with these rules will result in a reduction of points.
Dilemma #1
In the U.S., there are strict legal restrictions related to labor practices. Regulations control the age of workers, the minimum salaries, hours, benefits, safety issues, etc. However, in many other nations, no such laws or restrictions exist.
Daniel Sims, the sole owner of Sims Corporation, decided to expand his factory operations and open a plant in Southland, one of the countries that had no existing labor laws. Sims followed most of the regulations in the new plant that he did in his U.S. plants, but he was confused as to whether to follow U.S. child labor restrictions in Southland. His dilemma was related to the actual practices of the people of Southland. For example, the workers he hired at the new plant claimed that; since their children only went to school until they were 12 years of age, they should be able to be hired by the Sims Corp. at this age. Furthermore, the workers insisted that, since the Sims plant was a safe place to work, their children would be much better off working for him than for any other local employer.
Sims had to decide what to do. He knew that U.S. law would not allow these children to work, but this plant was not in the U.S. and was not governed by U.S. law. He also knew that these children would all get jobs when they completed school.
What would Kant advise and why? Be sure to stay focused on the question at hand and to use Kant’s terminology to determine your response.
CHAPTER 13
-=====~~==~
~he Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
. 'd d various challenges to morality, we turn next to Havmg cons1 ere . · 1 .
f h t l·mportant moral theones, competing exp anations some o t e mos O f h
h · t'ons are right and others are wrong. ne o t e most ofw y certam ac 1 . .
· fl t'al of all ethical systems 1s that developed by the German phi-in uen 1 • fi · h h'
losopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1~04~, a dominant gure 1n t e 1story
of modern philosophy. Because his views are not easy to grasp, I shall
offer a brief overview of them.
Kant argues that the moral worth of an action is to be judged not by
its consequences but by the nature of the maxim or principle that moti-
vated the action. Thus right actions are not necessarily those with favor-
able consequences but those performed in accordance with correct
maxims. But which maxims are correct? According to Kant, the only
corr~ct ones ~re those that can serve as universal laws because they are
apphcable without exception to every person at any time. In other
words, you should act only on a maxim that can be universalized with-out contradiction.
To see what Kant has in · d ·d .
1·11ust t h' . mm , consi er a specific example he uses to ra e is view S ...
Ethical Dilemma #1 Answer the following question in an essay fgalinagrabow44ms
Ethical Dilemma #1
Answer the following question in an essay format. Your response should be a page in length, double-spaced, with 1” margins. Use proper grammar, punctuation, and paragraphing. Failure to comply with these rules will result in a reduction of points.
Dilemma #1
In the U.S., there are strict legal restrictions related to labor practices. Regulations control the age of workers, the minimum salaries, hours, benefits, safety issues, etc. However, in many other nations, no such laws or restrictions exist.
Daniel Sims, the sole owner of Sims Corporation, decided to expand his factory operations and open a plant in Southland, one of the countries that had no existing labor laws. Sims followed most of the regulations in the new plant that he did in his U.S. plants, but he was confused as to whether to follow U.S. child labor restrictions in Southland. His dilemma was related to the actual practices of the people of Southland. For example, the workers he hired at the new plant claimed that; since their children only went to school until they were 12 years of age, they should be able to be hired by the Sims Corp. at this age. Furthermore, the workers insisted that, since the Sims plant was a safe place to work, their children would be much better off working for him than for any other local employer.
Sims had to decide what to do. He knew that U.S. law would not allow these children to work, but this plant was not in the U.S. and was not governed by U.S. law. He also knew that these children would all get jobs when they completed school.
What would Kant advise and why? Be sure to stay focused on the question at hand and to use Kant’s terminology to determine your response.
CHAPTER 13
-=====~~==~
~he Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
. 'd d various challenges to morality, we turn next to Havmg cons1 ere . · 1 .
f h t l·mportant moral theones, competing exp anations some o t e mos O f h
h · t'ons are right and others are wrong. ne o t e most ofw y certam ac 1 . .
· fl t'al of all ethical systems 1s that developed by the German phi-in uen 1 • fi · h h'
losopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1~04~, a dominant gure 1n t e 1story
of modern philosophy. Because his views are not easy to grasp, I shall
offer a brief overview of them.
Kant argues that the moral worth of an action is to be judged not by
its consequences but by the nature of the maxim or principle that moti-
vated the action. Thus right actions are not necessarily those with favor-
able consequences but those performed in accordance with correct
maxims. But which maxims are correct? According to Kant, the only
corr~ct ones ~re those that can serve as universal laws because they are
apphcable without exception to every person at any time. In other
words, you should act only on a maxim that can be universalized with-out contradiction.
To see what Kant has in · d ·d .
1·11ust t h' . mm , consi er a specific example he uses to ra e is view S ...
If you are commenting only in this forum, then please post a brief comment on Kant's notion of the "good will." Explain whether you agree with Kant's view that "an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will."
Explain whether you agree with Kant's view that "an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will, so that nothing remains which can determine the will except objectively the law."
Please be sure to use proper punctuation, and to avoid words and phrases that are vague and general. Aim for precision. Use short quotations from the primary text (the reading below) to develop and support your argument. It is perfectly acceptable to discuss lines or ideas that confused you.
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (selections)
Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good, without qualification, except a good will. Intelligence, wit, judgement, and the other talents of the mind, however they may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but these gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore, constitutes what is called character, is not good. It is the same with the gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being and contentment with one’s condition which is called happiness, inspire pride, and often presumption, if there is not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind, and with this also to rectify the whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end. The sight of a being who is not adorned with a single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying unbroken prosperity, can never give pleasure to an impartial rational spectator. Thus a good will appears to constitute the indispensable condition even of being worthy of happiness… A good will is good not because of what it performs or effects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition; that is, it is good in itself, and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in favour of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all inclinations...
Now an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will, so that nothing remains which can determine the will except objectively the law, and subjectively pure respect for this practical law, and consequently the maxim that I should follow this law even to the thwarting of all my inclinations… Thus the moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from it, nor in any principle of action which requires to borrow its motive from this expected effect. For all these effects agreeableness of one’s condition and
Guidelines· Read the article at least twice before taking any.docxshericehewat
Guidelines:
· Read the article at least twice before taking any notes on it.
· Begin your presentation by stating your name and the title of your article.
· Explain the main point of the article or the central claim the author is trying to convey. For this part, you should be able to summarize in one sentence what the point of the article is, i.e. the conclusion. Use your own words to explain this, do not just read a quote from the article.
· Do not just summarize the entire article.
· I would like you to incorporate at least two interesting points that the author makes, which supports their premises. You may use quotes in this presentation, however, keep it to a minimal.
· You must note one of the thinkers we studied in this course and how they would react to this article.
· Try to relate an example to actual life.
Grading Rubric
Overall 20 pts.
Premise 1 15 pts.
Premise 2 15 pts.
Thesis Statement 15 pts.
Example 15 pts.
Thinker to Relate 20 pts.
Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
J hn Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the leading English philosophe
o K ' h' 1 r of the nineteenth century. Whereas _ant s et ica system concentrates
exclusively on the reason for an act10n and does not take account of
its results, Mill's system focuses only on consequences. Mill defend
utilitarianism, the view that the supreme principle of morality is to ac:
so as to produce as much happiness as possible, each person counting
equally. By "happiness" Mill means pleasure and the absence of pain.
He grants, however, that some pleasures are more worthwhile than oth-
ers. "It is ... better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied." His
evidence for this claim is that anyone who knew the lives of both would
choose the former rather than the latter.
Utilitarianism provides a means of dealing with the quandary of
conflicting obligations. For instance, suppose you promised to meet
someone for lunch but on the way encounter a child in need of imme-
diate aid. What should you do? Utilitarianism solves the problem by
telling you to give priority to helping the child because that course of
action will produce more happiness. Shouldn't we keep our promisesr
Mill says that usually we should because the practice of keeping one's
promises produces important social benefits. An exception should be
made, however, on those occasions when more happiness will be pro-
duced by not keeping a promise.
What Utilitarianism Is
· · · creed which accepts as the foundation of morals "utility"
or t e greate
st
happiness principle" holds that actions are right in
proportion as they tend to h d to
d h promote appiness· wrong as they ten pro uce t e reverse of ha · ' e
PPllless. By happiness is intended plea5ur
From John Stuart Mill, Utilitari~ism 0863).
118
CHAPTER 15 UTILITARIANISM 1] 9
and the absence of pain· by h · · · ·
. , un app1ness, pain ...
The Theory of Moral SentimentsBy Adam Smith, 1723–1790(excer.docxssusera34210
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
By
Adam Smith, 1723–1790
(excerpt)
Chapter 1: The principle of self-approval and self-disapproval
I now turn to the origin of our judgments concerning our own sentiments and conduct. The principle by which we naturally either approve or disapprove of our own conduct seems to be exactly the one by which we make such judgments about the conduct of other people. We approve (or disapprove) of another man’s conduct according to whether, when we bring his case home to ourselves, we feel that we can (or cannot) entirely sympathize with the sentiments and motives that directed it. And in the same way we approve (or disapprove) of our own conduct according to whether, when we adopt the situation of a spectator, viewing our conduct with his eyes (so to speak) and from his standpoint, we feel that we can (or cannot) entirely enter into and sympathize with the sentiments and motives that influenced it. The only way we can survey our own sentiments and motives, and the only way we can form any judgment about them, is to remove ourselves (so to speak) from our own natural station and try to view •them as from a certain distance; and our only way of doing that is by trying to view them with the eyes of other people, or as other people are likely to view them. Thus, any judgment we form about our own conduct tacitly refers to what others do judge concerning them, would judge concerning them if certain conditions were satisfied, or ought to judge concerning them. We try to examine our own conduct as we imagine any other fair and impartial spectator would examine it. If when we place ourselves in his situation we thoroughly enter into all the passions and motives that influenced it, we approve of it by sympathy with the approval of this supposed fair judge. If otherwise, we enter into his disapproval, and condemn the conduct. ·I’ll restate the ‘approval’ side of this story in different terms, just to make sure that it’s clear to you.
Chapter 3: The influences and authority of conscience
The approval of a man’s own conscience is in some special cases barely enough to content him; the testimony of the supposed impartial spectator, that great inmate of the breast, can’t always give him all the support he needs. Still, the influence and authority of this principle is always very great, and it’s only by consulting this inner judge that we can ever see our own character and conduct in its proper shape and dimensions, or make any proper comparison between our own interests and other people’s. We all know that to the eye of the body objects appear great or small not so much according to their real sizes as according to how far away they are. Well, the same is true for what may be called the natural eye of the mind, and we make up for the defects of both these ‘eyes’ in pretty much the same way. From where I am now sitting, an immense landscape of lawns, woods, and distant mountains seems to have barely the width of the little window ...
Ethical Dilemma #1 Answer the following question in an essay f.docxelbanglis
Ethical Dilemma #1
Answer the following question in an essay format. Your response should be a page in length, double-spaced, with 1” margins. Use proper grammar, punctuation, and paragraphing. Failure to comply with these rules will result in a reduction of points.
Dilemma #1
In the U.S., there are strict legal restrictions related to labor practices. Regulations control the age of workers, the minimum salaries, hours, benefits, safety issues, etc. However, in many other nations, no such laws or restrictions exist.
Daniel Sims, the sole owner of Sims Corporation, decided to expand his factory operations and open a plant in Southland, one of the countries that had no existing labor laws. Sims followed most of the regulations in the new plant that he did in his U.S. plants, but he was confused as to whether to follow U.S. child labor restrictions in Southland. His dilemma was related to the actual practices of the people of Southland. For example, the workers he hired at the new plant claimed that; since their children only went to school until they were 12 years of age, they should be able to be hired by the Sims Corp. at this age. Furthermore, the workers insisted that, since the Sims plant was a safe place to work, their children would be much better off working for him than for any other local employer.
Sims had to decide what to do. He knew that U.S. law would not allow these children to work, but this plant was not in the U.S. and was not governed by U.S. law. He also knew that these children would all get jobs when they completed school.
What would Kant advise and why? Be sure to stay focused on the question at hand and to use Kant’s terminology to determine your response.
CHAPTER 13
-=====~~==~
~he Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
. 'd d various challenges to morality, we turn next to Havmg cons1 ere . · 1 .
f h t l·mportant moral theones, competing exp anations some o t e mos O f h
h · t'ons are right and others are wrong. ne o t e most ofw y certam ac 1 . .
· fl t'al of all ethical systems 1s that developed by the German phi-in uen 1 • fi · h h'
losopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1~04~, a dominant gure 1n t e 1story
of modern philosophy. Because his views are not easy to grasp, I shall
offer a brief overview of them.
Kant argues that the moral worth of an action is to be judged not by
its consequences but by the nature of the maxim or principle that moti-
vated the action. Thus right actions are not necessarily those with favor-
able consequences but those performed in accordance with correct
maxims. But which maxims are correct? According to Kant, the only
corr~ct ones ~re those that can serve as universal laws because they are
apphcable without exception to every person at any time. In other
words, you should act only on a maxim that can be universalized with-out contradiction.
To see what Kant has in · d ·d .
1·11ust t h' . mm , consi er a specific example he uses to ra e is view S ...
Ethical Dilemma #1 Answer the following question in an essay fgalinagrabow44ms
Ethical Dilemma #1
Answer the following question in an essay format. Your response should be a page in length, double-spaced, with 1” margins. Use proper grammar, punctuation, and paragraphing. Failure to comply with these rules will result in a reduction of points.
Dilemma #1
In the U.S., there are strict legal restrictions related to labor practices. Regulations control the age of workers, the minimum salaries, hours, benefits, safety issues, etc. However, in many other nations, no such laws or restrictions exist.
Daniel Sims, the sole owner of Sims Corporation, decided to expand his factory operations and open a plant in Southland, one of the countries that had no existing labor laws. Sims followed most of the regulations in the new plant that he did in his U.S. plants, but he was confused as to whether to follow U.S. child labor restrictions in Southland. His dilemma was related to the actual practices of the people of Southland. For example, the workers he hired at the new plant claimed that; since their children only went to school until they were 12 years of age, they should be able to be hired by the Sims Corp. at this age. Furthermore, the workers insisted that, since the Sims plant was a safe place to work, their children would be much better off working for him than for any other local employer.
Sims had to decide what to do. He knew that U.S. law would not allow these children to work, but this plant was not in the U.S. and was not governed by U.S. law. He also knew that these children would all get jobs when they completed school.
What would Kant advise and why? Be sure to stay focused on the question at hand and to use Kant’s terminology to determine your response.
CHAPTER 13
-=====~~==~
~he Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant
. 'd d various challenges to morality, we turn next to Havmg cons1 ere . · 1 .
f h t l·mportant moral theones, competing exp anations some o t e mos O f h
h · t'ons are right and others are wrong. ne o t e most ofw y certam ac 1 . .
· fl t'al of all ethical systems 1s that developed by the German phi-in uen 1 • fi · h h'
losopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1~04~, a dominant gure 1n t e 1story
of modern philosophy. Because his views are not easy to grasp, I shall
offer a brief overview of them.
Kant argues that the moral worth of an action is to be judged not by
its consequences but by the nature of the maxim or principle that moti-
vated the action. Thus right actions are not necessarily those with favor-
able consequences but those performed in accordance with correct
maxims. But which maxims are correct? According to Kant, the only
corr~ct ones ~re those that can serve as universal laws because they are
apphcable without exception to every person at any time. In other
words, you should act only on a maxim that can be universalized with-out contradiction.
To see what Kant has in · d ·d .
1·11ust t h' . mm , consi er a specific example he uses to ra e is view S ...
1 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding Author .docxhoney725342
1
An Enquiry Concerning Human
Understanding
Author: David Hume
www.alhassanain.org/english
2
Table of Contents
Section I: Of The Different Species Of Philosophy ........................ 3
Section II: Of The Origin Of Ideas ....................................... 11
Section III: Of The Association Of Ideas ................................. 15
Section IV: Sceptical Doubts Concerning The Operations Of The
Understanding .............................................................. 17
Section V: Sceptical
Solution
Of These Doubts .......................... 27
Section VI ................................................................... 34
Section VII: Of The Idea Of Necessary Connexion ..................... 38
Section VIII: Of Llberity and Necessity .................................. 51
Section IX: Of The Reason Of Animals .................................. 66
Section X: OF Miracles .................................................... 69
Section XI: Of A Particular Providence and Of A Future State ....... 83
Section XII: Of The Acadimical Or Sceptical Philosophy .............. 94
www.alhassanain.org/english
3
Section I: Of The Different Species Of Philosophy
MORAL philosophy, or the science of human nature, may be treated
after two different manners; each of which has its peculiar merit, and may
contribute to the entertainment, instruction, and reformation of man- kind.
The one considers man chiefly as born for action; and as influenced in
his measures by taste and sentiment; pursuing one object, and avoiding
another, according to the value which these objects seem to possess, and
accord- ing to the light in which they present themselves.
As vir- tue, of all objects, is allowed to be the most valuable, this species
of philosophers paint her in the most amiable colours; borrowing all helps
from poetry and eloquence, and treating their subject in an easy and obvious
manner, and such as is best fitted to please the imagination, and engage the
affections.
They select the most striking observations and instances from common
life; place opposite characters in a proper contrast; and alluring us into the
paths of virtue by the views of glory and happiness, direct our steps in these
paths by the soundest precepts and most illustrious examples. They make us
feel the difference between vice and virtue; they excite and regulate our
sentiments; and so they can but bend our hearts to the love of probity and
true honour, they think, that they have fully attained the end of all their
labours.
The other species of philosophers consider man in the light of a
reasonable rather than an active being, and endeavour to form his
understanding more than cultivate his manners.
They regard human nature as a subject of speculation; and with a narrow
scrutiny examine it, in order to find those principles, which regulate our
under- standing, excite our sentiments, and make us approve or blame any
particular ...
Nicomachean EthicsAristotle Book I1. Every art and every .docxhenrymartin15260
Nicomachean Ethics/Aristotle
Book I
1. Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. But a certain difference is found among ends; some are activities, others are products apart from the activities that produce them. Where there are ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of the products to be better than the activities.
1. Why is that?
2. If, then, there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for its own sake (everything else being desired for the sake of this), and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else (for at that rate the process would go on to infinity, so that our desire would be empty and vain), clearly this must be the good and the chief good. Will not the knowledge of it, then, have a great influence on life? Shall we not, like archers who have a mark to aim at, be more likely to hit upon what is right?
This supreme good, Aristotle goes on to say, is “happiness” (well-being). He then goes on to inquire as to what this is.
5. To judge from the lives that men lead, most men, and men of the most vulgar type, seem (not without some ground) to identify the good, or happiness, with pleasure; which is the reason why they love the life of enjoyment. For there are, we may say, three prominent types of life- that just mentioned, the political, and thirdly the contemplative life. Now the mass of mankind are evidently quite slavish in their tastes, preferring a life suitable to beasts, but they get some ground for their view from the fact that many of those in high places share the tastes of Sardanapallus. A consideration of the prominent types of life shows that people of superior refinement and of active disposition identify happiness with honour; for this is, roughly speaking, the end of the political life. But it seems too superficial to be what we are looking for, since it is thought to depend on those who bestow honour rather than on him who receives it, but the good we divine to be something proper to a man and not easily taken from him. Further, men seem to pursue honour in order that they may be assured of their goodness; at least it is by men of practical wisdom that they seek to be honoured, and among those who know them, and on the ground of their virtue; clearly, then, according to them, at any rate, virtue is better. And perhaps one might even suppose this to be, rather than honour, the end of the political life. But even this appears somewhat incomplete; for possession of virtue seems actually compatible with being asleep, or with lifelong inactivity, and, further, with the greatest sufferings and misfortunes; but a man who was living so no one would call happy, unless he were maintaining a thesis at all costs. But enough of this; for the subject has been sufficiently treated even in the current discussions. Third comes the contemplative.
Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy CHAPTER XV .docxtangyechloe
Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy
CHAPTER XV
THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
HAVING now come to the end of our brief and very incomplete review of the problems
of philosophy, it will be well to consider, in conclusion, what is the value of philosophy
and why it ought to be studied. It is the more necessary to consider this question, in view
of the fact that many men, under the influence of science or of practical affairs, are
inclined to doubt whether philosophy is anything better than innocent but useless trifling,
hair-splitting distinctions, and controversies on matters concerning which knowledge is
impossible.
This view of philosophy appears to result, partly from a wrong conception of the ends of
life, partly from a wrong conception of the kind of goods which philosophy strives to
achieve. Physical science, through the medium of inventions, is useful to innumerable
people who are wholly ignorant of it; thus the study of physical science is to be
recommended, not only, or primarily, because of the effect on the student, but rather
because of the effect on mankind in general. Thus utility does not belong to philosophy.
If the study of philosophy has any value at all for others than students of philosophy, it
must be only indirectly, through its effects upon the lives of those who study it. It is in
these effects, therefore, if anywhere, that the value of philosophy must be primarily
sought.
But further, if we are not to fail in our endeavour to determine the value of philosophy,
we must first free our minds from the prejudices of what are wrongly called 'practical'
men. The 'practical' man, as this word is often used, is one who recognizes only material
needs, who realizes that men must have food for the body, but is oblivious of the
necessity of providing food for the mind. If all men were well off, if poverty and disease
had been reduced to their lowest possible point, there would still remain much to be done
to produce a valuable society; and even in the existing world the goods of the mind are at
least as important as the goods of the body. It is exclusively among the goods of the mind
that the value of philosophy is to be found; and only those who are not indifferent to
these goods can be persuaded that the study of philosophy is not a waste of time.
Philosophy, like all other studies, aims primarily at knowledge. The knowledge it aims at
is the kind of knowledge which gives unity and system to the body of the sciences, and
the kind which results from a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions,
prejudices, and beliefs. But it cannot be maintained that philosophy has had any very
great measure of success in its attempts to provide definite answers to its questions. If
you ask a mathematician, a mineralogist, a historian, or any other man of learning, what
definite body of truths has been ascertained by his science, his answer will last as long as
you are willing to listen. B.
Of Justice and BeneficenceS II Of Justice and Beneficence C- I Compari.docxhye345678
Of Justice and Beneficence
S II Of Justice and Beneficence C. I Comparison of those two virtues 1 A a beneficent tendency, which proceed from proper motives, seem alone to require reward; because such alone are the approved objects of gratitude, or excite the sympathetic gratitude of the spectator. 2 Actions of a hurtful tendency, which proceed from improper motives, seem alone to deserve punishment; because such alone are the approved objects of resentment, or excite the sympathetic resentment of the spectator. 3 Beneficence is always free, it cannot be extorted by force, the mere want of it exposes to no punishment; because the mere want of beneficence tends to do no real positive evil. It may disappoint of the good which might reasonably have been expected, and upon that account it may justly excite dislike and disapprobation: it cannot, however, provoke any resentment which mankind will go along with. The man who does not recompense his benefactor, when he has it in his power, and when his benefactor needs his assistance, is, no doubt, guilty of the blackest ingratitude. The heart of every impartial spectator rejects all fellow-feeling with the selfishness of his motives, and he is the proper object of the highest disapprobation. But still he does no positive hurt to any body. He only does not do that good which in propriety he ought to have done. He is the object of hatred, a passion which is naturally excited by impropriety of sentiment and behaviour; not of resentment, a passion which is never properly called forth but by actions which tend to do real and positive hurt to some particular persons. His want of the sentiments which influence his behaviour. The approbation of propriety therefore requires, not only that we should entirely sympathize with the person who acts, but that we should perceive this perfect concord between his sentiments and our own. On the contrary, when I hear of a benefit that has been bestowed upon another person, let him who has received it be affected in what manner he pleases, if, by bringing his case home to myself, I feel gratitude arise in my own breast, I necessarily approve of the conduct of his benefactor, and regard it as meritorious, and the proper object of reward. Whether the person who has received the benefit conceives gratitude or not, cannot, it is evident, in any degree alter our sentiments with regard to the merit of him who has bestowed it. No actual correspondence of sentiments, therefore, is here required. It is sufficient that if he was grateful, they would correspond; and our sense of merit is often founded upon one of those illusive sympathies, by which, when we bring home to ourselves the case of another, we are often affected in a manner in which the person principally concerned is incapable of being affected. There is a similar difference between our disapprobation of demerit, and that of impropriety. II.ii.1 70 The Theory of Moral Sentiments Adam Smith gratitude, th.
Exploring the Master Key System written by Charles Haanel. This is a new YouTube Channel Series to get 2023 off to a good start.
bit.ly/ExploringTheMasterKeySystemTeaching
Henry Chinazor Mmeje: Essay on The Concept of Happiness and its Role in Mora...MMEJEHENRYFORD
(Moral Theories: Utilitarianism, Deontological Ethics, Virtue Ethics /
The Sense of Moral Responsibility in Business)
The concept of happiness and its role in moral motivation according to John Stuart Mill.
As a man Thinketh is a series of essays on the character of human thought and how it drives human behavior. It was written by James Allen in 1902. Despite over a century's difference its message is immutable. In fact I found it crucial to navigate today's hyper-connected, superficial and voyeuristic world.
Hope you learn something from it.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxnovabroom
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxjesusamckone
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
The changes required in the IT project plan for Telecomm Ltd would.docxmattinsonjanel
The changes required in the IT project plan for Telecomm Ltd would entail specific variation in the platforms used in the initial implementation plan. Initially, the three projects that were planned for implementation included; the installation of business intelligence platform, the implementation of Statistical Analysis System software technology, and the creation of an effectively network infrastructure. In this case, the changes would include an addition of an ERP software to ensure the performance of the workforce within the Telecomms Ltd employees.
ERP is an effectively coordinated information technology system that would ensure the company’s performance is enhanced. To understand how the implementation of a coordinated IT system offers a competitive advantage of a firm, it is essential to acknowledge three core reasons for the failure of information technology related projects as commonly cited by IT managers. In this case, IT managers cite the three reasons as; poor planning or management, change in business objectives and goals during the implementation process of a project, and lack of proper management support completion (Houston, 2011). Also, in the majority of completed projects, technology is usually deployed in a vacuum; hence users resist it. The implementation of coordinated information technology systems, such as ERP would provide an ultimate solution to the three reasons for failure, and thus would give Telecomms Ltd a competitive advantage in the already competitive market. Since the implementation of systems like ERP directly provides solution to common problems that act as drawbacks regarding the competitiveness of firm, it is, therefore, evident that its use place Telecomms Ltd above its rival companies in the market share (Wallace & Kremzar, 2001).
The use ERP, which is a reliable coordinated IT system entails three distinctive implementation strategies that a firm can choose depending on its specific needs. The changes in the projects would be as follows: The three implementation strategies are independently capable of providing a relatively competitive advantage for many companies. These strategies are: big bang, phased rollout, and parallel adoption. In the big bang implementation strategy, happens in a single instance, whereby all the users are moved to a new system on a designated (Wallace & Kremzar, 2001). The phased rollout implementation on the other hand usually involves a changeover in several phases, and it is executed in an extended period. In this case, the users move onto the new system in a series of steps (Houston, 2011). Lastly, the parallel adoption implementation strategy allows both legacy and the new ERP system to run at the same time. It is also essential to note that users in this strategy get to learn the new system while still working on the old system (Wallace & Kremzar, 2001). The three strategies effectively change the information system of Telecomms Ltd tremendously such that it positiv ...
The Catholic University of America Metropolitan School of .docxmattinsonjanel
The Catholic University of America
Metropolitan School of Professional Studies
Course Syllabus
THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
Metropolitan School of Professional Studies
MBU 514 and MBU 315 Leadership Foundations
Fall 2015
Credits: 3
Classroom: Online
Dates: August 31, 2015 to December 14, 2015
Instructor:
Dr. Jacquie Hamp
Email: [email protected]
Twitter: @drjacquie
Telephone: 202 215 8117 cell
Office Hours: By Appointment
Dr. Jacquie Hamp is an educator, coach and consultant with particular expertise in leadership development, organizational development and human resources development strategy. From 2006 to 2015 she held the position as the Senior Director of Leadership Development for Goodwill Industries International in Rockville, Maryland. Dr. Hamp was responsible for the design and execution of leadership development programs and activities for all levels of the 4 billion dollar social enterprise network of Goodwill Industries across 165 independent local agencies. Jacquie is also a part time Associate Professor at George Washington University teaching at the graduate level and she is an adjunct professor at Catholic University of America, teaching leadership theory in the Masters Program.
Jacquie has a Master of Science degree in Human Resources Development Administration from Barry University. She holds a Doctor of Education degree in Human and Organizational Learning from the Graduate School of Education and Human Development at George Washington University. Jacquie has received a certificate in Executive Coaching from Georgetown University, a certificate in the Practice of Teaching Leadership from Harvard University and holds the national certification of Senior Professional in Human Resources (SPHR).
Jacquie has been invited to speak at conferences in the United States and the United Kingdom on the topic of how women learn through transformative experiences and techniques for effective leadership development in the social enterprise sector. She is a member of the Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) and the International Leadership Association (ILA). In 2011 Dr. Hamp was awarded the Strategic Alignment Award by the Human Resources Leadership Association of Washington DC for her work in the redesign of the Goodwill Industries International leadership programs in order to meet the strategic goals of the organization.
Course Description: Surveys, compares, and contrasts contemporary theories of leadership, providing students the opportunity to assess their own leadership competencies and how they fit in with models of leadership. Students also discuss current literature, media coverage, and case studies on leadership issues.
Instructional Methods This course is based on the following adult learning concepts:
1. Learning is done by the learners, who are encouraged to achieve the overall course objectives through individual learning styles that meet their personal learning needs. ...
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1 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding Author .docxhoney725342
1
An Enquiry Concerning Human
Understanding
Author: David Hume
www.alhassanain.org/english
2
Table of Contents
Section I: Of The Different Species Of Philosophy ........................ 3
Section II: Of The Origin Of Ideas ....................................... 11
Section III: Of The Association Of Ideas ................................. 15
Section IV: Sceptical Doubts Concerning The Operations Of The
Understanding .............................................................. 17
Section V: Sceptical
Solution
Of These Doubts .......................... 27
Section VI ................................................................... 34
Section VII: Of The Idea Of Necessary Connexion ..................... 38
Section VIII: Of Llberity and Necessity .................................. 51
Section IX: Of The Reason Of Animals .................................. 66
Section X: OF Miracles .................................................... 69
Section XI: Of A Particular Providence and Of A Future State ....... 83
Section XII: Of The Acadimical Or Sceptical Philosophy .............. 94
www.alhassanain.org/english
3
Section I: Of The Different Species Of Philosophy
MORAL philosophy, or the science of human nature, may be treated
after two different manners; each of which has its peculiar merit, and may
contribute to the entertainment, instruction, and reformation of man- kind.
The one considers man chiefly as born for action; and as influenced in
his measures by taste and sentiment; pursuing one object, and avoiding
another, according to the value which these objects seem to possess, and
accord- ing to the light in which they present themselves.
As vir- tue, of all objects, is allowed to be the most valuable, this species
of philosophers paint her in the most amiable colours; borrowing all helps
from poetry and eloquence, and treating their subject in an easy and obvious
manner, and such as is best fitted to please the imagination, and engage the
affections.
They select the most striking observations and instances from common
life; place opposite characters in a proper contrast; and alluring us into the
paths of virtue by the views of glory and happiness, direct our steps in these
paths by the soundest precepts and most illustrious examples. They make us
feel the difference between vice and virtue; they excite and regulate our
sentiments; and so they can but bend our hearts to the love of probity and
true honour, they think, that they have fully attained the end of all their
labours.
The other species of philosophers consider man in the light of a
reasonable rather than an active being, and endeavour to form his
understanding more than cultivate his manners.
They regard human nature as a subject of speculation; and with a narrow
scrutiny examine it, in order to find those principles, which regulate our
under- standing, excite our sentiments, and make us approve or blame any
particular ...
Nicomachean EthicsAristotle Book I1. Every art and every .docxhenrymartin15260
Nicomachean Ethics/Aristotle
Book I
1. Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. But a certain difference is found among ends; some are activities, others are products apart from the activities that produce them. Where there are ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of the products to be better than the activities.
1. Why is that?
2. If, then, there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for its own sake (everything else being desired for the sake of this), and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else (for at that rate the process would go on to infinity, so that our desire would be empty and vain), clearly this must be the good and the chief good. Will not the knowledge of it, then, have a great influence on life? Shall we not, like archers who have a mark to aim at, be more likely to hit upon what is right?
This supreme good, Aristotle goes on to say, is “happiness” (well-being). He then goes on to inquire as to what this is.
5. To judge from the lives that men lead, most men, and men of the most vulgar type, seem (not without some ground) to identify the good, or happiness, with pleasure; which is the reason why they love the life of enjoyment. For there are, we may say, three prominent types of life- that just mentioned, the political, and thirdly the contemplative life. Now the mass of mankind are evidently quite slavish in their tastes, preferring a life suitable to beasts, but they get some ground for their view from the fact that many of those in high places share the tastes of Sardanapallus. A consideration of the prominent types of life shows that people of superior refinement and of active disposition identify happiness with honour; for this is, roughly speaking, the end of the political life. But it seems too superficial to be what we are looking for, since it is thought to depend on those who bestow honour rather than on him who receives it, but the good we divine to be something proper to a man and not easily taken from him. Further, men seem to pursue honour in order that they may be assured of their goodness; at least it is by men of practical wisdom that they seek to be honoured, and among those who know them, and on the ground of their virtue; clearly, then, according to them, at any rate, virtue is better. And perhaps one might even suppose this to be, rather than honour, the end of the political life. But even this appears somewhat incomplete; for possession of virtue seems actually compatible with being asleep, or with lifelong inactivity, and, further, with the greatest sufferings and misfortunes; but a man who was living so no one would call happy, unless he were maintaining a thesis at all costs. But enough of this; for the subject has been sufficiently treated even in the current discussions. Third comes the contemplative.
Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy CHAPTER XV .docxtangyechloe
Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy
CHAPTER XV
THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
HAVING now come to the end of our brief and very incomplete review of the problems
of philosophy, it will be well to consider, in conclusion, what is the value of philosophy
and why it ought to be studied. It is the more necessary to consider this question, in view
of the fact that many men, under the influence of science or of practical affairs, are
inclined to doubt whether philosophy is anything better than innocent but useless trifling,
hair-splitting distinctions, and controversies on matters concerning which knowledge is
impossible.
This view of philosophy appears to result, partly from a wrong conception of the ends of
life, partly from a wrong conception of the kind of goods which philosophy strives to
achieve. Physical science, through the medium of inventions, is useful to innumerable
people who are wholly ignorant of it; thus the study of physical science is to be
recommended, not only, or primarily, because of the effect on the student, but rather
because of the effect on mankind in general. Thus utility does not belong to philosophy.
If the study of philosophy has any value at all for others than students of philosophy, it
must be only indirectly, through its effects upon the lives of those who study it. It is in
these effects, therefore, if anywhere, that the value of philosophy must be primarily
sought.
But further, if we are not to fail in our endeavour to determine the value of philosophy,
we must first free our minds from the prejudices of what are wrongly called 'practical'
men. The 'practical' man, as this word is often used, is one who recognizes only material
needs, who realizes that men must have food for the body, but is oblivious of the
necessity of providing food for the mind. If all men were well off, if poverty and disease
had been reduced to their lowest possible point, there would still remain much to be done
to produce a valuable society; and even in the existing world the goods of the mind are at
least as important as the goods of the body. It is exclusively among the goods of the mind
that the value of philosophy is to be found; and only those who are not indifferent to
these goods can be persuaded that the study of philosophy is not a waste of time.
Philosophy, like all other studies, aims primarily at knowledge. The knowledge it aims at
is the kind of knowledge which gives unity and system to the body of the sciences, and
the kind which results from a critical examination of the grounds of our convictions,
prejudices, and beliefs. But it cannot be maintained that philosophy has had any very
great measure of success in its attempts to provide definite answers to its questions. If
you ask a mathematician, a mineralogist, a historian, or any other man of learning, what
definite body of truths has been ascertained by his science, his answer will last as long as
you are willing to listen. B.
Of Justice and BeneficenceS II Of Justice and Beneficence C- I Compari.docxhye345678
Of Justice and Beneficence
S II Of Justice and Beneficence C. I Comparison of those two virtues 1 A a beneficent tendency, which proceed from proper motives, seem alone to require reward; because such alone are the approved objects of gratitude, or excite the sympathetic gratitude of the spectator. 2 Actions of a hurtful tendency, which proceed from improper motives, seem alone to deserve punishment; because such alone are the approved objects of resentment, or excite the sympathetic resentment of the spectator. 3 Beneficence is always free, it cannot be extorted by force, the mere want of it exposes to no punishment; because the mere want of beneficence tends to do no real positive evil. It may disappoint of the good which might reasonably have been expected, and upon that account it may justly excite dislike and disapprobation: it cannot, however, provoke any resentment which mankind will go along with. The man who does not recompense his benefactor, when he has it in his power, and when his benefactor needs his assistance, is, no doubt, guilty of the blackest ingratitude. The heart of every impartial spectator rejects all fellow-feeling with the selfishness of his motives, and he is the proper object of the highest disapprobation. But still he does no positive hurt to any body. He only does not do that good which in propriety he ought to have done. He is the object of hatred, a passion which is naturally excited by impropriety of sentiment and behaviour; not of resentment, a passion which is never properly called forth but by actions which tend to do real and positive hurt to some particular persons. His want of the sentiments which influence his behaviour. The approbation of propriety therefore requires, not only that we should entirely sympathize with the person who acts, but that we should perceive this perfect concord between his sentiments and our own. On the contrary, when I hear of a benefit that has been bestowed upon another person, let him who has received it be affected in what manner he pleases, if, by bringing his case home to myself, I feel gratitude arise in my own breast, I necessarily approve of the conduct of his benefactor, and regard it as meritorious, and the proper object of reward. Whether the person who has received the benefit conceives gratitude or not, cannot, it is evident, in any degree alter our sentiments with regard to the merit of him who has bestowed it. No actual correspondence of sentiments, therefore, is here required. It is sufficient that if he was grateful, they would correspond; and our sense of merit is often founded upon one of those illusive sympathies, by which, when we bring home to ourselves the case of another, we are often affected in a manner in which the person principally concerned is incapable of being affected. There is a similar difference between our disapprobation of demerit, and that of impropriety. II.ii.1 70 The Theory of Moral Sentiments Adam Smith gratitude, th.
Exploring the Master Key System written by Charles Haanel. This is a new YouTube Channel Series to get 2023 off to a good start.
bit.ly/ExploringTheMasterKeySystemTeaching
Henry Chinazor Mmeje: Essay on The Concept of Happiness and its Role in Mora...MMEJEHENRYFORD
(Moral Theories: Utilitarianism, Deontological Ethics, Virtue Ethics /
The Sense of Moral Responsibility in Business)
The concept of happiness and its role in moral motivation according to John Stuart Mill.
As a man Thinketh is a series of essays on the character of human thought and how it drives human behavior. It was written by James Allen in 1902. Despite over a century's difference its message is immutable. In fact I found it crucial to navigate today's hyper-connected, superficial and voyeuristic world.
Hope you learn something from it.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxnovabroom
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
2 CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY BERNARD WILLIAMS .docxjesusamckone
2
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY*
BERNARD WILLIAMS
1. THE STRUCTURE OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
No one can hold that everything, of whatever category, that
has value, has it in virtue of its consequences. If that were so, one
would just go on for ever, and there would be an obviously
hopeless regress. That regress would be hopeless even if one takes
the view which is not an absurd view, that although men set
themselv~s ends and work towards them, it is very often not really
the supposed end, but the effort towards it on which they set
value-that they travel, not really in order to arrive (for as soon as
they have arrived they set out for somewhere else), but rather they
choose somewhere to arrive, in order to travel. Even on that view,
not everything would have consequential value; what would have
non-consequential value would in fact be travelling, even though
people had to think of travelling as having the consequential value,
and something else-the destination-the non-consequential
value.
If not everything that has value has it in virtue of consequences,
then presumably there are some types of thing which have non-
consequential value, and also some particular things that have
such value because they are instances of those types. Let us say,
using a traditional term, that anything that has that sort of value,
has intrinsic value. 1 I take it to be the central idea of consequen-
Bernard Williams, from Utilitarianism: For and Against, ed. Smart and Williams
(Cambridge University Press, 1973), pp. 82-118. Reprinted by p€rmission of the
publisher.
* This is not the title of the original printing.
1 The terminology of things 'being valuable', 'having intrinsic value', etc., is not
meant to beg any questions in general value-theory. Non-cognitive theories, such as
Smart's, should be able to recognize the distinctions made here.
CONSEQUENTIALISM AND INTEGRITY 21
tialism that the only kind of thing that has intrinsic value is states
of affairs, and that anything else that has value has it because it
conduces to some intrinsically valuable state of affairs.
How much, however, does this say? Does it succeed in
distinguishing consequentialism from anything else? The trouble is
that the term 'state of affairs' seems altogether too permissive to
exclude anything: may not the obtaining of absolutely anything be
represented formally as a state of affairs? A Kantian view of
morality, for instance, is usually thought to be opposed to
consequentialism, if any is; at the very least, if someone were
going to show that Kantianism collapsed into consequentialism, it
should be the product of a long and unobvious argument, and not
just happen at the drop of a definition. But on the present account
it looks as though Kantianism can be made instantly into a kind of
consequentialism-a kind which identifies the states of affairs that
have intrinsic value (or at least intrinsic moral value) as those that
consist of ac.
The changes required in the IT project plan for Telecomm Ltd would.docxmattinsonjanel
The changes required in the IT project plan for Telecomm Ltd would entail specific variation in the platforms used in the initial implementation plan. Initially, the three projects that were planned for implementation included; the installation of business intelligence platform, the implementation of Statistical Analysis System software technology, and the creation of an effectively network infrastructure. In this case, the changes would include an addition of an ERP software to ensure the performance of the workforce within the Telecomms Ltd employees.
ERP is an effectively coordinated information technology system that would ensure the company’s performance is enhanced. To understand how the implementation of a coordinated IT system offers a competitive advantage of a firm, it is essential to acknowledge three core reasons for the failure of information technology related projects as commonly cited by IT managers. In this case, IT managers cite the three reasons as; poor planning or management, change in business objectives and goals during the implementation process of a project, and lack of proper management support completion (Houston, 2011). Also, in the majority of completed projects, technology is usually deployed in a vacuum; hence users resist it. The implementation of coordinated information technology systems, such as ERP would provide an ultimate solution to the three reasons for failure, and thus would give Telecomms Ltd a competitive advantage in the already competitive market. Since the implementation of systems like ERP directly provides solution to common problems that act as drawbacks regarding the competitiveness of firm, it is, therefore, evident that its use place Telecomms Ltd above its rival companies in the market share (Wallace & Kremzar, 2001).
The use ERP, which is a reliable coordinated IT system entails three distinctive implementation strategies that a firm can choose depending on its specific needs. The changes in the projects would be as follows: The three implementation strategies are independently capable of providing a relatively competitive advantage for many companies. These strategies are: big bang, phased rollout, and parallel adoption. In the big bang implementation strategy, happens in a single instance, whereby all the users are moved to a new system on a designated (Wallace & Kremzar, 2001). The phased rollout implementation on the other hand usually involves a changeover in several phases, and it is executed in an extended period. In this case, the users move onto the new system in a series of steps (Houston, 2011). Lastly, the parallel adoption implementation strategy allows both legacy and the new ERP system to run at the same time. It is also essential to note that users in this strategy get to learn the new system while still working on the old system (Wallace & Kremzar, 2001). The three strategies effectively change the information system of Telecomms Ltd tremendously such that it positiv ...
The Catholic University of America Metropolitan School of .docxmattinsonjanel
The Catholic University of America
Metropolitan School of Professional Studies
Course Syllabus
THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
Metropolitan School of Professional Studies
MBU 514 and MBU 315 Leadership Foundations
Fall 2015
Credits: 3
Classroom: Online
Dates: August 31, 2015 to December 14, 2015
Instructor:
Dr. Jacquie Hamp
Email: [email protected]
Twitter: @drjacquie
Telephone: 202 215 8117 cell
Office Hours: By Appointment
Dr. Jacquie Hamp is an educator, coach and consultant with particular expertise in leadership development, organizational development and human resources development strategy. From 2006 to 2015 she held the position as the Senior Director of Leadership Development for Goodwill Industries International in Rockville, Maryland. Dr. Hamp was responsible for the design and execution of leadership development programs and activities for all levels of the 4 billion dollar social enterprise network of Goodwill Industries across 165 independent local agencies. Jacquie is also a part time Associate Professor at George Washington University teaching at the graduate level and she is an adjunct professor at Catholic University of America, teaching leadership theory in the Masters Program.
Jacquie has a Master of Science degree in Human Resources Development Administration from Barry University. She holds a Doctor of Education degree in Human and Organizational Learning from the Graduate School of Education and Human Development at George Washington University. Jacquie has received a certificate in Executive Coaching from Georgetown University, a certificate in the Practice of Teaching Leadership from Harvard University and holds the national certification of Senior Professional in Human Resources (SPHR).
Jacquie has been invited to speak at conferences in the United States and the United Kingdom on the topic of how women learn through transformative experiences and techniques for effective leadership development in the social enterprise sector. She is a member of the Society of Human Resource Management (SHRM) and the International Leadership Association (ILA). In 2011 Dr. Hamp was awarded the Strategic Alignment Award by the Human Resources Leadership Association of Washington DC for her work in the redesign of the Goodwill Industries International leadership programs in order to meet the strategic goals of the organization.
Course Description: Surveys, compares, and contrasts contemporary theories of leadership, providing students the opportunity to assess their own leadership competencies and how they fit in with models of leadership. Students also discuss current literature, media coverage, and case studies on leadership issues.
Instructional Methods This course is based on the following adult learning concepts:
1. Learning is done by the learners, who are encouraged to achieve the overall course objectives through individual learning styles that meet their personal learning needs. ...
The Case of Frank and Judy. During the past few years Frank an.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case of Frank and Judy.
During the past few years Frank and Judy have experienced many conflicts in their marriage. Although they have made attempts to resolve their problems by themselves, they have finally decided to seek the help of a professional marriage counselor. Even though they have been thinking about divorce with increasing frequency, they still have some hope that they can achieve a satisfactory marriage.
Three couples counselors, each holding a different set of values pertaining to marriage and the family, describe their approach to working with Frank and Judy. As you read these responses, think about the degree to which each represents what you might say and do if you were counseling this couple.
· Counselor A. This counselor believes it is not her place to bring her values pertaining to the family into the sessions. She is fully aware of her biases regarding marriage and divorce, but she does not impose them or expose them in all cases. Her primary interest is to help Frank and Judy discover what is best for them as individuals 459460and as a couple. She sees it as unethical to push her clients toward a definite course of action, and she lets them know that her job is to help them be honest with themselves.
·
· What are your reactions to this counselor's approach?
· ▪ What values of yours could interfere with your work with Frank and Judy?
Counselor B. This counselor has been married three times herself. Although she believes in marriage, she is quick to maintain that far too many couples stay in their marriages and suffer unnecessarily. She explores with Judy and Frank the conflicts that they bring to the sessions. The counselor's interventions are leading them in the direction of divorce as the desired course of action, especially after they express this as an option. She suggests a trial separation and states her willingness to counsel them individually, with some joint sessions. When Frank brings up his guilt and reluctance to divorce because of the welfare of the children, the counselor confronts him with the harm that is being done to them by a destructive marriage. She tells him that it is too much of a burden to put on the children to keep the family together.
· ▪ What, if any, ethical issues do you see in this case? Is this counselor exposing or imposing her values?
· ▪ Do you think this person should be a marriage counselor, given her bias?
· ▪ What interventions made by the counselor do you agree with? What are your areas of disagreement?
Counselor C. At the first session this counselor states his belief in the preservation of marriage and the family. He believes that many couples give up too soon in the face of difficulty. He says that most couples have unrealistically high expectations of what constitutes a “happy marriage.” The counselor lets it be known that his experience continues to teach him that divorce rarely solves any problems but instead creates new problems that are often worse. The counsel ...
The Case of MikeChapter 5 • Common Theoretical Counseling Perspe.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case of Mike
Chapter 5 • Common Theoretical Counseling Perspectives 135
Mike is a 20-year-old male who has just recently been released from jail. Mike is technically on probation for car theft, though he has been involved in crime to a much greater extent. Mike has been identified as a cocaine user and has been suspected, though not convicted, for dealing cocaine. Mike has been tested for drugs by his probation department and was found positive for cocaine. The county has mandated that Mike receive drug counseling but the drug counselor has referred Mike to your office because the drug counselor suspects that Mike has issues beyond simple drug addiction. In fact, the drug counselor’s notes suggest that Mike has Narcissistic personality disorder. Mike seems to have little regard for the feelings of others. Coupled with this is his complete sensitivity to the comments of others. In fact, his prior fiancé has broken off her relationship with him due to what she calls his “constant need for admiration and attention. He is completely self-centered.” After talking with Mike, you quickly find that he has no close friends. As he talks about people who have been close to him, he discounts them for one imperfection or another. These imperfections are all considered severe enough to warrant dismissing the person entirely. Mike makes a point of noting how many have betrayed their loyalty to him or have otherwise failed to give him the credit that he deserves. When asked about getting caught in the auto theft, he remarks that “well my dumb partner got me out of a hot situation by driving me out in a stolen get-a-way car.” (Word on the street has it that Mike was involved in a sour drug deal and was unlikely to have made it out alive if not for his partner.) Mike adds, “you know, I plan everything out perfectly, but you just cannot rely on anybody . . . if you want it done right, do it yourself.” Mike recently has been involved with another woman (unknown to his prior fiancé) who has become pregnant. When she told Mike he said “tough, you can go get an abortionor something, it isn’t like we were in love or something.” Then he laughed at her and toldher to go find some other guy who would shack up with her. Incidentally, Mike is a very attractive man and he likes to point that out on occasion. “Yeah, I was going to be a male model in L. A.,but my agent did not know what he was doing . . . could never get things settled out right . . . so I had to fire him.” Mike is very popular with women and has had a constant string of failed relationships due to what he calls “their inability to keep things exciting.” As Mike puts it “hey, I am too smart for this stuff. These people around me, they don’t deserve the good dummies. But me, well I know how to run things and get over on people. And I am not about to let these dummies get in my way. I got it all figured out . . . see?”
Effective Small Business Management: An Entrepreneurial Approach 9th Edition, 2009 IS ...
THE CHRONICLE OF HIGHER EDUCATIONNovember 8, 2002 -- vol. 49, .docxmattinsonjanel
THE CHRONICLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION
November 8, 2002 -- vol. 49, no. 11, p. B7
The Dangerous Myth of Grade Inflation
By Alfie Kohn
Grade inflation got started ... in the late '60s and early '70s.... The grades that faculty members now give ... deserve to be a scandal.
--Professor Harvey Mansfield, Harvard University, 2001
Grades A and B are sometimes given too readily -- Grade A for work of no very high merit, and Grade B for work not far above mediocrity. ... One of the chief obstacles to raising the standards of the degree is the readiness with which insincere students gain passable grades by sham work.
--Report of the Committee on Raising the Standard, Harvard University, 1894
Complaints about grade inflation have been around for a very long time. Every so often a fresh flurry of publicity pushes the issue to the foreground again, the latest example being a series of articles in The Boston Globe last year that disclosed -- in a tone normally reserved for the discovery of entrenched corruption in state government -- that a lot of students at Harvard were receiving A's and being graduated with honors.
The fact that people were offering the same complaints more than a century ago puts the latest bout of harrumphing in perspective, not unlike those quotations about the disgraceful values of the younger generation that turn out to be hundreds of years old. The long history of indignation also pretty well derails any attempts to place the blame for higher grades on a residue of bleeding-heart liberal professors hired in the '60s. (Unless, of course, there was a similar countercultural phenomenon in the 1860s.)
Yet on campuses across America today, academe's usual requirements for supporting data and reasoned analysis have been suspended for some reason where this issue is concerned. It is largely accepted on faith that grade inflation -- an upward shift in students' grade-point averages without a similar rise in achievement -- exists, and that it is a bad thing. Meanwhile, the truly substantive issues surrounding grades and motivation have been obscured or ignored.
The fact is that it is hard to substantiate even the simple claim that grades have been rising. Depending on the time period we're talking about, that claim may well be false. In their book When Hope and Fear Collide (Jossey-Bass, 1998), Arthur Levine and Jeanette Cureton tell us that more undergraduates in 1993 reported receiving A's (and fewer reported receiving grades of C or below) compared with their counterparts in 1969 and 1976 surveys. Unfortunately, self-reports are notoriously unreliable, and the numbers become even more dubious when only a self-selected, and possibly unrepresentative, segment bothers to return the questionnaires. (One out of three failed to do so in 1993; no information is offered about the return rates in the earlier surveys.)
To get a more accurate picture of whether grades have changed over the years, one needs to look at official student tran ...
The chart is a guide rather than an absolute – feel free to modify.docxmattinsonjanel
The chart is a guide rather than an absolute – feel free to modify or adjust it as need to fit the specific ideas that you are developing.
Area: SALES
Specific Change Plans for Functional Areas
Capability Being Addressed
This can be pulled from the strategic proposal recommended in Part 2B
How do the recommended changes (details provided below) help improve the capability?
This is a logic "double check". Be sure you can show how the changes recommended below improve the capability and help address the product and market focus and add to accomplishment of the value proposition
Details of Specific Changes:
Proposed Changes in Resources
Proposed Changes to Management
Preferences
Proposed Changes to Organizational
Processes
Detailed Change Plans
(Lay out here the specifics of all recommended changes for this area. Modify the layout as necessary to account for the changes being recommended)
Proposed Change
Timing
Costs
On going impact on budget
On going impact on revenue
Wiki
Template
Part-‐2:
Gaps,
Issues
and
New
Strategy
BUSI
4940
–
Business
Policy
1
THE ENVIRONMENT/INDUSTRY
1. Drivers of change
Key drivers of change begin with the availability of substitute products. Many
other
companies can easily provide a substitute and the firm will have to find a way to
stand
out among them. Next would be the ability to differentiate yourself among other
firms
that pose a threat in the industry. Last, the political sector. The the federal, state,
and local governments could all shape the way healthcare is everywhere.
2. Key survival factors
Key survival factors would include making the firm stand out above the rest in the
industry and creating a name for itself. Second would be making sure there is a
broad
network of providers available for the customers. Giving the customer options
will
make the customer happy. Providing excellent customer service is key to any
firm in
the industry.
3. Product/Market and Value Proposition possibilities
Maintaining the use of heavy discounts will keep Careington in the competitive
market. They also concentrate on constantly innovating technology to make
sure that
they have the latest devices to offer their customers. To have high value proposition, Careington
will need to show their costumers that they can believe in them and trust them to
do the right thing. Showing the customers that they can always be on top of the
latest
technology and new age products will help build trust with the customers.
STRATEGY OF THE FIRM
1. Goals
Striving to promote the health and well being of their clients by continuing to
provide
low cost health care solutions. A lot of this concentration is on clients that cannot
afford health care very easily or that a ...
The Challenge of Choosing FoodFor this forum, please read http.docxmattinsonjanel
The Challenge of Choosing Food:
For this forum, please read: https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/no-food-is-healthy-not-even-kale/2016/01/15/4a5c2d24-ba52-11e5-829c-26ffb874a18d_story.html?postshare=3401453180639248&tid=ss_fb-bottom
The article is from the Washington Post, January 17, 2016, by Michael Ruhlmanentitled: "No Food is Healthy, Not even Kale."
Based on your reading in the textbook share the following information with your classmates:
(1) To what degree to you agree with article, "No Food is Healthy, Not even Kale." Do semantics count? Should we focus on foods that are described as nourishing (nutrient-dense) instead of foods described as healthy because the word "healthy" is a "bankrupt" word? Explain and refer to information from the article.
(2) Based on the article and the textbook reading (review pages 9-30), how challenging is it for you to choose nutritious foods that promote health? What factors drive your food choices? Explain to your classmates.
(3) What do you think is the biggest concern we face health-wise in the US today?
(4) What are some obstacles as to why we may not be eating as well as we would like to?
Please complete all questions, if you have any question let me knowv
Test file, (Do not modify it)
// $> javac -cp .:junit-cs211.jar ProperQueueTests.java #compile
// $> java -cp .:junit-cs211.jar ProperQueueTests #run tests
//
// On windows replace : with ; (colon with semicolon)
// $> javac -cp .;junit-cs211.jar ProperQueueTests.java #compile
// $> java -cp .;junit-cs211.jar ProperQueueTests #run tests
import org.junit.*;
import static org.junit.Assert.*;
import java.util.*;
public class ProperQueueTests {
public static void main(String args[]){
org.junit.runner.JUnitCore.main("ProperQueueTests");
}
/*
building queues:
- build small empty queue. (2)
- build larger empty queue. (11)
- build length-zero queue. (0)
*/
@Test(timeout=1000) public void ProperQueue_makeQueue_1(){
String expected = "";
ProperQueue q = new ProperQueue(2);
String actual = q.toString();
assertEquals(2, q.getCapacity());
assertEquals(expected, actual);
}
@Test(timeout=1000) public void ProperQueue_makeQueue_2(){
String expected = "";
ProperQueue q = new ProperQueue(11);
String actual = q.toString();
assertEquals(11, q.getCapacity());
assertEquals(expected, actual);
}
@Test(timeout=1000) public void Queue_makeQueue_3(){
String expected = "";
ProperQueue q = new ProperQueue(0);
String actual = q.toString();
assertEquals(0, q.getCapacity());
assertEquals(expected, actual);
}
/*
add/offer tests.
- add a single value to a short queue.
- fill up a small queue.
- over-add to a queue and witness it struggle.
- add many but don't finish filling a queue.
- make size-zero queue, adds fail, check it's still empty.
*/
@Test(timeout=1000) public void ProperQueue_add_1(){
String expecte ...
The Civil Rights Movement
Dr. James Patterson
Black Civil Rights Movement
Basic denial of civil rights (review)
Segregation in society
Inferior schools
Job discrimination
Political disenfranchisement
Over ½ lived below poverty level
Unemployment double national ave.
Ghettoes: gangs, drugs, substandard housing, crime
Early Victories
WWII egalitarianism and backlash against German racism
Jackie Robinson integrated professional baseball—1947
Desegregation of the armed forces ordered by president Truman—1948
Marian Anderson performed at the New York Metropolitan Opera House—1955
Increased interest in civil rights a result of Cold War propaganda
Brown v. Board of Education
1954 – Topeka, Kansas
Linda Brown: filed suit to attend a neighborhood school
“Separate educational institutions are inherently unequal.”
Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson
Court says: integrate "with all deliberate speed.”
What did this mean?
Linda Brown and Family
Circumvention of Brown v. Board of Education Ruling
White supremacist parents feared racial mixing and attempted to block black enrollment.
Ignored the integration issue
Token integration
Segregation through standardized placement tests
Segregation through private schools
Stalling through legal action
By 1964, 10 years after the Brown case, only 1% of black children attended truly integrated schools.
Little Rock High School
1957 courts order integration in Little Rock
9 black students enrolled.
Governor called out militia to block it.
Mobs replaced militia after recall.
Eisenhower ordered federal troops to protect the students.
Daily harassment
Courageous black students persevered.
Montgomery Bus Boycott
1955--Rosa Parks arrested for not giving up seat to white man
Boycott of bus system led by Martin Luther King, Jr.:
Walking, church busses, car pools, bicycles
Bus lines caught in the middle
Rosa Parks being Booked
Supreme Court ruled bus companies must integrate.
Inspired other protests:
Sit-ins, wade-ins, kneel-ins
Woolworth’s lunch counter
Montgomery Bus Boycott
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
Non-Violent
Influenced by Ghandi
“The blood may flow, but it must be our blood, not that of the white man.”
“Lord, we ain’t what we oughta be. We ain’t what we wanna be. We ain’t what we gonna be. But thank God, we ain’t what we was.”
Freedom Riders
Activists traveled from city to city to ignite the protest.
Bull Conner:
in Montgomery
Dogs
Whips
Water hoses
Cattle prods
Television
Public backlash
Civil Rights March (AL. 1965)
1963 - Washington, D.C. "I have a Dream“—200,000 Attended
Civil Rights Legislation
1964 - Civil Rights Act
1964 - 24th Amendment
Abolished Poll Tax
1965 Voting Rights Act
Affirmative action
Int ...
The Churchill CentreReturn to Full GraphicsThe Churchi.docxmattinsonjanel
The Churchill Centre
Return to Full Graphics
The Churchill Centre | Calendar | Churchill Facts | Speeches & Quotations | Publications and Resources |
News | Join The Centre! | Churchill Stores | Contact Us | Links | Search
Their Finest Hour
Sir Winston Churchill > Speeches & Quotations > Speeches
June 18, 1940
House of Commons
I spoke the other day of the colossal military disaster which occurred when the French High Command
failed to withdraw the northern Armies from Belgium at the moment when they knew that the French front
was decisively broken at Sedan and on the Meuse. This delay entailed the loss of fifteen or sixteen French
divisions and threw out of action for the critical period the whole of the British Expeditionary Force. Our
Army and 120,000 French troops were indeed rescued by the British Navy from Dunkirk but only with the
loss of their cannon, vehicles and modern equipment. This loss inevitably took some weeks to repair, and in
the first two of those weeks the battle in France has been lost. When we consider the heroic resistance
made by the French Army against heavy odds in this battle, the enormous losses inflicted upon the enemy
and the evident exhaustion of the enemy, it may well be the thought that these 25 divisions of the
best-trained and best-equipped troops might have turned the scale. However, General Weygand had to fight
without them. Only three British divisions or their equivalent were able to stand in the line with their French
comrades. They have suffered severely, but they have fought well. We sent every man we could to France
as fast as we could re-equip and transport their formations.
I am not reciting these facts for the purpose of recrimination. That I judge to be utterly futile and even
harmful. We cannot afford it. I recite them in order to explain why it was we did not have, as we could have
had, between twelve and fourteen British divisions fighting in the line in this great battle instead of only
three. Now I put all this aside. I put it on the shelf, from which the historians, when they have time, will
select their documents to tell their stories. We have to think of the future and not of the past. This also
applies in a small way to our own affairs at home. There are many who would hold an inquest in the House
of Commons on the conduct of the Governments-and of Parliaments, for they are in it, too-during the years
which led up to this catastrophe. They seek to indict those who were responsible for the guidance of our
affairs. This also would be a foolish and pernicious process. There are too many in it. Let each man search
his conscience and search his speeches. I frequently search mine.
Of this I am quite sure, that if we open a quarrel between the past and the present, we shall find that we
have lost the future. Therefore, I cannot accept the drawing of any distinctions between Members of the
present Government. It was formed at a moment of crisis in order to unite a ...
The cave represents how we are trained to think, fell or act accor.docxmattinsonjanel
The cave represents how we are trained to think, fell or act according to society, following our own way and not the way intended for us. The shadows are merely a reflection of what they perceived to be reality instead of an illusion. The prisoners are trapped in society, each one of us who choose to stay trapped in our own way. The man that escapes is the person who no longer is a slave to society and can see the difference between reality and illusion. The day light can be compared to God’s will. When you don’t follow the plan that has been laid out for you by God, than you are trapped and you will only see illusions or reflections of reality. Escaping and choosing to go into “the light,” or following the will of God, only then can you be set free from your prison.
When looking at a piece of art, a painting, for example, at first glance the painting can appear to be something other what it is intended to be (reality). This reminds me of those pictures that everyone sees on social media, the picture that has circles all over it. When you look at the picture it appears that the circles are moving, but in reality the circles do not move at all. So art can more or less be perceived as more of an illusion.
An example of the picture can be seen here http://www.dailyhaha.com/_pics/movie_circles_illusion.jpg
Accepting illusion as reality happens a lot more times than we probably think. Anything that we see on T.V., Social Media, internet, or even dating, can all be perceived as an illusion at some point. Take dating for example; how a person acts on a date is most likely not how they would act to someone they have known for a while (illusion). Not all people pretend to be something different but in many cases they do. Recognizing what you failed to see after the initial first date and thereafter is how you would know what you first seen was just simply an illusion and therefore not reality, unless of course in reality they are simply a fake person I suppose. Following this pattern makes you realize most people do not appear to be who they are. A good “first impression” doesn’t necessarily mean much when thinking about illusions vs reality, because that’s all the “first impression” is in fact more or less an illusion.
People live in shadows because they fail to recognize reality and choose to continue to believe in illusions. With the growth of Social media, more and more people are falling victim to what things appear to be and will stay in the dark (cave). We as a society are imprisoned by what we see and read through news channels and social media. We will believe anything that comes across CNN or any news station (not fox news though) and let them make up our mind for us. People comment on any shooting victims and assume the cop was in the wrong and is racist, in reality that is not always the case.
It’s interesting to think in terms of appearance vs reality when viewing not only art, but the world. Not taking things for what they appear to ...
The Case Superior Foods Corporation Faces a ChallengeOn his way.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case: Superior Foods Corporation Faces a Challenge
On his way to the plant office, Jason Starnes passed by the production line where hundreds of gloved, uniformed workers were packing sausages and processed meats for shipment to grocery stores around the world.
Jason's company, Superior Foods Corporation, based in Wichita, Kansas, employed 30,000 people in eight countries and had beef and pork processing plants in Arkansas, California, Milwaukee, and Nebraska City. Since a landmark United States–Japan trade agreement signed in 1988, markets had opened up for major exports of American beef, now representing 10 percent of U.S. production. Products called “variety meats”—including intestines, hearts, brains, and tongues—were very much in demand for export to international markets.
Jason was in Nebraska City to talk with the plant manager, Ben Schroeder, about the U.S. outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) and its impact on the plant. On December 23, 2011, the U.S. Department of Agriculture had announced that bovine spongiform encephalopathy had been discovered in a Holstein cow in Washington State. The global reaction was swift: Seven countries imposed either total or partial bans on the importation of U.S. beef, and thousands of people were chatting about it on blogs and social networking sites. Superior had moved quickly to intercept a container load of frozen Asian-bound beef from its shipping port in Los Angeles, and all other shipments were on hold.
After walking into Ben's office, Jason sat down across from him and said, “Ben, your plant has been a top producer of variety meats for Superior, and we have appreciated all your hard work out here. Unfortunately, it looks like we need to limit production for a while—at least three months, or until the bans get relaxed. I know Senator Nelson is working hard to get the bans lifted. In the meantime, we need to shut down production and lay off about 25 percent of your workers. I know it is going to be difficult, and I'm hoping we can work out a way to communicate this to your employees.”
...
The Case You can choose to discuss relativism in view of one .docxmattinsonjanel
The Case:
You can choose to discuss relativism in view of one of the following two cases:
The Case:
· Start by giving a brief explanation of relativism (200 words).
· what is the difference between ethical & cultural relativism. Then discuss, in view of relativism, how we can reconcile the apparent conflict between the need for enforcement of human rights standards with the need for protection of cultural diversity. (400 words).
...
The Case Study of Jim, Week Six The body or text (i.e., not rest.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case Study of Jim, Week Six
The body or text (i.e., not restating the question in your answer, not including your references or your signature) of your initial response should be at least 300 words of text to be considered substantive. You will see a red U for initial responses that are not at least 300 words. Note: your initial response to this required discussion will not count toward participation
The Case Study of Jim, Week 6
Title of Activity: In class discussion of the case study of Jim, Week Six
Objective: Review the concepts of the case study in Ch.13 of Personality and then relate Jim’s case to the theorists discussed during the week. In addition, summarize the entire case study.
1. Read “The Case of Jim” in Ch. 13 of Personality.
2. Discuss the case. This week, discussion should focus on social-cognitive theory.
3. Provide a summary of the entire case.
THE CASE OF JIM Twenty years ago Jim was assessed from various theoretical points of view: psychoanalytic, phenomenological, personal construct, and trait.
At the time, social-cognitive theory was just beginning to evolve, and thus he was not considered from this standpoint. Later, however, it was possible to gather at least some data from this theoretical standpoint as well. Although comparisons with earlier data may be problematic because of the time lapse, we can gain at least some insight into Jim’s personality from this theoretical point of view. We do so by considering
Jim’s goals, reinforcers he experiences, and his self-efficacy beliefs.
Jim was asked about his goals for the immediate future and for the long-range future. He felt that his immediate and long-term goals were pretty much the same: (1) getting to know his son and being a good parent, (2) becoming more accepting and less critical of his wife and others, and (3) feeling good about his professional work as a consultant.
Generally he feels that there is a good chance of achieving these goals but is guarded in that estimate, with some uncertainty about just how much he will be able to “get out of myself” and thereby be more able to give to his wife and child.
Jim also was asked about positive and aversive reinforcers, things that were important to him that he found rewarding or unpleasant.
Concerning positive reinforcers, Jim reported that money was “a biggie.”
In addition he emphasized time with loved ones, the glamour of going to an opening night, and generally going to the theater or movies.
He had a difficult time thinking of aversive reinforcers. He described writing as a struggle and then noted, “I’m having trouble with this.”
Jim also discussed another social-cognitive variable: his competencies or skills (both intellectual and social). He reported that he considered himself to be very bright and functioning at a very high intellectual level. He felt that he writes well from the standpoint of a clear, organized presentation, but he had not written anything that is innovative or creative. Ji ...
The Case of Missing Boots Made in ItalyYou can lead a shipper to.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case of Missing Boots Made in Italy
You can lead a shipper to the water, but if the horse does not want to drink…
Vocabulary:
Shipper: In commercial trade, the person who gives goods to a shipping company to be transported to a foreign destination; in export transactions, it is usually the exporter. Do not confuse the shipper with the shipping company or carrier.
Consignee: The person who is ultimately receiving the goods, generally the buyer or importer. Sometimes these people will designate a “notify party” to be notified when the goods arrive in the port of entry, so that customs clearance can be arranged and the goods picked up for further domestic transport.
Carrier: A company that transports goods (sometimes referred to as a “shipping company” or a “freight company”).
Forwarder (or “freight forwarder”): A forwarder is like a travel agent for cargo – forwarders organize the transport of your goods from departure to destination, and charge a fee for their services. There are many different kinds of forwarders. There are firms that act as both forwarders and carriers. Sometimes forwarders will have relationships with a whole string of carriers and other forwarders, so that the shipper only deals with the forwarder but in the end the goods are actually carrier by a series of independent transport companies.
NVOCC: Non-vessel operating common carrier. A “common carrier” in the legal terminology refers to a carrier who has accepted the additional legal burdens imposed on a company that regularly carries goods for a fee (as opposed to someone with a truck who might agree to help you out just this once because you’re in trouble).
Container: Large standard-sized metal boxes for transporting merchandise; you see them on the back of trucks, or stacked up outside of ports like Lego toys, or on top of large ocean-going container ships. The capacity of container vessels is measured in TEU (twenty-foot equivalent units; containers generally measure 20 or 40 feet long; large vessels can now carry in excess of 4,000 TEU). There are different kinds of containers for different purposes. For example, refrigerated containers (for transporting meat or fruit, for example) are called “reefers,” so be careful where you use this term.
Consolidator: When large companies ship a lot of goods, they are usually able to fill entire containers. However, shippers who ship smaller amounts (like the shipper in the example below), often have their goods “stuffed” (the industry term) along with other goods into the same container; hence, they are “consolidated.” Some firms specialize in consolidating various shipments from different shippers, these are “consolidators.” A load which requires consolidation is a “LCL” or less-than-full-container load, as opposed to a “FCL” – full-container-load.
Marine Insurance: This is a common term for cargo insurance for international shipments, even in cases where much of the transport is NOT by sea; “marine insurance ...
The Cardiovascular SystemNSCI281 Version 51University of .docxmattinsonjanel
The Cardiovascular System
NSCI/281 Version 5
1
University of Phoenix Material
The Cardiovascular System
Exercise 9.6: Cardiovascular System—Thorax, Arteries, Anterior View
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Exercise 9.8: Cardiovascular System—Thorax, Veins, Anterior View
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Animation: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
After viewing the animation, answer these questions:
1. Name the two divisions of the cardiovascular system.
2. What are the destinations of these two circuits?
3. In the systemic circulation, where does gas exchange occur?
4. In the pulmonary circulation, where does gas exchange occur?
5. Name the blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to the heart. How many are there? Where do they terminate?
Exercise 9.9: Imaging—Thorax
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In Review
1. What is the name for the fibrous sac that encloses the heart?
2. Name the lymphatic organ that is large in children but atrophies during adolescence.
3. Name the bilobed endocrine gland located lateral to the trachea and larynx.
4. How do large arteries supply blood to body structures?
5. Name the large vessel that conveys oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle of the heart.
6. Name the two branches of the blood vessel mentioned in question 5 that convey oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
7. Name the blunt tip of the left ventricle.
8. What is the carotid sheath? What structures are found within it?
9. What is the serous pericardium?
10. Name the structure that ...
The Cardiovascular SystemNSCI281 Version 55University of .docxmattinsonjanel
The Cardiovascular System
NSCI/281 Version 5
5
University of Phoenix Material
The Cardiovascular System
Exercise 9.6: Cardiovascular System—Thorax, Arteries, Anterior View
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Exercise 9.8: Cardiovascular System—Thorax, Veins, Anterior View
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Animation: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation
After viewing the animation, answer these questions:
1. Name the two divisions of the cardiovascular system.
2. What are the destinations of these two circuits?
3. In the systemic circulation, where does gas exchange occur?
4. In the pulmonary circulation, where does gas exchange occur?
5. Name the blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to the heart. How many are there? Where do they terminate?
Exercise 9.9: Imaging—Thorax
A. .
B. .
C. .
D. .
E. .
F. .
G. .
H. .
I. .
J. .
K. .
In Review
1. What is the name for the fibrous sac that encloses the heart?
2. Name the lymphatic organ that is large in children but atrophies during adolescence.
3. Name the bilobed endocrine gland located lateral to the trachea and larynx.
4. How do large arteries supply blood to body structures?
5. Name the large vessel that conveys oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle of the heart.
6. Name the two branches of the blood vessel mentioned in question 5 that convey oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
7. Name the blunt tip of the left ventricle.
8. What is the carotid sheath? What structures are found within it?
9. What is the serous pericardium?
10. Name the structure that ...
The British Airways Swipe Card Debacle case study;On Friday, Jul.docxmattinsonjanel
The British Airways Swipe Card Debacle case study;
On Friday, July 18, 2003, British Airways staff in Terminals 1 and 4 at London’s busy Heathrow Airport held a 24 hour wildcat strike. The strike was not officially sanctioned by the trade unions but was spontaneous action by over 250 check in staff who walked out at 4 pm. The wildcat strike occurred at the start of a peak holiday season weekend which led to chaotic scenes at Heathrow. Some 60 departure flights were grounded and over 10,000 passengers left stranded. The situation was heralded as the worst industrial situation BA had faced since 1997 when a strike was called by its cabin crew. BA response was to cancel its services from both terminals, apologize for the disruption and ask those who were due to fly not to go to the airport as they would be unable to service them. BA also set up a tent outside Heathrow to provide refreshments and police were called in to manage the crow. BA was criticized by many American visitors who were trying to fly back to the US for not providing them with sufficient information about what was going on. Staff returned to work on Saturday evening but the effects of the strike flowed on through the weekend. By Monday morning July 21, BA reported that Heathrow was still extremely busy. There is still a large backlog of more than 1000 passengers from services cancelled over the weekend. We are doing everything we can to get these passengers away in the next couple of days. As a result of the strike BA lost around 40 million and its reputation was severely dented. The strike also came at a time when BA was still recovering from other environmental jolts such as 9/11 the Iraqi war, SARS, and inroads on its markets from budget airlines. Afterwards BA revealed that it lost over 100,000 customers a result of the dispute.
BA staff were protesting the introduction of a system for electronic clocking in that would record when they started and finished work for the day. Staff were concerned that the system would enable managers to manipulate their working patterns and shift hours. The clocking in system was one small part of a broader restructuring program in BA, titled the Future Size and Shape recovery program. Over the previous two years this had led to approximately 13,000 or almost one in four jobs, being cut within the airline. As The Economist noted, the side effects of these cuts were emerging with delayed departures resulting from a shortage of ground staff at Gatwick and a high rate of sickness causing the airline to hire in aircraft and crew to fill gaps. Rising absenteeism is a sure sign of stress in an organization that is contracting. For BA management introduction of the swipe card system was a way of modernizing BA and improving the efficient use of staff and resources. As one BA official was quoted as saying We needed to simplify things and bring in the best system to manage people. For staff it was seen as a prelude to a radical shakeup in working ...
The Case Abstract Accuracy International (AI) is a s.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case
Abstract
Accuracy International (AI) is a specialist British firearms manufacturer based in Portsmouth,
Hampshire, England and best known for producing the Accuracy International Arctic Warfare
series of precision sniper rifles. The company was established in 1978 by British Olympic shooting
gold medallist Malcolm Cooper, MBE (1947–2001), Sarah Cooper, Martin Kay, and the designers
of the weapons, Dave Walls and Dave Craig. All were highly skilled international or national target
shooters. Accuracy International's high-accuracy sniper rifles are in use with many military units
and police departments around the world. Accuracy International went into liquidation in 2005, and
was bought by a British consortium including the original design team of Dave Walls and Dave
Craig.
Earlier this year, AI's computer network was hit by a data stealing malware which cost thousands of
pounds to recover from. Also last year there have been a couple of incidents of industrial
espionage, involving staff who were later sacked and prosecuted.
As part of an ongoing covert investigation, the head of Security at AI (DG) has hired you to
conduct a forensic investigation on an image of a USB device. The USB device, it is a non-
company issued device, allegedly belonging to an employee Christian Macleod, a consultant and
technical manager at AI for more than six years.
Case details
Christian’s manager, David Bolton, is the regional manager and head of R&D and has been
working at AI for the last three years. David initiated this fact finding covert investigation which is
conducted with the support of the head of Security at AI.
The USB device in question allegedly was removed from Christian's workstation at AI while he
was out of the office for lunch, the device was imaged and then it was plugged in back into
Christian's workstation. You have been provided with a copy of that image (the original copy is at
the moment secure in a secure locker at the security department).
You have been told by DG that Dave was alarmed by some of the work practices of Christian and
that prompted him to start this investigation by contacting the Head of Security at AI. According to
Dave, Christian would bring in devices such as his iPod and his iPhone and he would often plug
these into his workstation. There is no policy against personal music devices and there is no
BYOD policy but there is a strict policy against copying corporate data is any personal device. The
company's policy states that such data is not to be stored unencrypted, on unauthorised, non
company approved devices. According to DG, Dave has reasons to believe that an earlier malware
infection incident at AI had its origins in one of Christian's personal devices.
Supporting information
1. You need to be aware that Dave and Christian do not get along as they had a few verbal exchanges
in the last year. Christian has filled in a ...
The Case for TortureIt is generally assumed that torture is im.docxmattinsonjanel
The Case for Torture
It is generally assumed that torture is impermissible, a throwback to a more brutal age. Enlightened societies reject it outright, and regimes suspected of using it risk the wrath of the United States.
I believe this attitude is unwise. There are situations in which torture is not merely permissible but morally mandatory. Moreover, these situations are moving from the realm of imagination to fact.
Death: Suppose a terrorist has hidden an atomic bomb on Manhattan Island which will detonate at noon on July 4 unless . . . . ( here follow the usual demands for money and release of his friends from jail). Suppose, further, that he is caught at 10 A.M. on that fateful day but—preferring death to failure—won’t disclose where the bomb is. What do we do? If we follow due process—wait for his lawyer and arraign him—millions of people will die. If the only way to save those lives is to subject the terrorist to the most excruciating possible pain, what grounds can their be for not doing so? I suggest there are none. In any case, I ask you to face the question with an open mind.
Torturing the terrorist is unconstitutional? Probably. But millions of lives surely outweigh constitutionality. Torture is barbaric? Mass murder is far more barbaric. Indeed letting millions die in deference to one who flaunts his guilt is moral cowardice, an unwillingness to dirty one’s hands. If you caught the terrorist, could you sleep nights knowing that millions died because you could not bring yourself to apply the electrodes?
Once you concede that torture is justified in extreme cases, you have admitted that the decision to use torture is a matter of balancing innocent lives against the means to save them. You must now face more realistic cases involving more modest numbers. Someone plants a bomb on a jumbo jet. He alone can disarm it, and his demands cannot be met (or if they can, we refuse to set a precedent by yielding to his threats). Surely we can, we must, do anything to the extortionist to save the passengers. How can we tell 300, or 100, or 10 people who never asked to be put in danger, “I’m sorry, you’ll have to die in agony, we just couldn’t bring ourselves to. . . . “
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I am not advocating torture as a punishment. Punishment is addressed to deeds irrevocably past. Rather, I am advocating torture as an acceptable measure for preventing future evils. So understood, it is far less objectionable than many extant punishments. Opponents of the death penalty, for example, are forever insisting that executing a murderer will not bring back the victim (as if the purpose ...
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The Categorical Imperative (selections taken from The Foundati.docx
1. The Categorical Imperative (selections taken from The
Foundations of the Metaphysics of
Morals)
Preface
As my concern here is with moral philosophy, I limit the
question suggested to this:
Whether it is not of the utmost necessity to construct a pure
thing which is only empirical and
which belongs to anthropology? for that such a philosophy must
be possible is evident from the
common idea of duty and of the moral laws. Everyone must
admit that if a law is to have moral
force, i.e., to be the basis of an obligation, it must carry with it
absolute necessity; that, for
example, the precept, "Thou shalt not lie," is not valid for men
alone, as if other rational beings
had no need to observe it; and so with all the other moral laws
properly so called; that, therefore,
the basis of obligation must not be sought in the nature of man,
or in the circumstances in the
2. world in which he is placed, but a priori simply in the
conception of pure reason; and although
any other precept which is founded on principles of mere
experience may be in certain respects
universal, yet in as far as it rests even in the least degree on an
empirical basis, perhaps only as to
a motive, such a precept, while it may be a practical rule, can
never be called a moral law…
What is the “Good Will?”
NOTHING can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out
of it, which can be called
good, without qualification, except a good will. Intelligence,
wit, judgement, and the other
talents of the mind, however they may be named, or courage,
resolution, perseverance, as
qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in
many respects; but these gifts of
nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the
will which is to make use of them,
and which, therefore, constitutes what is called character, is not
good. It is the same with the
gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the
general well-being and contentment
with one's condition which is called happiness, inspire pride,
3. and often presumption, if there is
not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind,
and with this also to rectify the
whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end. The sight of a
being who is not adorned with a
single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying unbroken
prosperity, can never give pleasure to
an impartial rational spectator. Thus a good will appears to
constitute the indispensable condition
even of being worthy of happiness.
There are even some qualities which are of service to this
good will itself and may
facilitate its action, yet which have no intrinsic unconditional
value, but always presuppose a
good will, and this qualifies the esteem that we justly have for
them and does not permit us to
regard them as absolutely good. Moderation in the affections
and passions, self-control, and calm
deliberation are not only good in many respects, but even seem
to constitute part of the intrinsic
worth of the person; but they are far from deserving to be called
good without qualification,
although they have been so unconditionally praised by the
ancients. For without the principles of
4. a good will, they may become extremely bad, and the coolness
of a villain not only makes him
far more dangerous, but also directly makes him more
abominable in our eyes than he would
have been without it.
A good will is good not because of what it performs or
effects, not by its aptness for the
attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the
volition; that is, it is good in itself,
and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all
that can be brought about by it in
favour of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all
inclinations. Even if it should happen
that, owing to special disfavour of fortune, or the niggardly
provision of a step-motherly nature,
this will should wholly lack power to accomplish its purpose, if
with its greatest efforts it should
yet achieve nothing, and there should remain only the good will
(not, to be sure, a mere wish, but
the summoning of all means in our power), then, like a jewel, it
would still shine by its own
light, as a thing which has its whole value in itself. Its
5. usefulness or fruitfulness can neither add
nor take away anything from this value. It would be, as it were,
only the setting to enable us to
handle it the more conveniently in common commerce, or to
attract to it the attention of those
who are not yet connoisseurs, but not to recommend it to true
connoisseurs, or to determine its
value.
There is, however, something so strange in this idea of the
absolute value of the mere
will, in which no account is taken of its utility, that
notwithstanding the thorough assent of even
common reason to the idea, yet a suspicion must arise that it
may perhaps really be the product
of mere high-flown fancy, and that we may have misunderstood
the purpose of nature in
assigning reason as the governor of our will. Therefore we will
examine this idea from this point
of view.
In the physical constitution of an organized being, that is, a
being adapted suitably to the
purposes of life, we assume it as a fundamental principle that no
organ for any purpose will be
6. found but what is also the fittest and best adapted for that
purpose. Now in a being which has
reason and a will, if the proper object of nature were its
conservation, its welfare, in a word, its
happiness, then nature would have hit upon a very bad
arrangement in selecting the reason of the
creature to carry out this purpose. For all the actions which the
creature has to perform with a
view to this purpose, and the whole rule of its conduct, would
be far more surely prescribed to it
by instinct, and that end would have been attained thereby much
more certainly than it ever can
be by reason. Should reason have been communicated to this
favoured creature over and above,
it must only have served it to contemplate the happy
constitution of its nature, to admire it, to
congratulate itself thereon, and to feel thankful for it to the
beneficent cause, but not that it
should subject its desires to that weak and delusive guidance
and meddle bunglingly with the
purpose of nature. In a word, nature would have taken care that
reason should not break forth
into practical exercise, nor have the presumption, with its weak
insight, to think out for itself the
7. plan of happiness, and of the means of attaining it. Nature
would not only have taken on herself
the choice of the ends, but also of the means, and with wise
foresight would have entrusted both
to instinct.
And, in fact, we find that the more a cultivated reason
applies itself with deliberate
purpose to the enjoyment of life and happiness, so much the
more does the man fail of true
satisfaction. And from this circumstance there arises in many, if
they are candid enough to
confess it, a certain degree of misology, that is, hatred of
reason, especially in the case of those
who are most experienced in the use of it, because after
calculating all the advantages they
derive, I do not say from the invention of all the arts of common
luxury, but even from the
sciences (which seem to them to be after all only a luxury of the
understanding), they find that
they have, in fact, only brought more trouble on their shoulders.
rather than gained in happiness;
and they end by envying, rather than despising, the more
common stamp of men who keep closer
8. to the guidance of mere instinct and do not allow their reason
much influence on their conduct.
And this we must admit, that the judgement of those who would
very much lower the lofty
eulogies of the advantages which reason gives us in regard to
the happiness and satisfaction of
life, or who would even reduce them below zero, is by no means
morose or ungrateful to the
goodness with which the world is governed, but that there lies
at the root of these judgements the
idea that our existence has a different and far nobler end, for
which, and not for happiness,
reason is properly intended, and which must, therefore, be
regarded as the supreme condition to
which the private ends of man must, for the most part, be
postponed.
For as reason is not competent to guide the will with
certainty in regard to its objects and
the satisfaction of all our wants (which it to some extent even
multiplies), this being an end to
which an implanted instinct would have led with much greater
certainty; and since, nevertheless,
reason is imparted to us as a practical faculty, i.e., as one which
is to have influence on the will,
9. therefore, admitting that nature generally in the distribution of
her capacities has adapted the
means to the end, its true destination must be to produce a will,
not merely good as a means to
something else, but good in itself, for which reason was
absolutely necessary. This will then,
though not indeed the sole and complete good, must be the
supreme good and the condition of
every other, even of the desire of happiness. Under these
circumstances, there is nothing
inconsistent with the wisdom of nature in the fact that the
cultivation of the reason, which is
requisite for the first and unconditional purpose, does in many
ways interfere, at least in this life,
with the attainment of the second, which is always conditional,
namely, happiness. Nay, it may
even reduce it to nothing, without nature thereby failing of her
purpose. For reason recognizes
the establishment of a good will as its highest practical
destination, and in attaining this purpose
is capable only of a satisfaction of its own proper kind, namely
that from the attainment of an
end, which end again is determined by reason only,
notwithstanding that this may involve many
10. a disappointment to the ends of inclination.
The First Proposition of Morality
We have then to develop the notion of a will which deserves
to be highly esteemed for
itself and is good without a view to anything further, a notion
which exists already in the sound
natural understanding, requiring rather to be cleared up than to
be taught, and which in
estimating the value of our actions always takes the first place
and constitutes the condition of all
the rest. In order to do this, we will take the notion of duty,
which includes that of a good will,
although implying certain subjective restrictions and
hindrances. These, however, far from
concealing it, or rendering it unrecognizable, rather bring it out
by contrast and make it shine
forth so much the brighter.
I omit here all actions which are already recognized as
inconsistent with duty, although
they may be useful for this or that purpose, for with these the
question whether they are done
from duty cannot arise at all, since they even conflict with it. I
also set aside those actions which
11. really conform to duty, but to which men have no direct
inclination, performing them because
they are impelled thereto by some other inclination. For in this
case we can readily distinguish
whether the action which agrees with duty is done from duty, or
from a selfish view. It is much
harder to make this distinction when the action accords with
duty and the subject has besides a
direct inclination to it. For example, it is always a matter of
duty that a dealer should not over
charge an inexperienced purchaser; and wherever there is much
commerce the prudent tradesman
does not overcharge, but keeps a fixed price for everyone, so
that a child buys of him as well as
any other. Men are thus honestly served; but this is not enough
to make us believe that the
tradesman has so acted from duty and from principles of
honesty: his own advantage required it;
it is out of the question in this case to suppose that he might
besides have a direct inclination in
favour of the buyers, so that, as it were, from love he should
give no advantage to one over
12. another. Accordingly the action was done neither from duty nor
from direct inclination, but
merely with a selfish view.
On the other hand, it is a duty to maintain one's life; and, in
addition, everyone has also a
direct inclination to do so. But on this account the of anxious
care which most men take for it has
no intrinsic worth, and their maxim has no moral import. They
preserve their life as duty
requires, no doubt, but not because duty requires. On the other
band, if adversity and hopeless
sorrow have completely taken away the relish for life; if the
unfortunate one, strong in mind,
indignant at his fate rather than desponding or dejected, wishes
for death, and yet preserves his
life without loving it-not from inclination or fear, but from
duty-then his maxim has a moral
worth.
To be beneficent when we can is a duty; and besides this,
there are many minds so
sympathetically constituted that, without any other motive of
vanity or self-interest, they find a
pleasure in spreading joy around them and can take delight in
the satisfaction of others so far as
13. it is their own work. But I maintain that in such a case an action
of this kind, however proper,
however amiable it may be, bas nevertheless no true moral
worth, but is on a level with other
inclinations, e.g., the inclination to honour, which, if it is
happily directed to that which is in fact
of public utility and accordant with duty and consequently
honourable, deserves praise and
encouragement, but not esteem. For the maxim lacks the moral
import, namely, that such actions
be done from duty, not from inclination. Put the case that the
mind of that philanthropist were
clouded by sorrow of his own, extinguishing all sympathy with
the lot of others, and that, while
he still has the power to benefit others in distress, he is not
touched by their trouble because he is
absorbed with his own; and now suppose that he tears himself
out of this dead insensibility, and
performs the action without any inclination to it, but simply
from duty, then first has his action
its genuine moral worth. Further still; if nature bas put little
sympathy in the heart of this or that
man; if he, supposed to be an upright man, is by temperament
cold and indifferent to the
14. sufferings of others, perhaps because in respect of his own he is
provided with the special gift of
patience and fortitude and supposes, or even requires, that
others should have the same-and such
a man would certainly not be the meanest product of nature-but
if nature had not specially
framed him for a philanthropist, would he not still find in
himself a source from whence to give
himself a far higher worth than that of a good-natured
temperament could be? Unquestionably. It
is just in this that the moral worth of the character is brought
out which is incomparably the
highest of all, namely, that he is beneficent, not from
inclination, but from duty.
To secure one's own happiness is a duty, at least indirectly;
for discontent with one's
condition, under a pressure of many anxieties and amidst
unsatisfied wants, might easily become
a great temptation to transgression of duty. But here again,
without looking to duty, all men have
already the strongest and most intimate inclination to happiness,
because it is just in this idea that
15. all inclinations are combined in one total. But the precept of
happiness is often of such a sort that
it greatly interferes with some inclinations, and yet a man
cannot form any definite and certain
conception of the sum of satisfaction of all of them which is
called happiness. It is not then to be
wondered at that a single inclination, definite both as to what it
promises and as to the time
within which it can be gratified, is often able to overcome such
a fluctuating idea, and that a
gouty patient, for instance, can choose to enjoy what he likes,
and to suffer what he may, since,
according to his calculation, on this occasion at least, be has not
sacrificed the enjoyment of the
present moment to a possibly mistaken expectation of a
happiness which is supposed to be found
in health. But even in this case, if the general desire for
happiness did not influence his will, and
supposing that in his particular case health was not a necessary
element in this calculation, there
yet remains in this, as in all other cases, this law, namely, that
he should promote his happiness
not from inclination but from duty, and by this would his
conduct first acquire true moral worth.
16. It is in this manner, undoubtedly, that we are to understand
those passages of Scripture
also in which we are commanded to love our neighbour, even
our enemy. For love, as an
affection, cannot be commanded, but beneficence for duty's
sake may; even though we are not
impelled to it by any inclination-nay, are even repelled by a
natural and unconquerable aversion.
This is practical love and not pathological-a love which is
seated in the will, and not in the
propensions of sense-in principles of action and not of tender
sympathy; and it is this love alone
which can be commanded.
The Second Proposition of Morality
The second proposition is: That an action done from duty
derives its moral worth, not
from the purpose which is to be attained by it, but from the
maxim by which it is determined, and
therefore does not depend on the realization of the object of the
action, but merely on the
principle of volition by which the action has taken place,
without regard to any object of desire.
It is clear from what precedes that the purposes which we may
have in view in our actions, or
17. their effects regarded as ends and springs of the will, cannot
give to actions any unconditional or
moral worth. In what, then, can their worth lie, if it is not to
consist in the will and in reference to
its expected effect? It cannot lie anywhere but in the principle
of the will without regard to the
ends which can be attained by the action. For the will stands
between its a priori principle, which
is formal, and its a posteriori spring, which is material, as
between two roads, and as it must be
determined by something, it that it must be determined by the
formal principle of volition when
an action is done from duty, in which case every material
principle has been withdrawn from it.
The Third Proposition of Morality
The third proposition, which is a consequence of the two
preceding, I would express thus:
Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law. I may
have inclination for an object as
the effect of my proposed action, but I cannot have respect for
it, just for this reason, that it is an
effect and not an energy of will. Similarly I cannot have respect
for inclination, whether my own
18. or another's; I can at most, if my own, approve it; if another's,
sometimes even love it; i.e., look
on it as favourable to my own interest. It is only what is
connected with my will as a principle,
by no means as an effect-what does not subserve my inclination,
but overpowers it, or at least in
case of choice excludes it from its calculation-in other words,
simply the law of itself, which can
be an object of respect, and hence a command. Now an action
done from duty must wholly
exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of
the will, so that nothing remains
which can determine the will except objectively the law, and
subjectively pure respect for this
practical law, and consequently the maxim that I should follow
this law even to the thwarting of
all my inclinations.
Thus the moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect
expected from it, nor in any
principle of action which requires to borrow its motive from
this expected effect. For all these
effects-agreeableness of one's condition and even the promotion
of the happiness of others-could
19. have been also brought about by other causes, so that for this
there would have been no need of
the will of a rational being; whereas it is in this alone that the
supreme and unconditional good
can be found. The pre-eminent good which we call moral can
therefore consist in nothing else
than the conception of law in itself, which certainly is only
possible in a rational being, in so far
as this conception, and not the expected effect, determines the
will. This is a good which is
already present in the person who acts accordingly, and we have
not to wait for it to appear first
in the result.
The Categorical Imperative
But what sort of law can that be, the conception of which must
determine the will, even
without paying any regard to the effect expected from it, in
order that this will may be called
good absolutely and without qualification? As I have deprived
the will of every impulse which
could arise to it from obedience to any law, there remains
nothing but the universal conformity
of its actions to law in general, which alone is to serve the will
20. as a principle, i.e., I am never to
act otherwise than so that I could also will that my maxim
should become a universal law. Here,
now, it is the simple conformity to law in general, without
assuming any particular law
applicable to certain actions, that serves the will as its principle
and must so serve it, if duty is
not to be a vain delusion and a chimerical notion. The common
reason of men in its practical
judgements perfectly coincides with this and always has in view
the principle here suggested. Let
the question be, for example: May I when in distress make a
promise with the intention not to
keep it? I readily distinguish here between the two
significations which the question may have:
Whether it is prudent, or whether it is right, to make a false
promise? The former may
undoubtedly of be the case. I see clearly indeed that it is not
enough to extricate myself from a
present difficulty by means of this subterfuge, but it must be
well considered whether there may
not hereafter spring from this lie much greater inconvenience
than that from which I now free
myself, and as, with all my supposed cunning, the consequences
21. cannot be so easily foreseen but
that credit once lost may be much more injurious to me than any
mischief which I seek to avoid
at present, it should be considered whether it would not be more
prudent to act herein according
to a universal maxim and to make it a habit to promise nothing
except with the intention of
keeping it. But it is soon clear to me that such a maxim will still
only be based on the fear of
consequences. Now it is a wholly different thing to be truthful
from duty and to be so from
apprehension of injurious consequences. In the first case, the
very notion of the action already
implies a law for me; in the second case, I must first look about
elsewhere to see what results
may be combined with it which would affect myself. For to
deviate from the principle of duty is
beyond all doubt wicked; but to be unfaithful to my maxim of
prudence may often be very
advantageous to me, although to abide by it is certainly safer.
The shortest way, however, and an
unerring one, to discover the answer to this question whether a
lying promise is consistent with
22. duty, is to ask myself, "Should I be content that my maxim (to
extricate myself from difficulty by
a false promise) should hold good as a universal law, for myself
as well as for others? and should
I be able to say to myself, "Every one may make a deceitful
promise when he finds himself in a
difficulty from which he cannot otherwise extricate himself?"
Then I presently become aware
that while I can will the lie, I can by no means will that lying
should be a universal law. For with
such a law there would be no promises at all, since it would be
in vain to allege my intention in
regard to my future actions to those who would not believe this
allegation, or if they over hastily
did so would pay me back in my own coin. Hence my maxim, as
soon as it should be made a
universal law, would necessarily destroy itself.
I do not, therefore, need any far-reaching penetration to
discern what I have to do in order
that my will may be morally good. Inexperienced in the course
of the world, incapable of being
prepared for all its contingencies, I only ask myself: Canst thou
also will that thy maxim should
23. be a universal law? If not, then it must be rejected, and that not
because of a disadvantage
accruing from it to myself or even to others, but because it
cannot enter as a principle into a
possible universal legislation, and reason extorts from me
immediate respect for such legislation.
I do not indeed as yet discern on what this respect is based (this
the philosopher may inquire),
but at least I understand this, that it is an estimation of the
worth which far outweighs all worth
of what is recommended by inclination, and that the necessity of
acting from pure respect for the
practical law is what constitutes duty, to which every other
motive must give place, because it is
the condition of a will being good in itself, and the worth of
such a will is above everything.
Thus, then, without quitting the moral knowledge of common
human reason, we have
arrived at its principle. And although, no doubt, common men
do not conceive it in such an
abstract and universal form, yet they always have it really
before their eyes and use it as the
standard of their decision….
Nor could anything be more fatal to morality than that we
24. should wish to derive it from
examples. For every example of it that is set before me must be
first itself tested by principles of
morality, whether it is worthy to serve as an original example,
i.e., as a pattern; but by no means
can it authoritatively furnish the conception of morality. Even
the Holy One of the Gospels must
first be compared with our ideal of moral perfection before we
can recognise Him as such; and
so He says of Himself, "Why call ye Me (whom you see) good;
none is good (the model of good)
but God only (whom ye do not see)?" But whence have we the
conception of God as the supreme
good? Simply from the idea of moral perfection, which reason
frames a priori and connects
inseparably with the notion of a free will. Imitation finds no
place at all in morality, and
examples serve only for encouragement, i.e., they put beyond
doubt the feasibility of what the
law commands, they make visible that which the practical rule
expresses more generally, but
they can never authorize us to set aside the true original which
lies in reason and to guide
ourselves by examples….
25. From what has been said, it is clear that all moral conceptions
have their seat and origin
completely a priori in the reason, and that, moreover, in the
commonest reason just as truly as in
that which is in the highest degree speculative; that they cannot
be obtained by abstraction from
any empirical, and therefore merely contingent, knowledge; that
it is just this purity of their
origin that makes them worthy to serve as our supreme practical
principle, and that just in
proportion as we add anything empirical, we detract from their
genuine influence and from the
absolute value of actions; that it is not only of the greatest
necessity, in a purely speculative point
of view, but is also of the greatest practical importance, to
derive these notions and laws from
pure reason, to present them pure and unmixed, and even to
determine the compass of this
practical or pure rational knowledge, i.e., to determine the
whole faculty of pure practical reason;
and, in doing so, we must not make its principles dependent on
the particular nature of human
26. reason, though in speculative philosophy this may be permitted,
or may even at times be
necessary; but since moral laws ought to hold good for every
rational creature, we must derive
them from the general concept of a rational being. In this way,
although for its application to
man morality has need of anthropology, yet, in the first
instance, we must treat it independently
as pure philosophy, i.e., as metaphysic, complete in itself (a
thing which in such distinct branches
of science is easily done); knowing well that unless we are in
possession of this, it would not
only be vain to determine the moral element of duty in right
actions for purposes of speculative
criticism, but it would be impossible to base morals on their
genuine principles, even for
common practical purposes, especially of moral instruction, so
as to produce pure moral
dispositions, and to engraft them on men's minds to the
promotion of the greatest possible good
in the world….
The Rational Ground of the Categorical Imperative
…[T]he question how the imperative of morality is possible, is
27. undoubtedly one, the only one,
demanding a solution, as this is not at all hypothetical, and the
objective necessity which it
presents cannot rest on any hypothesis, as is the case with the
hypothetical imperatives. Only
here we must never leave out of consideration that we cannot
make out by any example, in other
words empirically, whether there is such an imperative at all,
but it is rather to be feared that all
those which seem to be categorical may yet be at bottom
hypothetical. For instance, when the
precept is: "Thou shalt not promise deceitfully"; and it is
assumed that the necessity of this is not
a mere counsel to avoid some other evil, so that it should mean:
"Thou shalt not make a lying
promise, lest if it become known thou shouldst destroy thy
credit," but that an action of this kind
must be regarded as evil in itself, so that the imperative of the
prohibition is categorical; then we
cannot show with certainty in any example that the will was
determined merely by the law,
without any other spring of action, although it may appear to be
so. For it is always possible that
fear of disgrace, perhaps also obscure dread of other dangers,
28. may have a secret influence on the
will. Who can prove by experience the non-existence of a cause
when all that experience tells us
is that we do not perceive it? But in such a case the so-called
moral imperative, which as such
appears to be categorical and unconditional, would in reality be
only a pragmatic precept,
drawing our attention to our own interests and merely teaching
us to take these into
consideration.
We shall therefore have to investigate a priori the possibility
of a categorical imperative,
as we have not in this case the advantage of its reality being
given in experience, so that [the
elucidation of] its possibility should be requisite only for its
explanation, not for its
establishment. In the meantime it may be discerned beforehand
that the categorical imperative
alone has the purport of a practical law; all the rest may indeed
be called principles of the will
but not laws, since whatever is only necessary for the
attainment of some arbitrary purpose may
29. be considered as in itself contingent, and we can at any time be
free from the precept if we give
up the purpose; on the contrary, the unconditional command
leaves the will no liberty to choose
the opposite; consequently it alone carries with it that necessity
which we require in a law.
Secondly, in the case of this categorical imperative or law of
morality, the difficulty (of
discerning its possibility) is a very profound one. It is an a
priori synthetical practical
proposition; and as there is so much difficulty in discerning the
possibility of speculative
propositions of this kind, it may readily be supposed that the
difficulty will be no less with the
practical.
The Categorical Imperative: Universal Law
In this problem we will first inquire whether the mere
conception of a categorical
imperative may not perhaps supply us also with the formula of
it, containing the proposition
which alone can be a categorical imperative; for even if we
know the tenor of such an absolute
command, yet how it is possible will require further special and
laborious study, which we
30. postpone to the last section.
When I conceive a hypothetical imperative, in general I do
not know beforehand what it
will contain until I am given the condition. But when I conceive
a categorical imperative, I know
at once what it contains. For as the imperative contains besides
the law only the necessity that the
maxims shall conform to this law, while the law contains no
conditions restricting it, there
remains nothing but the general statement that the maxim of the
action should conform to a
universal law, and it is this conformity alone that the imperative
properly represents as necessary.
There is therefore but one categorical imperative, namely,
this: Act only on that maxim
whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become
a universal law.
Now if all imperatives of duty can be deduced from this one
imperative as from their
principle, then, although it should remain undecided what is
called duty is not merely a vain
notion, yet at least we shall be able to show what we understand
by it and what this notion
31. means.
Since the universality of the law according to which effects
are produced constitutes what is
properly called nature in the most general sense (as to form),
that is the existence of things so far
as it is determined by general laws, the imperative of duty may
be expressed thus: Act as if the
maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law
of nature.