Living With The Extreme Fear Created By Anxiety Disorders...

Living with the Extreme Fear Created by Anxiety Disorders...
Anxiety disorders are mental disorders caused by extreme or severe anxiety often caused by
overwhelming worries, fears, and stress. Phobic disorder, commonly known as phobia, is a type of
anxiety disorder wherein the individual acquires an excessive and irrational fear of a particular
object or situation, with the fear being out of proportion to the real threat. "The word [phobia] is
derived from Phobos, the Greek god of fear, whose likeness was painted on masks and shields to
frighten enemies in battle." (Passer and Smith 537) Jennifer Ong defines phobia as a heightened
sense of fear. Also, according to her, psychologists assert that the fears in phobia are usually based
on irrational grounds.
A fear develops into a phobia when a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The situations mentioned may indicate being involved in situations wherein escape is difficult or
impossible (Gazzaniga et al. 536). According to Jennifer Ong, individuals with agoraphobia have a
fear of leaving their homes or place of security. A person with this phobia fears to be alone in places
wherein he thinks that his life will be at risk like bridges, crowded stores, and busy streets. In these
situations, individuals would need the accompaniment of a family member or friend, since no one
can predict when a panic attack can occur. Besides this, based on distribution, it is more common for
women to suffer from agoraphobia than men. (Magee, 1996)
The second type of phobic disorder is social phobia. According to John Santrock, "Social phobia is
an intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in social situations. Individuals with this phobia
are afraid that they will say or do the wrong thing." Those with this phobia are afraid of being
judged and evaluated negatively and of being made fun of. According to Ong, they fear groups of
people, individuals, or specific situations. This phobia includes fear of speaking in public or being
under scrutiny. It is sometimes referred to as stage fright. Fear of public speaking is said to be the
most common kind of social phobia. Social phobia hinders the affected persons to socialize with
others. The said individuals may be excessively self–conscious and
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The Great Fear Research Paper
THE FAKE FEAR
Fear is a vital behavior to physical and emotional danger. It will causes a change in our brain and
organ function and make us retract and cower. It is a distressing emotion aroused by danger, evil,
pain.
In our daily life, human would face some objects that would inspire them a sense of fear. However,
they are just similar with fear , they are a fake phobia. There are two special cases can be put
forward to explain this fake fear–trypophobia and chalkboard scraping.
Some people see images containing clusters of holes would suffer from discomfort and evoke their
feeling of fear. Most of people would feel extremely irritating about the sound when scraping a
chalkboard with the fingernails produces. Nevertheless, they ... Show more content on
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In these test trials, the CS is presented alone and the CR is measured. Compared between
trypophobia and the experiment of Ivan Pavlov, I found that there are striking similarities.
According to the interview I have done above , we can regard her skin (with anaphylactic reaction)
as conditioned stimulus, regard something with clusters of hole as unconditioned stimulus (because
my cousin do no fear of density things before), and regard the response of scaring of density stuff as
conditioning response.
Thus, it is not difficult to find that the trypophobia is not a real phobia. People feel uncomfortable
about trypopobic image because they consider the images are harmful because they are hurt before.
According to (Sara ,2010),after a particular CS (something harmful, e.g. poisonous creatures)has
come to elicit a CR(fear), another similar stimulus (trypophobic image)will elicit the same CR(fear).
Usually the more similar are the CS and the test stimulus the stronger is the CR to the test

Fear Conditioning
It has been considered that neural mechanisms involving memories undergo synaptic plasticity
modification such as LTP and LTD. Indicating the association between memories and synaptic
mechanisms has been elusive, until now. Robert Malinow and his colleagues were able to
demonstrate this modification of synaptic plasticity by fear conditioning mice. Malinow and his
group used optogenetics to focus on a specific fear circuitry. They then induced LTD and LTP in the
memory circuitry to reinstate or remove the fear memory. Optogenetics is slightly different from the
original tone fear conditioning. To observe the connection between memory and plasticity they
induce cued fear conditioning in mice with a tone and shock. There are some main components in
conditioning. First, there is a neutral ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These regions are part of the amygdala, which is a fear memory center to which axons from the
auditory centers project. They injected an adeno–associated virus (AAV) into the MGN and auditory
cortex of the rat to sensitize the regions to light stimulus and target specific channels. This virus
expresses a light activated channel ChR2, oCHIEF. By inserting an optic fibre that shines light on
parts of the amygdala, they were able to quickly switch the neurons on and off. The conditioned
stimulus (CS) was the blue light, the unconditioned stimulus (US) was a foot shock, and the
conditioned response was due to the combination of the CS and US. Figure 1. Researchers targeted
the auditory cortex and medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) for channelrhodopsin expression. They
used a blue light to stimulate the lateral amygdale (LA). To inactivate and reactivate a fear behavior,
researchers did this by weakening or strengthening synapses in the lateral amygdala with LTD or

Fear Conditioning Lab Report
Summary Section
Dissociation of Learned Helplessness and Fear Conditioning in Mice: A Mouse Model of
Depression
November 16, 2017
PSY 241 Tues/Thurs 11:00 – 12:15
Summary Section
Introduction and Hypothesis
Trans–situation is the concept of a stimulus being reinforced in one situation, and therefore this
stimulus will be reinforced in another situation. In this study, the stimulus of a trans–situation is
learned helplessness. In previous studies done on learned helplessness, the domain and stressors
were the same. Furthermore, there was an inability to escape a certain domain. This caused a fear
conditioning of the domain, not a universal state of helplessness. Thus, this experiment was
conducted to obtain a state of learned helplessness without the influence of fear conditioning.
Methods ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All mice were men. The ages of the mice were 8 weeks old, and all mice were delivered from the
Jackson Laboratory in Sacramento, CA, USA. The mice were taken through a five–day adaptation
phase where they were disconnected from the other mice. This helped elude the susceptibility that
would cause a sensitivity to stress. If present in the experiment, stress sensitivity would affect the
learned helplessness. Within the five–day adaptation phase, the mice were placed within a vented
cage that contained necessities such as food, water, and a place to sleep. After five days, the mice
were subjected to a three–day learned helplessness procedure. Some mice underwent additional
testing. Each procedure was conducted in an isolated room that was near where their cages were

Specific Phobia Essay
Transient fears for certain objects or situations are common. However when fear is extreme and
disproportionate to the threat posed by specific stimuli that is avoided or endured under duress, it is
characterised as a specific phobia (APA, 2013). The common types of specific phobia are animal,
e.g., dogs, spiders; natural environment, e.g., water, heights; blood, injection or injury (BII), e.g.,
dental phobia, medical procedures; situational, e.g., elevators, flying; and other miscellaneous
phobias such as clowns, fear of choking. While debilitating, specific phobias are the most treatable
of psychiatric disorders, however many people do not seek treatment because of their fear of being
confronted with the feared stimuli (Wolitzky–Taylor, Horowitz, Powers & Telch, 2008). ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There is a high comorbidity within individuals with 75% having multiple specific phobias (DSM–5,
2013). However, the diagnosis of specific phobias is difficult as they are frequently comorbid with
other anxiety disorders sharing similar features. (Ost, eds, H. K. Hood and M. M.

Fears Vs. Phobias, And When Does A Fear Become A Phobia
Fears vs Phobias
Research Question: What is the difference between fears and phobias, and when does a fear become
a phobia.
Introduction: Almost everyone has an irrational fear or two–of mice, for example, or your annual
dental checkup. For most people, these fears are minor. But when fears become so severe that they
cause tremendous anxiety and interfere with your normal life, they're called phobias. A phobia is an
intense fear of something that, in reality, poses little or no actual danger. Common phobias and fears
include closed–in places, heights, highway driving, flying insects, snakes, and needles. However, we
can develop phobias of virtually anything. Most phobias develop in childhood, but they can also
develop in adults. If you ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He lived in the hospital in which the study was conducted. This was because his mother was a nurse
at the hospital.
Albert's baseline reactions to the stimuli were noted. He showed no fear when presented with a rat, a
rabbit, a dog, a monkey, a mask with hair, or cotton wool. When Albert was 11 months old the
experiments started.
Session One: Albert was presented with a rat. Just as he reached for it, a steel bar behind him was
hit. This procedure was repeated. After two presentations Albert was given a week off.
Session Two: The following week the rat alone was presented. Then three presentations were made
with the rat and the loud noise. This was followed with one presentation of just the rat. Then two
more presentations with the rat and the noise were made. Finally the rat alone was presented. So far
Albert had had 7 presentations of the rat with the noise.
Session Three: Albert was brought back five days later and given toy blocks (a neutral stimulus) to
play with.
Presentations were then made of:
The rat
A rabbit
A dog
A seal fur coat
Cotton wool
Watson's hair

A Santa Claus mask.
Session Four: To see how time had affected the response, Albert was presented with the rat on its
own five days later. The dog and rabbit were also presented, and the steel bar was hit each time.
Albert was then taken to a well–lit lecture theatre to see if the response was the same as it was in the
small room used up till now.
Session Five: One

Nuit Of The Living Dead Evaluation Essay
This is the first evaluation essay, and it is in a book that the readers have read called the Nuit of the
Living Dead. The story had the readers in countless suspense, especially the part when the setting
takes place at the time of the zombie apocalypse. However, numerous people have been wondering
the same question all their lives, which is this: "How do you understand your own identity, and how
does it relate to the communities you are a part of?" and the question remains unanswered to this
day, until now. (Center for Civic Reflection) The four topics that shall stand as the supports of this
essay, which will help us with this question, and the four topics are the following themes listed:
Loneliness, Paranoia, Fear, and Conditioning. (MoreStories102) Although the title of the story
would make people assume that this is a horror story, it certainly is not. This story is just about a
middle–aged man who is trying to keep himself busy at night, as he was afraid that the zombies
would attack him. As he attempts to help a mouse in putting it out of its misery, a van pulls up with
an older driver coming out asking for directions since he got lost. (Nuit of the Living Dead 452) The
first topic of this essay is loneliness, and the readers need to figure out how this first topic is a
portion of this answer. For starters, loneliness has been a state of mind, when a person starts to feel
abandoned by a friend that the farmer recognizes. In this story scenario, it occurs when the

Developing Prejudice Against Airplanes With Classical...
Developing Prejudice Against Airplanes
With Classical Conditioning
Submitted By: Montana Campbell
810069443
Danielle DiFonzo
N01026731
Submitted For: Neil McGrenaghan
Date: 1/12/2014
Code: PYSC 150–0BX
Table of Contents
Section Page #
Introduction 3
Classical Conditioning vs. Prejudice 3
Classical Conditioning Diagram 5
Conclusion 9
References 10
Introduction
The purpose of this assignment is to find an example of prejudice and explain how classical
conditioning influences your opinions on it. Generally, these opinions are negative and it is often
very difficult to make these conditioned responses, back to a neutral response due to person
experience. The topic we chose is flying in an airplane and how all the negative attention airplanes
have gotten in the past 15 years has significantly influenced peoples depictions of flying.
Classical Conditioning vs. Prejudice
The theory of classical conditioning can explain the origins of prejudice because:
General:
Prejudice by classical conditioning is based on personal experiences or something that you have
learned from/been taught. This creates a response either in a negative/positive way and heavily

influences on whether you are for/against the topic or item.
Fear is generally classically conditioned; our response to our fear would be in a negative

Watson and Rayner's Unconditional Stimulus Experiment on...
Watson and Rayner set out to substantiate his theory by recruiting a subject, who basically stayed in
a hospital attached John Hopkins University, and the conducting an experiment on the chosen infant.
Their aim was to classically condition the infant to fear a white laboratory rat. The infant, Albert B.
or "Little Albert", was a physically healthy and emotionally stable 9–month old boy (Watson &
Rayner, 1920, p. 1). He was described as a very relaxed baby who hardly ever cried. In the
emotional tests, before conditioning, Albert was exposed to a series of objects, which included fire,
cotton wool, a monkey, a dog, a white rabbit, a mask with hair, and a white laboratory rat. He had
not shown a scared or nervous response toward these neutral stimuli, and particularly adored the
white laboratory rat. (chaopret 7, p. 239).
Firstly, the researchers attempted to identify an unconditioned stimulus. They carried this out by
making a loud noise, hitting a hammer against a steel bar, and observing whether the infant responds
in fear (learning+c, p.74). In this case, Albert started to cry, which suggested that he was afraid. This
gave them the method of testing several important aspects of the experiment.
The actual practise of conditioning only started when Albert was 11 months old. The first step
Watson and Raymer took towards conditioning Little Albert, was paring the loud noise,
unconditioned stimulus, with the white rat, conditioned stimulus. The responses were fear of the

Anthrophobia Chapter 14 Summary
As I read Chapter 14, I took note of the phobia. There are many people with anthropophobia around
us. Anthropophobia is not a disease that is afraid of people, but it is a disease that feels to difficult
communicate with people. When someone meet others or stand in front of people, their face
becomes red, your hands and voice shake, and the person's gaze becomes overly conscious and gets
caught up in a severe tension. Sometimes gaze of oneself is so sharp that he thinks others are
avoiding him, and his face is strange and others see him strangely. People with anthropophobia are
afraid that others will know that they are feeling fear because they think their symptoms are their
own defects. Everyone has a bit form of anthropophobia. In front ... Show more content on
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She also practiced not to hide her natural feelings. As the therapist advised her, my friend informed
and explained her favorite hobbies to other friends. When she introduced me to her's hobby, cross
stitch, I knew she was nervous, but I tried to make her comfortable. I believe that experience in real
life is important for the healing of phobia. When someone get confident by facing through the
situations they want to avoid, their phobia will gradually fade away. My friend recorded a objective
video of some situations with the consent of another close friend to see if his symptoms were
harming others. She improved her ability to look at her environment from an objective point of
view, and was able to finish her college interview without being disturbed by the confidence that
was filled. I admire her for overcoming hardships actively. She was exposed to the anthropophobia
and adolescence, but I think she was able to develop because she had a willingness to improve
herself. I have learned to confidently solve difficult situations wisely through

Advantages And Disadvantages For Phobias
Most of the people have an irrational fear, for instance, annual dental check up. This fear might be
minor, but when fears become severe, they will cause tremendous anxiety and starts to interfere
one's normal life. This is called phobias.
Phobia is a persistent irrational fear of a situation, activity, or an object that a person feels compelled
to avoid (Gersley, 2001). It is an intense fear or dread of something that poses little or no actual
danger in reality (Smith, R.Segal & J.Segal, 2014). Phobias are normally develop in childhood, but
they can also develop in adults. Some of the common phobias include flying insects, heights, needle
and injection.
Phobias can interfere with a person's ability to socialize, work and go about a daily routine. ... Show
Therapy and self–help strategies can help a person to overcome their fears and start living the life
that they want.
One of the most successful yet effective treatments for phobia is cognitive behavioural therapy
(CBT). CBT helps a person to change certain ways that they feel, think and behave. It is a useful
treatment that is used for various mental health problems, including phobias. CBT is usually done
for several weeks in weekly sessions for around 50 minutes per session. You will be given
homework between sessions and have to take an active part on it. For instance, you may be asked to
write a diary of your thoughts occurred when you are anxious (Lawson 2013).
Cognitive therapy is according to the idea of certain ways of thinking that can fuel or trigger certain
mental health problems such as phobias, depression and anxiety. The therapist will help you to
understand your current thought patterns to identify any false, unhelpful and harmful attitudes or
ideas which you have that makes you feel anxious. The purpose of it is to change your ways of
thinking to avoid these attitudes and ideas. In addition, it is also to help your thought patterns to be
more helpful and realistic (Lawson,

Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing ( Emdr )
and is encouraged to process the trauma from different perspectives using cues from the therapist.
The patient also repeatedly engages with their fear triggers.177
Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing (EMDR). EMDR is an extension of this PET in which
the patient is exposed to the traumatic memories coincident with a small distraction. In the original
version of EMDR, the distraction consisted of hand movements of the therapist to direct movements
of the patient?s eyes. More recent versions of EMDR include other types of distractions such as
hand–tapping or audio cues.160,178 Results with EMDR have been obtained from a few studies
showing large symptom reduction in military populations,179 including results maintained at 9–
month follow–up and 78% of completers no longer meeting criteria for PTSD.180 However, other
studies conducted were either in very small samples or over only a few EMDR sessions.181–183 As
such, much of the evidence supporting EMDR is still from studies in the general population.184
Therapeutic Commonalities. Each of the PTSD treatments discussed above focuses on the idea that
learning to reprocess the old emotional memory will allow the patient to develop less dramatically
fearful responses to triggers and helps the patient extinguish responses to the original memory
through re–experiencing the trauma in a safe setting. Trauma based treatments center around
extinction of the original emotional, fearful response. This neurological response will be

Theories Of Agoraphobia
Because Agoraphobia was only recently recognised as a distinct disorder little is known about how
it is caused, however it is noted that Chambless and Gracely explain it to be a fear of fear (fear of
panic attacks and their real or imagined consequences) rather than simply a fear of public places and
of being away from home (Chambless & Gracely, 1989). It should also be noted that most people
with Agoraphobia will often also have other mental disorders, most frequently other anxiety
disorders (Association., 2013).
It is not surprising that there are several different paradigms that touch on Agoraphobia; given it is
one of the oldest known anxiety disorders or sub–disorders. However the main paradigms that have
distinct theories in regards

Phobia And Classical Conditioning
In general, a phobia refers to "extreme [and] irrational fear reactions" (Powell, Honey, & Symbaluk,
2013, p. 190). Phobias are developed through a process called classical conditioning. Classical
conditioning involves "a process in which one stimulus that does not elicit a certain response is
associated with a second stimulus that does; as a result, the first stimulus also comes to elicit a
response" (Powell et al., 2013, pp. 109–110).
The process of classical conditioning follows the procedure from Pavlov's salivation experiment.
Before conditioning, when a bowl of dog food is presented the dog would "naturally" salivate at the
mouth "in response to food". Because this response occurs "automatically" and "prior training" isn't
required for hunger, this reaction is called an unconditioned response (UCR) which "is the response
that is naturally elicited by the [UCS]" (Powell et al., 2013, pp. 112–115). When referring to a
natural response––one is referring to an elicited reaction that is characterized as "an unlearned or
innate reaction to [a] stimulus" (Powell et al., 2013, p. 115). Furthermore, the dog food is considered
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which "is a stimulus that naturally elicits a response" (Powell et
al., 2013, p. 115). According to Pavlov's experiment, when a bell chimes without the presentation of
dog food, the dog will not instinctually salivate (Powell et al., 2013, p. 112). Since the bell didn't
initially "elicit salivation" naturally, it's called a neutral stimulus (NS) (Powell et al., 2013, p. 112).
However, through conditioning, as the bell tone pairs with dog food continuously, the dog begins to
salivate. Finally, after the conditioning process is completed, the pairing of "food" and the bell "now
elicits salivation" (Powell et al., 2013, p. 112). Since the dog's salivation required some type of
continual prompting or, "prior training", it's reaction is considered a conditioned response (CR) "and
the [bell]" is the conditioned stimulus (CS). By definition, a conditioned stimulus "is any stimulus
that, although initially neutral, comes to elicit a response because it has been associated with an
unconditioned stimulus" (Powell et al., 2013, p. 115). Responses triggered by a

Animal Care And Experimental Procedures
Animals: 8–12 week old male C57Bl/J6 mice (Jackson Laboratories) were housed in groups of four
on a 12 hour light/dark cycle with ad libitum access to food and water. All experiments were
performed during the light part of the diurnal cycle. Housing, animal care and experimental
procedures were consistent with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and
approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Scripps Research Institute.
Fear Conditioning: Contextual fear conditioning experiments were performed using a set of four
modified Noldus Phenotyper (Model 3000) chambers (Leesburg, VA) with shock floors (Lattal et
al., 2007). The Phenotyper Model 3000 chamber has a 30 × 30 cm floor and is 40 cm in height. The
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During this period of time, the mice were also acclimated to the injection procedure performing
dummy cannula removal and infusers placement using infusion needles (Plastics One) shorter than
the guide cannula, and to the sound of the infusion pump that would be used for intracranial
injections. For those animals that received siRNA injection, after recovery from surgery and three
days before the contextual fear conditioning, animals received 3 days of acclimation to transport
from their home cages to the procedure rooms. Mice were injected during the first day (72 hours
before training) and then handled during the following 2 days. Behavioral data were analyzed using
ANOVA and Student's T test (GraphPad Prism).
Polyribosome isolation and RNAseq analysis: Polyribosomes were prepared as described in Stefani
et al., 2004. 20–50% w/w linear sucrose gradients were prepared in 10 mm HEPES–KOH, pH 7.4,
150 mm KCl 5 mm MgCl2, 1 mM DTT and 0.1 mg/ml cycloheximide using a Hoeffer SG 50
Gradient Maker (Amersham Biosciences) and MINIPULS® 3 peristaltic pump (Gilson Inc.). 5.6 ml
of a 20% sucrose solution was pipetted into the outlet side of the gradient maker, tiled to fill the
connecting passage between the chambers and tapped to remove any bubbles. The valve between
two chambers was closed with the 20% solution filling the passage. 5 ml of a 50%

Is A Phobia Is An Anxiety Disorder?
Spiders, snakes, clowns, heights, kidnappers, death, needles: everyone is scared of something. Why
are humans predisposed to fear the things we sometimes have to deal with in everyday life? A
phobia is an anxiety disorder. It can be defined as a persistent fear of an object or situation in which
a person goes to great lengths to avoid. Typically, the avoiding action is extremely disproportional to
the actual danger being posed, which explains why these fears are often recognized as "irrational."
In one case in particular, patients who receive chemotherapy treatments experience vomiting,
nausea, and/or other severe side effects; as a result, these patients begin feeling bilious long before
entering the office, simply knowing they will soon receive a treatment. So if the human brain
associates nausea with the doctor's office, why doesn't it associate a spider found in the bedroom
with an irrational fear of entering the bedroom? In a similar chemotherapy case, many patients who
eat a certain food before their treatment, would associate that food with the nauseous feelings of the
treatment. Later, the patient would no longer eat that food. Why did the patient's body fear the food
even though it had no relation to the chemotherapy nausea? These questions will soon be explored.
The easiest way to explain the patient's sickness prior to the treatment is due to their body
anticipating the sickness. The brain and the body both know that the chemotherapy is coming and so
anxiety

Analyzing The Article ' Detecting The Snake '
In the article "Detecting the snake in the grass: Attention to fear‐relevant stimuli by adults and
young children" published by Psychological Science authors Vanessa LoBue and Judy S. DeLoache
analyze the evidence that children detect threatening stimuli more promptly than other types of
stimuli. In this experiment, adults and children were presented with images with both threatening
and non–threatening stimuli. The images were presented on a touch screen and participants were
asked to press on the threatening stimuli. The objective of this experiment was to determine whether
people could detect stimuli that are evolutionarily pertinent early in life. The hypothesis is that the
threatening stimuli will be detected more quickly that the other types of non–threatening stimuli.
Three experiments were performed on both adults and children, and both detected snakes more
rapidly than the other aspects of the image, including butterflies and frogs. This research study
contributed to psychological research advancement by providing evidence of better visual detection
of threatening stimuli due to evolutionary relevance. Moreover, the research findings discussed in
the article "Detecting the snake in the grass: Attention to fear‐relevant stimuli by adults and young
children" by authors Vanessa LoBue and Judy S. DeLoache relate to human subject research
because it is an observational study using both children and adults as participants. Data was
collected on the children and adults'

Operant Conditioning Analysis
When I was young, I was very afraid of deep or large bodies of water. I would scream and thrash
and refuse to go into the water deeper than my knees. While occasionally I still become nervous, I
now have mostly overcome this fear. After analyzing this fear through classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, and social–cognitive learning, I have come up with a few explanations for the
origin, and alteration, of this behavior. I first tried to explain my behavior by learning about classical
conditioning. Classical conditioning is where a behavior is learned during a period called
acquisition. There are four stages, or parts, of acquisition. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS), is
when a stimulus is presented that elicits an instinctive response that has not been learned. The
unconditioned response (UCR), which directly relates to the UCS, being the response elicited by the
UCS. Then comes the conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a ... Show more content on
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Operant conditioning is the modification of behavior through consequences. There are two main
types of consequences, reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement is where a behavior is
strengthened by the stimulus that follows. Punishment is where a behavior is decreased or weakened
by the stimulus that follows. And then the type of stimulus that followed is classified by being
positive or negative. Positive is where something is added or presented to the situation. Negative is
where something is taken away or removed from the situation. These types of stimuluses, and types
of consequences, can be combined into four types of operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement,
where something is added to strengthen a behavior. Negative reinforcement, where something is
taken away to strengthen a behavior. Positive punishment, where something is added to weaken a
behavior. And negative punishment, where something is taken away to weaken behavior (Passer,

Specific Phobia Research Paper
Specific phobia is the disproportionate fear or avoidance of a particular object or situation. Phobias
are intense, unreasonable fears that interfere with functioning. Anxiety and fear are common to be a
part of most of the other anxiety disorders like social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and
agoraphobia. The development and maintenance of a specific phobia can be the result of fear
conditioning. The behavioral model of specific phobia is based upon the assumption that thoughts
and beliefs can influence our own behavior, emotions, and physiology. This model is built from
Mowrer's two–factor model of conditioning. The learned preparedness model suggests that fears of
objects with evolutionary significance may be more sustained after condition. Although not all
people with negative experiences will develop phobias.
Mowrer's two factor model suggests that anxiety disorders are related to two types of conditioning.
The first stage is classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another
stimulus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
An example of a developed and maintained phobia would be cynophobia, the fear of dogs. The
usually steps taken are avoidance of being exposed or in the presence of dogs specifically like
avoiding parks and family communities where there is a usual amount of dogs. This avoidance
technique is generally associated with the emotions of feeling good, relieved, and safe. But being
exposed to the phobia can cause feelings stress, fear, and anxiety. Your brain imprints the
association, reinforcing the negative consequences of exposure and deterring the possibility of
trying to be near a dog. Emotions are able to help direct attention and enhance the attitude towards
the phobia. Stress can often cause obsessive delegation or overthinking of certain stress factors
which can then cause other problems for overcoming

Abuse And Neglect: Balance Of Power Between Men And Women
Michael J. Fox once said, "One's dignity may be assaulted, vandalized and cruelly mocked, but it
can never be taken away unless it is surrendered." The reality of abuse shatters our nation, even in a
day and age when it is not as encouraged or ignored by the majority of the population. The dignity
that is taken from women stems from psychological and social influences, thus it is within the power
of people as a whole to put an end to domestic abuse. Violence within a relationship is so easily
done, yet not so easily seen. Key factors of abuse are negative self esteem influences in childhood,
balance of power between men and women in relationships, and the ignorance of the signs of abuse
from an outside perspective. My mother recounts her own ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
For ever unconditioned stimulus, a stimulus which is not controlled, there is an unconditioned
response, a response that is altogether uncontrollable (Myers317). In order to manipulate the
unconditioned response, there must be a conditioned stimulus, a stimulus that is controlled in order
to manipulate the subject, causing the conditioned response, a response identical to the
unconditioned response, only controlled by the conditioned stimulus (Myers137). In other words,
for each time Sandra was hurt by Juan for any 'wrong doing' she did, he would hurt her and then
comfort her, causing her to associate love with

Classical Conditioning Phobias
Many people have severe phobias and report feelings of anxiety and panic when confronted with
these fears. Learning principles may help explain why this anxiety may provide possible solutions.
Some with phobias, report a shortness of breath and a racing heartbeat when confronted with their
fear. One reaction may be a girl who was bitten by a men stray dog. This girl, let's call her Sally,
now cries or cowers behind something whenever a dog is near. Using classical conditioning we can
see how this happened, why she feels this way, and possible look at a way to end this fear once and
for all. Now let's roll through the classical conditioning model. Starting with the UCS
(Unconditioned Stimulus) this is when Sally gets bitten by the dog. The UCS ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Sally is hysterical, the pain makes her scream as she tries to run away from the dog and hide. This is
a normal response for a child to have. This helps her remember that dogs are bad, in her mind she
feels this, she has been through and experience in which it has stamped itself into her brain. Now the
CS (Conditioned Stimulus) is the dog itself, or dogs in general. The sight of a dog or even a bark or
growl can set little Sally off in a crying or cowering manner. The dog, or dogs, become the
conditioned stimulus because it is the memory of the previous interaction. After it is all said and
done, the sight of the dog or dogs will set her off yes. She will feel panicked and have shortness of
breath., When you are in counter with your fears you tend to become tensed. You will have anxiety,
which creates an uptick in your heart rate, including a slight shortness in breath. Same thing when
people have panic attacks. When you're in counter with your fear you have nowhere else to run,
sometimes, and so this makes you feel shut inside a small cube, one that you cannot get out. So
Sally panics and she tried to run, she will cry at the sight of a dog or a slight sound of a bark. This is
known as the CR (Conditioned response) the CR is the same as the UCR. Sally will feel like this
everytime she sees or hears a dog, unless

The Encoding of Contextual Fear Conditioning
The formation of new memories requires protein synthesis dependent changes in synaptic structure
and plasticity in the hippocampus. Studies in humans and animals suggest that these memories are
initially stored in hippocampus but later transferred to cortex for permanent storage. This
phenomenon is described as systems consolidation of memories. While the specific role for new
protein synthesis in hippocampus in early encoding of memories is established, whether protein
synthesis in medial prefrontal cortex play a major role in encoding of memories is unclear. To
address this question, we used contextual fear conditioning (CFC) of mouse, a behavior training that
induce long lasting memories. A single training session produces robust lifelong memory (8) that
can be measured using automated procedures (9). Several studies have used CFC training as a model
to study hippocampal–cortical communications and mechanisms underlying systems consolidation
of memories. Contextual fear memories are initially stored in hippocampus and then moved to
medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) for long–term storage.
We assume that if encoding of contextual fear memories require protein synthesis at both
hippocampus and PFC, we will be able to identify translationally active mRNAs in hippocampus
and PFC. Because RNAs associated with polyribosomes indicate translational activation, we first
isolated polyribosomes from mPFC and hippocampus at two time points (one hour and six hours,
hereafter T1 and T2

A Brief Note On Classical Conditioning And Fear
Classical Conditioning and Fear
Introduction
Fear is common in humans as well as in animals. Species that are thinking and learning have been
observed to respond to fear especially when they are subjected to something that caused them pain
and trauma, which will make them behave to prevent the exact or related thing/event. Learning how
fear accumulates and affects an individual has taken the interests of many studies. There are
research conducted to examine how species react to pain and how they behave when they encounter
the stimulus again. In studying fear, Pavlovian fear conditioning has been an important and well–
used model. It has been used in investigating rats in the laboratories and how they behave on
different stimuli and how they learn and remember each encounter. In one of the research works
done to investigate fear in rats, Maren (2008) describes the Pavlovian fear conditioning in
examining how the hippocampus and amygdala have been behaving in transgenic mouse models.
The essence of these two parts of the brain, however, has not been proved in contexts and discrete
use for fear conditioning. The recent work has been considered as unclear whether if the
hippocampus and the amygdala play an important role in fear learning, specifically in terms of
anatomical segregation of cue and context conditioning. There are also other non–associative factors
that affected the investigation and the results of the performance of fear responses, thus, more
research works are

Amygdala In Fear Conditioning Analysis
According to the article by Schaffhausen, the brain has two basic requirements to learn a fear. The
first one is the sensory systems, such as the visual system for a light or the tactile system for a
shock. The second area is the amygdala as a critical region for fear conditioning. "The amygdala is a
small, almond–shaped cluster of nuclei set deep in the temporal lobe that seems ideally positioned as
the locus of fear learning. It receives input through its lateral nucleus from cortical areas and the
thalamus, which is a key sensory relay station within the brain, and it sends output via its central
nucleus to a variety of brain regions that are known to mediate fear responses, such as the
hypothalamus." (Schaffhausen.2005). The crucial role for the amygdala in fear conditioning that if it
is destroyed, it will still show a fear response but fail to learn the association between the sensory
systems, such as the light and the brain regions that are known to control fear responses.
Consequently, the amygdala is a key structure for fear ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another way is watching a video or a DVD movie during getting injections "The theory is that you
have a limited amount of attention you can focus on any particular event, and if you can remove
some of the attention on to the distracting even rather than the paintball event that you actually
experience less pain." Dr. Cohen said. He mentions also that whereas that method works with older
children , infants do not pay attention to a DVD movie during the injection, so they more sensitive
to pain than older individuals. However, infants do not feel or remember the pain as much as do
older because watching a video after the injection helps them to forget the

What Is Fear?Fear Is Defined As An Emotion That Is Caused
What is fear? Fear is defined as an emotion that is caused by the belief that someone or something is
dangerous, known as a survival mechanism. Just about everyone in the world has at least one
unreasonable fear, for example such as being frightfully scared of spiders or speaking in public.
Most, are inclined to avoid the things that cause this fearful sense. A few usual fears appear simply
as a slight bother or fret, commonly when you feel somewhat worried or jumpy about something.
Just as the definition states sometimes though, fear comes suddenly in an unexpected situation with
danger. This is what is called fight or flight. Your mind in this particular occurrence is ready to either
run away and avoid the circumstance or fight off the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Let us begin by discussing about classical conditioning. Initially, you have to understand the notion
of classical conditioning. It is when two stimuli are associated with one another in an individual's
brain because of an experience one has had. Generally with respect to phobias, the incident in which
it was obtained is more than likely a mentally damaging one for the individual. Classical
conditioning can be dissected into four phases. The primary phase is known as the unconditioned
stimulus, in which one a response to something is automatically prompted. The second phase is
known as the unconditioned response, one that naturally takes place in response to the
unconditioned stimuli. The next phase is known as the conditioned stimulus. This is where a past
neutral stimulus after becoming connected to the unconditioned stimulus, over time prompts a
conditioned response. Finally, the last phase known as the conditioned response, is the learned
reaction to the foregoing stimulus. In simpler terms, by nature there will constantly be something
that sets off a reaction from an individual. The reaction to the innate trigger is one that ordinarily
occurs. Nevertheless, frequently this natural trigger is matched with an unconnected action. This
unconnected action as time passes, may eventually prompt the identical ungovernable response as
the natural trigger. This in kind, generates a phobia. An example of this could be, an individual may
have Arachnophobia, known as the fear of

Matilda Move EDU PSYCH Analysis
Toni Hubert
P251
Dr. G.H.
11/24/2012
Education Psychology Movie Application The movie Matilda was made in 1996. Matilda is the
protagonist in the movie and is based on a book, Matilda, written by Roald Dahl. In the beginning, it
shows her as a baby and a few stages of her life until she is about the age of schooling. Her father,
Harry, meets the headmistress of the school that is in the district of where Matilda's family lives.
Matilda starts going to school who has magnificent intelligence and proves it through many odd
telekinetic happenings against Agatha Trunchbull, who is the headmistress. As the school year goes
on, Matilda finds out how talented she is and uses her "powers" to try and not only improve her life,
but also Miss ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The truth of real life is there, but it is dated. In the past, students were able to be physically
"paddled" for behavior issues. Peer influences can change the way a person reacts in a tricky
situation. For Bruce, he receives positive peer pressure from the entire school assembly when
Trunchbull claims he stole her cake. She requires him to eat an entire cake that one of the lunch
ladies has made for him. At first he does well with a steady pace. He then becomes fuller and fuller.
When there is just a little bit under half left on the platter, Matilda arises from the seated crowd and
starts cheering and chanting Bruce to motivate him. After she starts, Lavender and the rest of the
school assembly join in chanting to encourage Bruce to finish the cake. Once Bruce finishes the
cake and is miserable, he stands up and licks the platter clean. Trunchbull is not happy with the
reaction, so she shatters the platter over his head, and then a reaction of classical conditioning
happens again. The students immediately become silent and sit down. The real–life aspect of the
idea that students back other students up are still true. This specific situation would not happen in an
entire school. Positive peer pressure is all around a child's world. In a classroom when a student tells
another student they did a good job, or just smiling when someone achieved something. The idea
that someone is forced to eat a cake for punishment in

Theories Affecting Anna's Fear Of Snakes
The DSM 5 defines a phobia as a persistent and unreasonable fear of an object (or situation) that is
generally avoided to refrain oneself from intense anxiety. By contrast, a fear is absolutely rational
and reasonable as the feared stimuli is usually threatening to the individual. There are various types
of phobias, these include social phobias, agoraphobia and specific phobias. If it is assumed that
Anna has a phobia of snakes, this would be a specific phobia as such disorders are defined as a
person who, when exposed to the feared stimuli (in this case, snakes), experiences extreme anxiety.
There are several theories that may be considered to help explain how Anna acquired this specific
animal phobia. The theory of classical conditioning, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many researchers have investigated gender differences and the prevalence of fears and phobias, with
several studies reaching the same conclusions, resulting in concurrent validity. One sample of 336
males and 384 females responded to a questionnaire consisting of statements which they determined
true or false to ascertain whether they had a phobia or not (Fredrikson et al, 1996). Findings reveal
that males only had an animal phobia prevalence of 3.3%, while females had a prevalence of 12.1%,
therefore suggesting that there are in fact gender differences in phobias, with females being more
vulnerable. However, as this study used the self–report method it is possible that demand
characteristics skewed the results as males are more likely to deny their phobias. This may be
because fear is not considered a masculine trait by society but females are generally portrayed as the
weaker gender and so may be more willing to admit to their phobia. This therefore limits the validity
of this theory in relation to Anna and Bjorn. Nevertheless, this study also investigated the age
differences in the prevalence of phobias and found that animal fears were more common in younger
children than adults, although since Anna and Bjorn are both the same age, this does not explain
why Bjorn does not fear snakes. Similar findings

Essay on Assessment of Psychopathology
Assessment of Psychopathology
Normally both fear and anxiety can be helpful, helping us to avoid dangerous situations, making us
alert and giving us the motivation to deal with problems. However, if the feelings become too strong
or go for too long, they can stop us from doing the things we want to and can make our lives
miserable. A phobia is a fear of particular situations or things that are not dangerous and which most
people do not find troublesome.
Most common phobias are found in the following three categories Specific, Social and Agoraphobia.
Specific phobia is characterized by extreme fear of an object or situation that is not harmful under
general conditions. There are four major ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is thought to be the most serious of all phobias.
There are many elements that make up the fear response. Cognitive elements (the expectation of
impending harm), Somatic elements (the body's emergency reactions to danger and changes in
appearance – the sympathetic nervous system is activated, releasing adrenaline), Emotional
elements (the feelings of dread, terror and panic) and Behavioural elements (usually fleeing or
freezing).
2. The Clinical Characteristics the disorder
For an individual's reactions to be clinically diagnosed as a phobia the following conditions must be
met. Firstly, the fear must be persistent, and must be severe. Secondly, the individual must feel
compelled to avoid or escape from the phobic inducing stimulus such as a spider or a snake. And
finally the fear must also be illogical or irrational.
For Specific phobias the average age of onset is around 7 to 9 years. People with specific phobias
know that their fear is excessive, but are unable to overcome their emotion. The disorder is
diagnosed only when the specific fear interferes with daily activities of school,

Lab Report On The And Light Control Group
Ratner & Miller (1959) performed an experiment to show that earthworms would react to the
illumination change in light being paired with food. In this experiment there are four groups being
tested. There was an experimental group (EG), vibration control group (VCG), random–response
control group (RRCG), and light control group (LCG). Group EG went through 130 trials with a 50
second interval in between each. Of the 130 trials the first 100 were conditioning and the last 30
were extinction. During the conditioning trials the vibratory stimulus (CS) was presented for 6
seconds. Then the light (US) was presented for 2 seconds after the first 4 seconds. A response
occurring during the first 4 sec. of the CS, prior to the presentation of the US, was recorded as a
conditioned withdrawal response. The extinction trials consisted of a 6 second vibration and all
responses that happened in the first 4 seconds were recorded. Group VCG had 100 trials. This were
done and recorded the same as group EG except that the US was not presented at any time. Group
RRCG consisted of 100 trials for 4 seconds. These trials determined the number of spontaneous
recoveries, where the CS and US were not presented during the trials. Then lastly group LCG was to
determine if the US would cause animals to become sensitive to the vibration. This group went
through 105 trials, 70 of them were light trials and 35 were vibration trials. The light was present for
2 seconds within blocks of 10 in the 70 light

Phobias : Theories Of Origin
Annie Nguyen
Mr. Erros
English 1001
19 September 2017
Phobias: Theories of Origin Everyone experience fear occasionally in their life, but there are some
who experience fears that are so intense that their daily lives are disturbed. An extreme fear towards
a specific object or situation that is relentless and illogical to the point that a person avoids
confronting the situation or object at all cost is known as a phobia. This anxiety disorder can
interfere with the a person's body and mind causing severe symptoms and disturbances to one's
everyday life, eventually leading to long hours of treatment with professional helpers. Many theories
have been proposed to explain how phobias have developed, but the real challenge is to propose a ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The similarity of chemical changes between the three generation of mices strongly suggest that
certain phobias can be pass down from parent to child through the structure of DNA incorporated in
the form of memories. As it is relatively a new discovery, further studies and experiments are needed
to examine if this theory can be also be applied to humans. Nevertheless, the idea that extreme fear
can be encoded in the structure of a human genome and passed down through inheritance still stands
as a possibility. Genetics is not the only factor that contributes to the development of phobias. Many
scientists and researchers have tried to examine the conscious mind and result: the psychoanalytic
theory. This hypothesis proposes that the development of phobias emerge from the need to repress
from distressing and painful thoughts that, "are not permitted to break through into consciousness in
their original recognizable form [therefore] they emerge in disguised form." (Zane and Milt, 108). In
one of Sigmund Freud's case an Austrian boy known as "Hans" acquired a fear of horses. After
talking to the father, Freud deduced that Hans's fear of horses could develop from something more
complicated than his experience of seeing a horse collapse on the

Classical Vs. Classical Conditioning Essay
Classical conditioning is a learning process that develops when two stimuli are paired together
repeatedly. The first stimulus is an unconditional stimulus, which automatically evokes an
unconditioned response, a natural response. The second stimulus is a neutral stimulus, a stimulus
that does not elicit a response. Many people associate it with habituation and sensitization, because
both of these involve a decrease or an increase to a repeated stimulus, and are classified as simple
learning mechanisms, however they differ from classical conditioning because the latter involves
changing behavior in response to associations between stimuli. Gottlieb defined classical
conditioning as the "adjustments organisms make in response to observing the temporal relations
among environmental or proprioceptive stimuli." (Gottlieb and Begej, 2014) This refers to the
process in which the neutral stimulus becomes a conditional stimulus when it is presented with the
unconditional stimulus, that is to say, when they occur together to the point of being associated with
one another after a period of time. This essay is going to cover classical conditioning, along with its
key concepts and its relation to phobias.
A prime example of classical conditioning would be the Pavlovian experiment, conducted in the
1860s, in which Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, noticed how his dogs would begin to salivate, an
unconditioned response, not only when presented with food, an unconditioned stimulus, but

The Effect Of New Protein Synthesis At Prl Cortex
training. Mice infused with anisomycin (n= 12) immediately after conditioning showed impairment
in contextual fear memory compared with vehicle–infused animals (saline, n=18) when tested 24
hours after CFC training (DF=28, F=7.19, t–test: p< 0.05) (Figure 2A). Surprisingly, irrespective of
the overall decrease in freezing percentage, mice injected with anisomycin did not show any
statistical difference in the level of freezing within the first 2 minutes of the test (Figure 2B). By the
third minute of testing, ANI–injected mice show a significant decrease in their level of freezing,
showing statistical significant differences until the end of the test (drug × memory minutes of test
DF=28, F=13.16, t–test p< 0.01; DF=28, F=7.66, t–test p< 0.01; DF=28, F=5.46, t–test p< 0.05)
(Figure 2B). These results suggested that new protein synthesis at PrL cortex is critical for the
encoding of contextual fear memories.
To further understand new protein synthesis at PFC, we asked whether other subregions of PFC are
also critical for encoding of contextual fear memories. To address this question, we studied the role
of cingulate cortex 1 (CG1) region of PFC in encoding. We injected anisomycin to inhibit protein
synthesis at CG1. Four separate groups of animals received anisomycin and saline infusions into the
adjacent CG1 (Saline, n= 8; ANI, n=6; Figure 2 C and D). As in the case of Prl cortex, anisomicyn
was injected shortly after CFC training. Measurements of freezing at 24 hours

The Theory of Reconsolidation
The Theory of Reconsolidation – What is it and how can it impact on our lives?
Learning is a very important aspect of humans and creatures alike. Not only is it essential to the
survival and adaption into this world but it also defines who we are as individuals (Schiller et al,
2010; Tronson & Taylor, 2007). Memories from past experiences shape the people that we are today.
A crucial element to learning is memory, without it we would not be able to retain information. The
process of memory is very distinct and consists of several different stages: acquisition of memory,
consolidation, retrieval and then either reconsolidation or extinction (Debiec & Ledoux, 2004;
Diergaarde, Schoffelmeer & De Vries, 2008). As memory is such a critical aspect of learning, it is
no wonder that its distinct process has become the topic of much research in the neurobiological
universe (Hupbach et al, 2007; Nader & Hardt, 2009).
After a new memory is learnt, it enters the process of encoding during which the memory is labile
and capable of disruption until it becomes stabilised over a period of time (Nader & Einarsson,
2010; Nader et al, 2000). This process is called consolidation and originally consisted of the theory
that once stabilised in the brain, it remains fixed (Suzuki et al, 2004). This theory has been rebutted
by the acceptance of reconsolidation, a theory that imposes the ideology that when memories are
retrieved, through similar experiences (Lee, 2009), they become labile until,

Analyzing Le Doux's 'Where The Wild Things Are'
In Chapter 8 "Where the Wild Things Are," the author Le Doux looked at the how our brain regions
and systems functioned during the development of anxiety disorders. He introduced many
researchers' ideas and theories such as Pavlovian conditioning and instrumental conditioning; then,
he listed the brain regions that were associated with anxiety and fear conditioning such as
hippocampus, amygdala, sympathetic nervous system, and various brain cortexes. He also explained
how our brain became conditioned for different anxiety disorders. Le Doux was very systematic and
graduate with his arguments. He started out with a brief history of mental illness. He compared and
contrasted theories for different perspectives of how anxiety arises. For example,

Bobo Doll Experiment
Background
Phobias are a type of anxiety disorder that causes people to persistently become extremely irrational
and strongly avoid/object a particular thing or situation when in their presence. The causes of
phobias are still largely unknown, but what we do know is we all have fears in some shape or form;
whether it be a common phobia such as: animals, insects, reptiles, the dark, acrophobia (heights),
drowning, micro–phobia (germs), claustrophobia (closed spaces); or something less common such
as: fear of rain or fear of beards.
A common debate in regards to psychology is determining whether aspects of various behaviours
are a product of being inherited (genetic) or developed by an experience or by the influence of
somebody. Usually, these ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. The experiment consisted of children
from the age's three to six being split and put into three separate rooms with a bunch of toys and an
adult, in which they observed how the adults interacted/played with the toys. In one room, the
children witnessed the adult acting aggressively towards a toy called the bobo doll. When it was
time for the children to individually go back in the room to play, the majority of the children
reciprocated what they saw the adults doing. Another set of children were placed in a room and
observed to a non–aggressive model (adult) where the model played with everything but the Bobo
doll. When the children were placed in the room, the majority of them acted in the same manner as
the adult previously in the room. Lastly, another set of children were put into a room without any
sort of model; they played accordingly without any influence. In relation to my survey, six out of ten
people stated how they have witnessed a bad experience happen to someone and later took on that
phobia. In conclusion, I believe the Bobo experiment supports my hypothesis of how phobias can be
inherited by influence instead of by

The Neurobiology of Fear: Emotional Memory and...
The Neurobiology of Fear: Emotional Memory and Post–Traumatic Stress Disorder
For survivors of traumatic events, the trauma itself is often only the beginning. While some are
relatively unaffected, many others will develop post–traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD, an
affliction that haunts its victims with terrifying memories, nightmares, and panic attacks. (For a
comprehensive list of symptoms and diagnostic criteria, the reader may refer to the DSM–IV,
relevant portions of which may be found online (7).) The National Institute of Mental Health
estimates that 3.6 percent of Americans between the ages of 18 and 54 suffer from PTSD; 30 percent
of those who have spent time in war zones – one million veterans of Vietnam alone – are ... Show
The distinction between conscious and unconscious memory suggests – and it is generally accepted
– that emotional memory involves two brain systems. While conscious memory is mediated by the
hippocampus, the amygdala is implicated in emotional memory (1). A small collection of nuclei in
the center of each temporal lobe, the amygdala controls the fear response, receiving and integrating
sensory input to determine the level of threat. If the input is sufficiently intense to initiate an action
potential, the amygdala triggers other areas of the brain that induce the physiological response that
humans interpret as fear (3); the danger has been "recognized."
The amygdala, though, is involved not just in the fear response, but in the memory of fear, as well.
In one test, researchers used functional MRI scans to measure amygdala activity while showing
subjects a number of frightening and neutral images. They found that the degree of amygdala
activity was a good predictor of both fear level (as reported by the subject) and of the ability several
weeks later to recall having seen the image (1).
This evidence, along with other studies with similar findings, has made the amygdala the target of
much anxiety–disorder research (5), but it continues to raise the question of mechanism. The
answer, partial though it may be, appears to lie in classic

Psychological Conditioning and Theories of Behavior
Introduction– In the field of psychology, behaviorism was one of the theoretical ideas that changed
quite drastically during the 20th century. Behaviorism tried to diminish the emphasis on the
conscious and unconscious parts of the mind, instead putting forward a new way to look at human
behavior that is empirical (observed, quantified, and measured). Ivan Pavlov, for instance, was
researching the digestive systems of dogs and led him to the discovery of classical condition, a way
to modify behaviors using conditioned responses. Pavlov's views intrigued American John Watson,
who pushed the idea forward in up through the 1950s. Building on these theories, but amending the
model with the effects of punishment and reward, B.F. Skinner's work had a revolutionary effect on
behaviorism, now called operant conditioning (Shiraev, 2010, pp. 246–54).
Learning Theory– Some say a logical reaction to Darwinism and the theory of natural selection,
some say the logical offshoot of 19th century social science, learning theory became extremely
importantly by the end of the 19th and beginning of the early 20th centuries. One of the central
aspects of the continual debate on learning theory is the difference between empirical and theoretical
learning. Empirical learning is a process that compares items (objects) and finds observable
characteristics and similarities. Theoretical learning holds that the individual is supplied with
environmental stimuli (instruction, for instance) and a set of

Compare And Contrast Classical And Operant Conditioning
Every living organism experiences the world differently, and those experiences and different stimuli
have an effect on the way living things learn. Learning is a basic method of survival because it
allows living organisms to avoid dangerous situations, food, and a variety of other things in the
world that can be fatal. The process of learning can be observed or broken down into different
methods, but the two most prominent methods are known as classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. Classical conditioning can best be described as observing how different stimuli can
affect certain behaviors, and operant conditioning is described as the effect rewards and
punishments have on influencing the recurrence or avoidance of specific behaviors. After learning
about classical and operant conditioning, I am better equipped to observe it in my own life and to
compare it to other scientific examples. I have been able to experience classical and operant
conditioning throughout my life as a child and as a young adult. One of my most recent memories
involves classical conditioning, and I am able to observe how it has affected my experiences with
dogs. I want to begin by confessing my love for dogs. Ever since I can remember, my family has
always owned at least one dog, and with every dog, I was able to form an attachment to them. They
provided comfort when I felt alone, relief when I was overwhelmed with stress, and love when life
became difficult. However, during the summer before

Thermal Plantar Analysis
After the results of a western blot for each rat is gathered and it is confirmed that the rats are
expressing the HaloX gene, then ten rats are chosen for the initial round of pain testing procedures.
Several days before the rats begin pain testing, the rats are given times to acclimate to the testing
procedure and animal enclosure, which is an elevated cage with mesh flooring. allowing for the
exposure the rats' paws. Once the rats are acclimated, the testing environment will be controlled for
temperature, noise levels, and time of day to control for any other possible stressors that could
possibly affect the rats' tolerance for pain. Once those conditions are set, the baseline thresholds for
the rats are determined. For eight days, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This instrument would be calibrated to have an intensity range that varied the heat intensity, and the
highest setting is calibrated to not be too hot to burn the rat. Like the mechanical pain threshold
testing, the rats will enter their assigned cages at a 1 PM and are allowed 15 minutes to get
acclimated in the cage. Once the rats are acclimated and stationary, the instrument is positioned
below the surface of the left hind paw, so that the heat can radiate through the bottom of the cage.
The instrument will record the amount of time between the start of the machine to the time the rat
withdrawals their paw. If an ambiguous response occurs, then allow the rat 5 minutes to reacclimate
and repeat the pain testing. Licking or shaking the hind paw after stimulation is a type of behavior
associate with pain. Repeat the heat stimulation at least 3 more times for each rat and record the
times, and then the mean for paw withdraw latencies are calculated. Each of the ten rats experienced
this procedure for four days, and the rats were given two resting days from testing. The following
ten days examined how optogenetics intervention could dull pain

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