concept and theories, definition and its elements

1. What does the word -‘LEARNING’
bring to your mind ???

2. The acquisition of knowledge or
skill through experience.

3. ● Stimulus:
A change in the environment that elicits a response
● Response
Reaction to stimulus

4. ●DEFINITION
● Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs
as a result of practice or experience.
● Temporary behavioral changes due to the use of drugs, or
fatigue are not considered learning

5. ●CHARACTERISTICS
● Pervasive: It reaches into all aspects of human life
● Involves whole person ,socially, emotionally and
intellectually
● Change in the organization of behavior
● Learning is development.
● Always concerned with goals
● Interest and learning are positively related.
● Depends on our maturation and motivation

6. ● Adaptation or adjustment
● Brings behavioral changes
● Active ( Purposeful )
● Universal and continuous

7.  Field of learning has been traditionally
dominated by behaviorists
 Behaviourists
Psychologist who study only observable or
measurable behavior, not mental processes

8. ●Classical conditioning
● Ivan P . Pavlov , Russian physiologist
● Pavlovian conditioning Respondent conditioning.
● Conditioned stimulus---- Conditioned response

9. In his classic study examining why dogs salivate before the
presentation of food, Pavlov initiated the study of classical
conditioning, a type of learning in which a neutral
stimulus is paired with a response until it elicits that
response

11. Food is thus an Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and
salivation which follows it, an Unconditioned
Response(UR).
After conditioning, salivation started to occur in the
presence of the sound of the bell. The bell becomes a
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and saliva secretion a
Conditioned Response (CR).

12. classical conditioning :S–S learning in which
one stimulus (e.g., sound of bell) becomes a
signal for another stimulus (e.g., food).
Here one stimulus signifies the possible
occurrence of another stimulus.

13. ●B. F Skinner

14. Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are
emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are
under their control

15. OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

16. ●Experiment
A hungry cat is placed in the chamber. In the chamber there was a
lever, which was connected to a food container. When the lever is
pressed, a food pellet drops on the plate. While moving around
(exploratory behaviour), the hungry rat accidentally presses the lever and
a food pellet drops on the plate. The hungry rat eats it. After a while the
exploratory behaviour again starts leading to accidental lever pressing
behaviour .
As the number of trials increases, the rat takes lesser and lesser time to
press the lever for food. Conditioning is complete when the rat presses
the lever immediately after it is placed in the chamber. It is obvious that
lever pressing is an operant response and getting food is its consequence.

17. - Focused on the overt or observable behavior
- the consequences that follow a behavior were seen as
critical determinants of future behavior
● A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in
an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the
future [reinforcement].
● Skinner did much of his research with animals such as
pigeons and rats

18. ●Principles: Reinforcement
● A Consequence That Strengthens a Behavior
● Reinforcement Strengthens a Behavior
● If the Frequency of a Behavior Increases After a
Consequence, the Consequence is a Reinforcer.

19. ●Principles: Punishment
● A Consequence That Weakens a Behavior
● Punishment Weakens a Behavior
● If the Frequency of a Behavior Decreases After a
Consequence, the Consequence is a Punisher

20. ●Social Learning Theory: Bandura
● Modeling
● Phases of Observational Learning

22. Behavior modification
Techniques used to decrease or increase a particular type of behavior or
reaction.
The purpose behind behavior modification is not to understand why or how
a particular behavior started. Instead, it only focuses on changing the
behavior, and there are various different methods used to accomplish it. This
includes:
 Reinforcement
 Punishment
 Shaping
 Chaining
 Fading
 Extinction

23.  Flooding
 Systematic desensitization
 Aversion therapy

24. Positive reinforcement is pairing a positive stimulus to a behavior.
Eg: when teachers reward their students for getting a good grade with
stickers
Negative reinforcement is the opposite and is the pairing of a behavior
to the removal of a negative stimulus.
Eg:
If you have a bad head ache and then take an painkiller that makes it
disappear ,you are likely to take painkiller next time when you have
headache

25. Schedules of Reinforcement
● How and when reinforcers will be given to the learning
● Continuous: Schedule that provides reinforcement everytime the
behaviour is emitted by individual.
● Partial :Reinforcing behaviour only some of the time.

26. Punishment is designed to weaken behaviors by pairing an unpleasant stimulus
to a behavior.
Eg: the punishment of being kept in school after hours.

27. Extinction
The removal of all reinforcement that might be associated
with a behavior. This is a powerful tool and works well,
especially with young children.
Ignoring or extinction can be used to weaken or decrease an
unwanted behaviour, by providing no reinforcement.
Sometimes when you ignore a behaviour, it will get worse
before it gets better. You need to persist and eventually the
behaviour will decrease in frequency.

28. ●Fading
● technique applied in behavior therapy, particularly behavior
modification, as well as skill training settings, where an initial prompting
to perform an action is gradually withdrawn until the need for
it fades away.
● The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts.

29. Shaping
This means attempting to shape an initial
response or behaviour to be closer to the
correct or desired behaviour. (Closer and closer
approximations of desired behaviour)
It begins with responses or behaviours that the
person already can perform, and gradually
increasing expectations over time.
For example, a person might be encouraged to
do one step in a sequence of steps needed to
finish a task, and then over time are asked to
more steps in the sequence.

30. ●Chaining
● To establish a specifice sequence (series or chains ) of behaviours by
initially positively reinforcing each behaviour in a desired consequences ,
then later rewarding only the completed sequences.

31. Systematic desensitization
To treat phobias and involves teaching a client to remain calm while focusing
on these fears. For example, someone with an intense fear of bridges might start
by looking at a photo of a bridge, then thinking about standing on a bridge, and
eventually walking over a real bridge.
Aversion therapy
The pairing of an unpleasant stimulus to an unwanted behavior in order to
eliminate that behavior. Some people bite their finger nails, and in order to stop
this behavior, there's a clear substance you can paint on your finger nails that
makes them taste awful. Painting your nails with it helps stop the behavior of
biting nails.

32. Flooding
Exposing people to fear-invoking objects or situations intensely and rapidly.
Forcing someone with a fear of snakes to hold one for 10 minutes would be an
example of flooding.