Lucys and Ardis Role in Human Evolution

Australopithecus Cordi Human Evolution
Scientists have been able to discover things about our past that are almost inconceivable over 150
years ago when Charles Darwin was releasing his book, "The Origin of Species" (Gibbons, 2009a).
Fossils from different australopith species have been found that lived between 4 million and 2
million years ago that show the clearer transition to human. The author, Kate Wong (2013) believes
the Australopithecus sediba is the most important human ancestor discovered. Even though the
discovery of Au. sediba allowed anthropologists to see human species a long time ago, there are
opinions on whether it was the most important human ancestor discovered. This essay will explore
how hominids have gone through many changes to get from Ardipithecus to Homo habilis and the
important discoveries by scientists and what I think is the most important to the study of human
origins. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This discovery was Ardipithecus ramidus, whose nickname is "Ardi". Ardi seemed to fill the "gap"
between apes and humans. Ardi had a mix of primitive traits and others that hominids share. Her
pelvis supported bipedal locomotion, but feet had a divergent hallux, which relates to climbing trees
and holding onto branches (Smiley, Unit 7). Ardi engaged in both bipedalism and arboreal activity,
therefore, living in the forests. Ardi's brain was still small and ate fruits, based on her teeth structure.
She still had an projecting muzzle, giving her an ape–like appearance and was about 120 cm tall.
Therefore, Ardi had characteristics that were common to both panins and hominins (Smiley, Unit
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Importance Of Human Evolution
Through research it has been determined that evolution is a part of nature, and organisms become
more complex over time. As organisms become more complex their characteristics begin to change,
and aspects that are beneficial for their survival become prominent in their offspring. However,
characteristics that are not beneficial to their survival begins to fade as organism evolve. From this
arise Charles Darwin's theory that evolution occurs because of natural selection, expressing that
organisms with the best characters will have a higher survival rates and have the ability to pass these
characteristics to their offsprings. Branching out from the theory of evolution it is believed that all
species have a common ancestor. Depending on how similar and different species are the further
back in time they would share a common ancestor. By discovering fossil remains, using radioactive
dating, and DNA mutation rates scientist were able to develop a phylogenetic tree. As of right now
the phylogenetic tree is extensive, but it is not complete. Human evolution is a prime example of a
branch that is still incomplete. By comparing DNA it has been determined that Chimps and Human
DNA are 98.8 percent similar, however we are still different species (1). The question that still needs
to be answered is who is the common ancestor of Human and Chimps. Recently human ancestry has
become clear through the discovery of Ardipithecus ramidus, commonly referred to as Ardi. A group
of scientists

The Evolution of Modern Humans
While time travel still remains elusive to us, scientists have been able to discover things about our
past as a species that were practically inconceivable over 150 years ago when Charles Darwin
released his book entitled The Origin of Species. They have especially uncovered many pieces to
our still incomplete puzzle over the past 20 years so that we now have a nearly complete idea of
how our species Homo sapiens came to be. This story of our history includes dozens of species' and
hundreds of fossils and bones, yet fairly few complete or even partial skeletons. Hominids have
gone through many changes to get from one of our earliest species' Ardipithecus ramidus to Homo
sapiens which scientists have been able to discover ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lower part, where it meets the ankle, is fairly wide and thick so it acted as a "shock absorber"
whilst walking. Members of the Australopithecus anamensis species also had long forearms and
wrist bone features which suggest tree climbing. They were thickly–built with long narrow jaws.
Their side rows of teeth were in parallel lines and were heavily enameled which entails that they ate
hard, abrasive foods such as nuts, but researchers also believe that they also ate fruits. These
hominids were possibly the size of modern female chimpanzees and there is evidence of sexual
dimorphism. (Leakey et al, 1995; White et al, 2006) Discovered in 1974, Australopithecus afarensis
is one of the most famous early hominids and they are the direct descendants of Australopithecus
anamensis. Australopithecus afarensis as a species was not named until 1978, after many fossil
discoveries of the same type were found at sites in Hadar, Ethiopia and Laetoli, Tanzania. Some of
the fossils categorized as a part of this species were found as early as in the 1930's. They were
around for more than 900,000 years which makes them the longest lived species and there are over
300 sets of remains of Australopithecus afarensis. One of the most famous hominid skeletons is 3.2
million year old "Lucy" (AL 288–1), discovered by Donald Johanson and Maurice Taieb in Hadar,
Ethiopia in 1974. She was nicknamed the night she was discovered

Habitual Bipedalism
The Australopithecine are some of the earliest known hominids and they embody many
characteristics that are associated with bipedalism. Bipedalism is a highly specialized and unusual
form of primate locomotion that sets modern humans apart from all other living primates as we are
the only extant obligate bipeds. Many evolutionary biologists and paleoanthropologists have
devoted innumerable research hours to attempting to understand this unique form of locomotion and
how it evolved. A number of interdependent morphological adaptations occurred over a long period
of time to solve challenges posed by habitual bipedalism. As a result, there are obvious differences
that exist between early and late hominin species.
While most who study ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are two ideologies about australopithecine locomotion and postcrania interpretation. As more
fossils hominin remains were discovered, this debate became more focused on the bipedalism of
specific groups, and less on the shift into obligate bipedalism. Stern and Susman (1991) and Latimer
(1991) each represent a different side of this debate. The first holds that Australopithecus retained
their arboreal features, such as powerfully built arms and the shape of the thorax, as well as
developing habitual bipedalism (Stern & Susman, 1991). The second philosophical thought put out
that the same features should be thought of as primitive. Those researchers argue that
australopithecines were obligate terrestrial bipeds (Lovejoy, 1988; Latimer,

“Lucy and Ardi: Beginning of Human Origins”
Ramchandra Rana
March 1, 2012
World Civilizations 101– Dr. James LePree
"Lucy and Ardi: Beginning of Human Origins"
Many people often consider our first milestone in life to be our first step. It is the beginning of many
important developments as an individual. It was also the beginning of our development as a species.
Dr. Donald Johanson and Dr. Tim White discovered two of the most amazing specimens that would
be the stepping–stones to the beginning of evolutionary development. Australopithecus Afarensis
(Lucy) and Ardipithecus Ramidus (Ardi) were the first fossils found in Africa that showed signs of
early evolutionary development that is connected to Homo sapiens in the evolutionary tree. Lucy
and Ardi are important to our ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ardi moved in the trees using a grasping big toe, yet her pelvis was shorter and broader than an
ape's, indicating that she could walk bipedally. There were many pieces of evidence that proved
Australopithecus afarensis to have been walking upright for thousands of years. Dr. Don Johanson
brought up human like characteristics in Lucy's bones that indicated she walked upright. One of
Lucy's most striking characteristics was her knee joint, which indicated that she normally moved by
walking upright. Her greater trochanter, however, was clearly derived, being short and human–like
rather taller than the femoral head (Lovejoy). Another piece of evidence that proves Lucy walked
upright was the formation of her pelvis. Her pelvis and leg bones were almost identical in function
to those of modern humans, showing with certainty that these hominids had walked bipedally.
The third piece of evidence that made it undoubtedly that Australopithecus afarensis walked upright
was the footprints found at Laetoli in northern Tanzania. In 1976, Mary Leakey discovered hominid
footprints that was preserved in volcanic ash and unearthed 1978. "The Laetoli Footprints" and
skeletal structure excavated showed clear evidence of bipedalism. Many believe the three
individuals who made these footprints belonged to the species Australopithecus afarensis. The
footprints demonstrated that Australopithecus afarensis walked upright

Ardipithecus In Ethiopia
The ancestors of mankind are neither "Propliopithecus" nor "dryopithecus", but a complete bones
called "Ardi" found in the Avasi River region of Ethiopia, which is the Ardipithecus ramidus, also
known as "Ardipithecus".
In 2009, "Science" magazine published an article, said the success of Ethiopia found the
fragmentary primitive fossils spell a female primitive bone. Scientists say that the ape, named
"Ardi", lived about four hundred and forty years ago and had been one million years earlier than the
other female primitive skeleton "Lucy", which had previously been discovered in Ethiopia, Earliest
primitive bones.
"Ardi" is the abbreviation of Ardipithecus ramidus, also known as "Ardipithecus". The fossil was
first discovered in Ethiopia ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
And as early as about 65 million years ago, primates and other mammals to achieve a branch.
Therefore, in the evolution of primates, the origin of human beings can be said to be the most recent
thing.
The fossils of the Ardipithecus ramidus have many characteristics of the apes. The biggest
difference between the lemonian ape and other apes is that they walk upright with their feet. Later,
East Africa continued to dry, the forest into a grassland. Their descendants in the forest to complete
the feet upright ready to walk, but also adapted to the next new environment. Therefore, the step of
the Ardipithecus ramidus is closely related to the present civilization.
From these characteristics of the Ardipithecus ramidus, it is speculated that the morphological
features of the human adaptation of the two–legged upright approach are evolved shortly after the
separation of the modern ape from the common ancestor, rather than on the basis of the modern
apes. The study of the Ardipithecus ramidus shows that although we are genetically similar to the
chimpanzee, the recent common ancestor of the human and the ape may be very different from any
African apes in existence, and both the human and the ape are transformed through a very different
evolutionary path Highly specialized

Essay On Hominin Apes
Chapter 9 offers a very clear overview of how and when we become human (Bingham and Souza,
2009). For instance, the main individuals from the human lineage need numerous components that
recognize us from different primates. Despite the fact that it has been a troublesome mission, we are
nearer than any time to knowing the mother of every one of us. Up to this point, the evolutionary
events that encompassed the inception of the hominin lineage – which incorporates modern humans
and our fossil relatives – were for all intents and purposes obscure, and our phylogenetic
relationship with living African apes was profoundly faced off regarding. To illustrate, gorillas and
chimpanzees were regularly respected to be all the more firmly identified with each other because of
their high level of morphological and behavioral similarities, for example, their mutual method ...
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Driven to a great extent to some degree by these new genetic– based theories, there have been
escalated endeavors by various groups throughout the most recent two decades to discover and
investigate sediments that record this essential time period for which we had no fossil proof. Their
diligent work and tirelessness prompted the revelation of a few new genera and species of early
hominins that are dated near the estimated divergence dates for chimpanzees and humans. In 1994,
Ardipithecus ramidus (ca. 4.4 Ma) was reported (White et al. 1994, 1995, WoldeGabriel et al. 1994)
and before long, even more older hominins were found: Orrorin tugenensis (6.0–5.7 Ma, Pickford
and Senut 2001, Senut et al. 2001, Sawada et al. 2002), Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 Ma, Brunet
et al. 2002, 2005, Vignaud et al. 2002), and Ardipithecus kadabba (5.8–5.2 Ma, Haile–Selassie 2001,
WoldeGabriel et al.

Pt1420 Unit 1 Assignment
1. Genetics and DNA provide the structure for living and in a social context in our everyday
experiences in the world. By giving us a better understanding on describing human evolution. I
believe that both genetics and DNA has challenged my conception of what it means to be human.
The reason being is that throughout time science has been able to use technology that allows people
to use genetics and DNA to create what they would call a "perfect human". By that I mean a couple
who is unable to conceive can get to a sperm bank and literally pick and choose how they want their
child to look like. Another thing science has been able to do is cloning of others.
2. Yes, it is possible for scientific models of human evolution and religious stories of creation to
coexist but to a certain extent. In my opinion, I believe being able to adapt to your environment and
Darwin theory of natural selection. Which is basically described to be where the strongest one are
the only ones who survive. But I do not believe the theory of an animal in this case an ape turning
into the first human being. I feel like if that was actually possible why did apes turning into a human
stop all of a sudden?
3. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The frequency of the sickle–cell allele in populations provide a good example of adaptation on a
genetic level. Is from what the person inherits from both parents if the parents carry the gene. When
it comes to demographics/culture Sickle–cell allele is commonly found in American Americans
people. With geography location and climate has had a big impact on where the disease is
commonly found. Mutations inherently are fairly neutral because it is different for each person. For
instance, in the video "Malaria and Sickle Cell Anemia" the two sibling at the beginning of the video
both had Sickle Cell. Sky life, health wise is a lot better than her younger brother who had to have
surgery

Homo Correctus Vs. Modern Humans
Below the neck, Homo erectus were anatomically much like modern humans. Their arm and leg
bones were essentially the same as modern people in shape and relative proportions. This strongly
supports the view that they were equal to us in their ability to walk and run bipedally. However, their
leg bones were apparently denser than ours. This may be partly a result of developmental adjustment
differences. Unlike us, these early humans did not spend much of their lives sitting behind desks or
on a sofa watching TV. They were probably much more active throughout the day seeking food.
Their legs would have made Homo erectus efficient long distance runners like modern humans. It
has been suggested that this capability would have allowed them to run down small and even
medium size game animals on the tropical savannas of East Africa. If this was the case, it is also
likely that they were largely hairless by this time. Bodies with little hair are more efficient at
remaining cool via the evaporation of sweat during times of heavy exertion. Four legged mammals
primarily cool their bodies by panting. Because they are unable to pant while galloping, they readily
overheat in hot weather. As a consequence, they cannot run long distances without collapsing from
heat exhaustion. This gives human hunters a decisive advantage when chasing them. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, we must be careful to not make too much of these differences because the number of
existing specimens is low and there were minor regional variations as well. This becomes apparent
especially when comparing Homo erectus from East Asia and

Bipedal Locomotion in Early Hominids Essay
Bipedal Locomotion in Early Hominids
Until recently, the oldest fossil species to provide evidence for bipedalism was Australopithecus
afarensis, of which the best example of is the 3.2 million year old skeleton called Lucy found in
Hadar, Ethiopia. According to article 19: Sunset at the Savanna, in 1995 Meave Leakey of the
national Museums of Kenya and her colleagues made public the discovery of and older hominid
species Australopithecus anamensis (getting its name from the Turkana word for lake "anam" having
been found near lake Turkana and the site of another ancient lake). Leakey's team found a tibia from
this creature that is quite human like and emphatically bipedal, "in size and practically all details of
the knee and ankle ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We learned in lab last week that the pelvis has features that indicate the mode of locomotion. A
bipedal creature will have an ilium that is short and wide. The leg bones will give clues too. A
bipedal creature has knees that point more directly forward than a quadrapedal creature (this is why
apes look very awkward when they walk bipedally, their legs kick out to the side when they step
forward.) Another skeletal feature that indicates bipedalism is a special design of the anklebones so
that they would be able to take the weight of a bipedal stride. The knee bone of a bipedal hominid
has a special feature too. It has extra spongy bone tissue that acts as a shock absorber when walking.
One feature mentioned in article 20 is a oval hollow at the bottom of the humerus where the
humerus and the ulna lock in place. This is an adaptation to knuckle walking and is not present in
bipedal hominids.
Many theories have been made about what type of paleoecology or paleoecological changes were
the niche for bipedalism. It must have been a strong force since bipedaliam is generally slower and
more awkward than quadrapedal locomotion. It also puts the animal at a greater risk of injury,
according to Owen Lovejoy of Kent State. The current most widely accepted theory is that there was
a continent wide drying up of Africa starting around 5mya. This caused shrinkage of the large
forests to

The Earth Has Never Stopped Revolving Ever Since It Had...
The Earth has never stopped revolving ever since it had existed. About 2.5 billion years ago during
the Proterozoic Eon to the Cenozoic era in which we live in today, a single–celled organism was
able to evolve into many cells, which led to dinosaurs, mammals, primates, and many other
organisms. Not only did the animals evolved, our ancestors did too! They had passed on their genes
and traits as well as new ones to create the human–being we are today. We didn 't start out like this.
Millions of years ago, the human 's ancestors were not bipedal because fossils have showed that
their legs were too far apart, which meant that they would be all wobbly if they had stood and
walked upright. A primate would need to have their legs closer ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Donald Johanson, a paleoanthropologist, found a 3.2 million year old fossil in Africa Ethiopia. Lucy,
an Australopithecus afarensis, was believed to be the first human–like ancestor who died at the age
of three. According to Johanson, Lucy was a biped. We know that she walked upright because the
shaft of her leg is angled, which is similar to a human 's knee joints. Why did our ancestors evolve
from walking on four legs to walking on two? One theory was about the climate. Some scientists
believe that because our ancestor 's homes in the trees were being destroyed due to the climate
change, our ancestors had to walk more to get to their destination. If they didn 't walk fast enough,
they would become a prey. With that, our ancestors developed the trait to walk on two legs. That
theory is proven wrong, thanks to a recent discovery of a 4.4 million year old fossil. Ardi, an
Ardipithecus ramidus, was a human–like ancestor before Lucy 's time. According to her fossils, Ardi
was bipedal because she had feet both great for grasping and walking. Her knuckles or wrist showed
no signs of her walking on four. The upper part of her pelvis, in which the hip bone is short and
broad, is similar to a human 's, but the lower part is longer than a human 's, which was more useful
for climbing. According to that fact, we know that Ardi was a biped and a tree–climber. Because her

The Conflict Between Human Evolution And Religion
Introduction
Human evolution is a very controversial topic all around the world– mostly due to religion. Despite
the conflict between religion and the science of human evolution, recently, there has been a
statement made by Pope Francis saying that it is possible for both God and evolution (along with the
Big Bang) to exist. The Pope implies "He [God] created human beings and let them develop
according to the internal laws that he gave to each one so they would reach their fulfillment"
(McKenna, 2014; Tharoor, 2014). What we now know about human evolution has come from the
discoveries of fossils of our ancestors and the tools that they have made (Funk & Wagnalls, 2014).
Although what we know is significantly small in comparison to what we do not know (Zimmer,
2003), discoveries in the fields of paleontology, anthropology and natural selection can help us gain
knowledge, as well as an understanding, on the process by which we became "modern humans"
(Unknown, 2013)
Bipedalism
Bipedalism is the act of walking on two legs as a way to move around. It is also what scientist
believe to be the earliest human characteristic that evolved. In addition, this trait was used to
distinguish humans from their non ape relatives and ancestors (Funk & Wagnalls, 2014). For a long
time, the reason for this evolutionary development was thought to be cause by a change in habitat,
from forests to the savanna. Now, however, there is doubt that our ancestors would have left their
safe homes in

Essay on The Environments of the Earliest Australopithecus
Background and goals
The conditions in which bipedal locomotion emerged are still unresolved. However they are all
closely dependent on environment reconstructions. This project will contribute to the scientific
community's understanding of the environments of the earliest Australopithecine.
Australopithecus anamensis is the earliest species of the genus and the first indisputably bipedal
hominid. According to paleoecological analyses (isotopes, fauna, soils, etc) (2,3), these hominids
were generalists who lived in mosaic environments , e.g. a mix of habitat types. However, the
specifics of the exploitation of the environments by the hominids need to be further
explored.Understanding the conditions of local environments is essential ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Also, it has been reported that a number of bones of the Kanapoi collection show carnivore–induced
damage . In addition, Allia Bay and Kanapoi yielded A. anamensis remains, but Mursi has not. Does
the Mursi collection differ from the two others, and if so how?
Methods
Because of the antiquity of the Pliocene environments, the only remaining witnesses of the
behaviours are the bones and the stones. One of the main approaches to this type of issue is using
the faunal remains. They are more abundant than the hominid fossils, and some indicator species are
excellent proxies for paleoecological inferences. In addition, we can study their taphonomic
signature, i.e. the processes that affect a bone between the death of the animal and its discovery as a
fossil, and how these processes affect information in the fossil record (6). By looking at the different
kinds of traces (grooves, cuts, abrasions, or any physical or chemical deformation) on a bone, a
researcher can study its individual history. By identifying these traces on all animal fossils collected
from a particular site, we can address the question of what the local environment was like. To
evaluate taphonomy, the researcher looks at the surface of each bone with a handheld magnifying
lens and records the type and intensity of the traces on each bone. Extant floral and geological data
will also be exploited.
Schedule and Materials
Taphonomy is unique among

Bipedalism Hypothesis
Many consider our first steps our first milestones. It is one of the most important developments for
an individual. It was also the beginning of our development as a species. Bipedalism is the ability to
walk on two rear limbs or legs. Charles Darwin believed that bipedalism was an evolution by natural
selection. (Freidman 2006) However, fossil records do not provide enough information about the
origin of bipedalism. There are many other theories on how our ancestors went from being
quadrupeds to bipeds. One theory is the postural feeding hypothesis by Kevin D. Hunt in his article
"The Postural feeding hypothesis: an ecological model for the evolution of bipedalism". Owen C.
Lovejoy created the provisioning hypothesis which can be found in his article "The Origin of Man".
Gordon W. Hewes has a similar hypothesis to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hunts based his postural feeding hypothesis off chimpanzee ecology and Australopithecus
morphology. Hunt discusses how chimpanzees are often most bipedal when eating small fruits on
open forest trees. Hunt states that chimps get these fruits by either balancing on branches in a semi–
hanging arm posture and reaching for them or reaching for the fruit with their arms while their feet
are on the ground. (Hunt 1996) The reason for Hunts bringing this up is because chimpanzees are
our closest living relatives. Also, Australopithecus had both ape like and human like features. Hunts
makes an in–depth comparison of chimpanzee postures to early hominid while gathering food to
support his hypothesis of bipedalism. Hunts states that postures such as hanging of the arms and
vertically climbing on trees are what created the adaption of bipedalism. (Hunts 1996) While early
hominids gathered fruit, they developed the torso structure and their changes to arm hanging also
increased and developed. (Hunts 1996) Hunts goes on to say that early hominids developed arboreal
bipedal from fruit gathering which evolved over time into what we know as bipedalism

Ardipithecus Ramidus
In this article "A New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled", Ann Gibbon explains the
discovery of an international Scientific's team. This finding is the oldest known human ancestor
skeleton and it has 4.4 million years. The Ardipithecus ramidus is the most complete earliest
hominin found until now because it has the pelvis, hands, feets and most of the skull and teeth, it is
bipedal and its features show a new early hominin, but is still being similar to other species.
Scientifics have been investigating more than twenty of years. In 1974, "Lucy", a 3.2 million years
old skeleton appeared. They thought that it was the discovery of the century. This phenomenon
indicated that our ancestors walked upright. Since that moment, researches

Evolution : The Ancestor Of Humans
Evolution is the change of an organism, over time the organism have change to be more adapted to
the environment that they are surrounded in order to live. By evolve that mean that their structure
will change, for an example, their skeleton structure however the ancestor skeleton structure are
some what similar to the more recent organisms. For instant, fossil is a great example for evolution,
fossil is the remains of organisms that use to be alive, when scientist examine the fossil they found
that there are similarities between related living organism. There are other evidence for evolution
which are homologous structures, analogous structures, and vestigial structures. Homologous is
when it have a similar structure but different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Then multiply the height, width, and length by .5236 to get the cranial capacity.
Repeat the process for the rest of the skull.
Data table and calculation:
Name
Opisthocranion–opisthion distance (cm) (A)
Opisthocranion–orale distance (cm) (B)
Opisthion index (A/B)x100
Maxillary angle
Height (H)
Width (W)
Length (L)
CC (LxWxH)*.5236
Ardipithecus ramidus
5
14
35.71
80
8.5
10
11
489.57
Australopithecus aethiopicus
4.5
21
21.43

40
10
12
14
879.65
Australopithecus afarensis
3
14.5
20.69
50
10.5
10.5
13
750.45
Australopithecus africanus
6
18
33.33
95
11
9
12.5
647.96
Australopithecus boisei
8
20
40
90
21
15.5
14.5
2471.26
Homo erectus
6.5
19
34.21
95
12.5
12.5
16.5
1349.9
Homo habilis
4
15
26.67
45

10.5
10
13.5
742.2
Homo heidelbergensis
5
17.5
28.57
50
12
12.5
15.5
1217.37
Homo neanderthalensis
7
20.5
34.15
60
14
15
18
141.37
Homo sapiens
8
11
12.7
100
16
14
17
3808
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
4
16.5
24.24
90
9
9.5
15.5
693.9
Observation: In the Homos groups the similarity oare the eyes and the nose, over time the nose hole
is getting bigger and the eyebrows are getting more flat then the ancestors. Also the cheekbones
were getting more into the skull over time. In the Australopithecus groups their face were flat
compared to the homos face and the eyebrows were going out of the skull compared to the homos.

Also the cheekbones were more wider over time. The Sahelanthropus were different to the homos
and to

Ardipithecus Research Paper
Priscilla Hernandez Professor Magginetti ANTH 101 06 May 2018 Article Review #3 Ardipithecus
has been discovered, an Ancestor that dates back prior to the remains of Lucy. In the article written
by Ann Gibbons and others, it dives into the discovery of our most ancient ancestor and the clues
given to us from all 110 remains that have been found of A. ramidus. First let me begin with Lucy
whose remains were found in 1974 and that dated back to 3.2 million years ago. These skeletal
remains gave us the evidence needed to prove that our ancient ancestors were bipedal before
evolving their big brains. After Lucy was discovered the scientist found themselves with even more
questions, such as, were any previous ancestors before Lucy bipedal or did ... Show more content on
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They found that Au. ramidus had very similar characteristics to Sahelanthropus Tchadensis an
ancestor that dates to 6–7 million years ago. Ardi had a foot that was primitive and had an opposable
big toe which was most likely used to grab on branches. She also had a long and curvy spine just
like humans. Its pelvis was large like those of apes and had short and broad shoulders suggesting it
had a lower center of mass and could possibly walk on one leg at a time. But it is also thought that it
was still spending a lot of time in the trees as well. Thus, why it is thought to be intermediate form
of bipedalism it lived in both worlds, walking upright, and climbing trees, equal success in both
biospheres. Although Ardi is not the connection to apes it still served to prove that the ancestor of
apes was a lot more primitive than we believed. There are still several questions to be answered in
this puzzle called our ancestry. It may seem that more questions arise as more clues are found, but
that is science, there would be no intrigue left if all questions were

The Discovery Of Ardipithecus Ramidus
The discovery of "Ardi" in the Afar desert of Northeastern Ethiopia provides an excellence source to
investigate the lifestyle of Ardipithecus ramidus. During the discovery of colloquially known as
"Ardi" another 110 fossils were found belonging to Ardipithecus ramidus a 4.4 million year old
species further exploring the lifestyle of this species (White et al., 2009a). The lifestyle features of
the Ardipithecus ramidus are its locomotion, environment it likely lived in and it's diet. The
locomotion of Ardipithecus ramidus looks at the likelihood of bipedalism or what the alternative
methods for movement could be. It uses evidence from the feet and forelimbs discovered in the
fossil specimens. The environment is identifying the discussion ... Show more content on
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The significance of finding these traits primitive in nature compared to the apes is that it shows how
these are specialisations for apes to better access their terrestrial and tree dwelling environments. It
also indicates that hominids did not develop these traits and therefore developed a less specialised
grasping hand (Lovejoy et al., 2009a). Further evidence to support the hypothesis that Ardipithecus
ramidus were both bipedal for tree dwelling life and land living is in the wrist bones. The bones
were less fixed with the joints providing mobility to the hand. The most significant feature is the
midcarpal joint, which shows increased flexibility that would allow Ardipithecus ramidus the ability
to bear its body weight solely on it's hands whilst moving throughout trees (Lovejoy et al., 2009a).
The length of the upper limbs overall would have been difficult to support vertical climbs and aid in
reaching longer distances between trees commonly found in arboreal settings (Sarmiento et al.,
2011)
The Ardipithecus ramidus foot shows key characteristic features of bipedality. Whilst there is
evidence to show support for bipedalism it is hypothesised that was an occasional form of
locomotion used less commonly than arboreal methods. This can be seen through the

Hominid's Development of Bipedalism Essay
Hominid's Development of Bipedalism
Approximately 4 million years ago a wonderful evolutionary phenomenon was happening in Africa.
Early hominids, man's ancestors, were beginning a giant leap in their evolution. These hominids
were moving out of the forest and beginning to walk upright, out on the open plains (Fagan, 98).
This change from quadrupedalism was the most significant adaptation that ever happened to these
early hominids. It caused many adaptations that make man what he is today. This process occurred
in early hominids for many different reasons, each reason helping to perfect the upright walking
posture. Bipedalism is thought to have occurred because of changes in environment, feeding habits,
thermal regulation, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They usually balance themselves on branches or on the ground and hold on to higher limbs in an
arm like fashion (Leney, 00). In later years this adaptation evolved to australopithecines who were
still arboreal bipedal fruit gatherers. Only when they started to become terrestrial creatures did they
adapt to be fully bipedal (Jacobs, 90). Another cause for the move to bipedalism was suggested by
Wheeler in 1991 and it referred to thermal regulation (Jacobs, 90). This theory stated that bipedalism
resolved thermal stress on hominids in open equatorial environments and allowed hominids to
remain active in the open during the day (Leney, 00). Having bipedal qualities makes the body
higher off the ground where cooler temperatures and higher winds are present. This greater amount
of wind created less need for sweating to cause evaporation; thus vital body fluid was conserved.
Also, direct solar exposure was minimized because the surface area receiving solar rays was less
(Jacobs, 90). In 1981 Owen Lovejoy suggested that behavioral mechanisms were a factor in the
switch to bipedalism. This behavioral mechanism helped hominids in reproductive processes.
Having the hands free to carry food and other things to the mate and offspring is seen to be a strong
selection factor for choosing a mate. Having a such factor helps with reproductive success in a
monogamous mating structure similar to what humans have today (Jacobs, 90). When

Bipedalism Research Paper
Bipedalism is one of the big six events that happened in the evolution of humans becoming what we
are today. Bipedalism means standing, walking on two feet rather than walking on four feet like the
other apes our primate family tree. To understand why humans walk using bipedalism
anthropologist must look into the past. One of the most significant fossil evidence of bipedalism is a
fossil named "Lucy". Lucy was found in East Africa. She is an adult female that stood at about three
and a half feet. Lucy is a significant find because she was the most complete fossil. Forty percent of
her body was found, making her the most complete fossil for bipedalism. It is accepted that there is
a close relation to the environment for the reason to why there ... Show more content on
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There is a statement where the authors state they are not in support of thermoregulation being part of
the evolution to bipedalism (Ruxton, & Wilkinson, 2011). Some anthropologist attempt to explain
how hair lost is part thermoregulation and the reason hominins becoming bipedal. Wheeler believed
that thermoregulation causes the lost of body hair. He concluded that haired bipeds where favored in
open habitat However, with all of Wheeler's research the nakedness of the body possibly happened
in a forested area and before or around the time organisms started walking on two limbs, not after.
The use of thermoregulation as a base of evolutionary change appears to be invalid according to the
aouther. Thermoregulation changed with bipedality it did not cause it. (do Amaral,

Ardipithecus Ramidus Essay
A Natural History of Ardipithecus ramidus Taxonomy: Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class:
Mammalia Order: Primate Family: Hominidae Genus: Ardipithecus Species: Ardipithecus ramidus
Morphology: Derived Features: The more "human–like" features of A. ramidus are primarily in
relation to locomotion and found on the lower–sagittal plane of the body. A. ramidus's pelvis
resembled that of a Homo sapien: wide and short in length. This, alongside the femur and feet of A.
ramidus suggest that she was bipedal. The foot "...has a widely abducent hallux, which was not
propulsive during terrestrial bipedality. However, it lacks the highly derived tarsometatarsal laxity
and inversion in extant African apes..." (Lovejoy, C. Owen etc., 2009, 326: 72–72e8). The foramen
magnum ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ramidus is native to Ethiopia, dated 4.4–5.8 million years ago. Two contrasting hypotheses may
offer some insight as to why A. ramidus is thought to be bipedal but still considered arboreal . One,
the savanna hypothesis, conjures the idea that "...the rise of African dry savanna..." (Potts, 1998,
107:93–136) sparked the evolutionary transition to bipedalism and tool–making within some
hominins. The other theory, the woodland/forest hypothesis, suggests "...Pliocene hominins had
evolved in and were primarily attracted to closed habitats" (Potts, 1998, 107:93–136), such as the
forest habitat of A. ramidus. Both may be applicable to A. ramidus, considering her lower–half
could support the savanna hypothesis, while her upper–half supports the woodland/forest
hypothesis. Habitat: A. ramidus is native to northeast Ethiopia, specifically in a region known as
Aramis (in Awash River valley). Remains of A. ramidus along with other organisms of the time
suggest her habitat favors the woodland/forest hypothesis as discussed prior. The fossils "...included
wood, pollen, and microscopic silica particles... [that when paired] with data from soil isotopes..."
(White, 2016) unfailingly support a woodland

Ramidus Essay
Australopithecus ramidus was a hominin species. They dated back to 4.5 to 4.2 million years
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Australopithecus ramidus represents the oldest species that possesses certain features that create a
unequivocal link to the hominin lineage. Both sites from which Ar. ramidus fossils were recovered ,
every site offers slightly totally different environment reconstructions. At Gona, several massive
mammal fauna related to Ar. ramidus are intense grazers, which might indicate a environment with a
major grass–covered peice. different indicators from Gona, however, recommend that the
atmosphere was a a lot of mosaic environs, consisting of closed woodlands and a lot of open, grass–
covered environments. Similar proof from the components of the middle awash region wherever Ar.
ramidus has been found, in contrast, result in reconstructions of a closed woodland. though the
Aramis reconstruction suggests a a lot of closed surroundings, each environment reconstructions
square measure in keeping with the concept that bipedality at first evolved during a time of
woodland surroundings instead ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
it's the oldest celebrated skeleton of an individual's relative. The individual is believed to be a
feminine and is nicknamed 'Ardi'. She weighed regarding 50kg and stood regarding 120cm tall.The
skeleton was in very poor condition and it took the team fifteen years to excavate, scan, build virtual
reconstructions, assemble and so analyse. The results we tend tore massively vital in terms of
however we read the evolution of the earliest hominins and also the physical look of the last
common relative of humans and chimpanzees. The skeleton doesn't look very similar to a great ape
or pongid or have the expected 'transitional' options. Instead, it's going to well preserve a number of
the characteristics of the last chimp–human

Ardipithecus Ramidus Essay
Ardipithecus Ramidus was discovered in the 1990's. It is believed to be one of the earliest of our
ancestors discovered yet, dating back to almost 4.4 million years ago. 24 years ago, between 1992–
1993 hundreds of fossils were recovered in Ethiopia. According to Dorey (2015) "The finds number
over 110 specimens and represent about 35 individual members of this species. Most of the remains
are dental, but some skull and limb bones were also found." "Ardipithecus is a genus of an extinct
hominine that lived during Late Miocene and Early Pliocene in Afar Depression, Ethiopia.
Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the main
ape lineage, the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a
matter of debate." (Ardipithecus ramidus 2015)
Research indicates that Ardipithecus Ramidus has many human–like features. From the way they
walked to the shape of their skull, feet, hands, spine and even their diet. The reason the discovery of
Ardipithecus Ramidus is so significant is because we can date back 4.4 million years ago to the
closest thing to early human ancestors. The reason they are believed to be human ... Show more
What distinguished Ardipithecus from apes were significant features. It is easy to see the difference
in the structure of human bones to those of apes as it is also easy to see the evolution from
Ardipithecus to humans. When comparing Ardipithecus to apes we can see a difference as well,
clearly, the Ardipithecus might have physically looked similar to an ape but the anatomy of
Ardipithecus was much more human–like. Here is where Mosaic evolution comes into play when
the gene alleles of an organism or species evolve at different rates. Therefore, answering the
question as to why the Ardipithecus looks like an ape but has human–like features

Human Origin
1. There are a number of common original characters that differentiate contemporary humans from
other living hominoids such as bipedal locomotion, slower development, a larger brain, several
features of dental morphology, and cultural adaptation. Also, some of the most important evidence
of human ancestry, such as the genus Ardipithecus which includes two species: Ar. kadabba and Ar.
ramidus, comes from the northern boundary of the Rift Valley, in the middle Awash region of
Ethiopia. This territory is where many important events in the history of human origin evolved and a
number of astonishing revelations of hominin ancestors have been made.
2. Biomechanical investigations recommend that bipedalism and quadrupedalism are practically the
same ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Based on the timespan, body shape, and denture resemblance, it is understandable to conclude that
some of the early hominin species were ancestors of the genus Homo. Supposedly, some of the
australopithecines were part of the human lineage of evolution, but the later paranthropoids were
not. The first humans were contemporaries of the paranthropoids. Therefore, they could not be the
ancestors of humans. However, the Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus were
practically part of the human evolutionary origin.
2 New Information:
1. The attributes of the hands and forelimbs indicates that Ardipithecus need some of the locomotor
abilities that is usually seen in modern apes. Gorillas, chimps, and bonobos all carry their weight on
their knuckles when they walk, so most researchers assumed that this trait characterized the last
common ancestor of the great apes and humans and was lost in the human lineage afterwards.
2. The dental material includes 145 teeth, an important quality by paleontological specifications.
These teeth give valuable clues about the diet and social organization of Ar. ramidus. The dentition
also shows the first evidence of a number of different features that are shared by hominin

A Summary Of Afarensis
The first of our ancestors who had a distinct evolution of bipedalism were the A. Afarensis. By
studying the bones of A. Afarensis, their bone structures from neck down are very similar to modern
humans today. Their body structures like the knee joints, pelvis is adapted for walking in an upright
position, and the feet have a slight arch show us that they were adapting to bipedal locomotion.
"Approximately 3.7 Ma, 3 A. Afarensis individuals walked through a muddy layer of volcanic ash
that preserved their foot prints after the ash hardened. A. Afarensis walked with an upright posture,
with a strong heel strike and follow–through to the ball of the foot, with the hallux making last
contact with the ground before push–off" (Efossil). With the

Prosimian Locomotion
Introduction Physiological diversity among prosimians contributes to a variety of locomotion
patterns observed by different species. Walker suggests that prosimian locomotion can be classified
into three groups, vertical clinging and leaping, active quadrupedalism and slow climbing
quadrupedalism (355). Prosimians that utilize vertical clinging and leaping use the two hind limbs
together to propel themselves forward. During this arboreal and terrestrial type of bipedal
locomotion, prosimians hold the trunk of their body upright. Active quadrupedalism is characterized
by the use of all four limbs when climbing, walking, and leaping. Similarly, slow climbing
quadrupedalism involves all four limbs. However, leaping is not observed by prosimians utilizing
this form of locomotion. Rather, three limbs are in contact with the branch or ground at all times
(Walker, 1974). There are different biomechanical requirements for each type of locomotion. Limb
bone proportions are one factor that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Anaplo et al. conducted a study on the body structures of vervets and blue monkeys by comparing
the two primate species' brachial, crural, and intermembral indices (2005). The brachial index is the
ratio of the radius to humerus length, the crural index is defined as the tibia/femur ratio, and the
intermembral index is the ratio of the brachial index to crural index (Anapol et al., 2005). This study
referred to previous research that concluded that an inverse relationship exists between guenon's
intermembral index and the percentage of a species' locomotion occupied by leaping (Anapol et al.,
2005). In this particular study, it was discovered that when a quadruped that does not leap is
compared to one that does, the leaping quadruped has a lower intermembral index (Anapol). These
studies suggest that limb indices are indicative of locomotive

Sahelanthropus Research Paper
It is clear that early possible hominins discovered, Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, and Ardipithecus, are
tied to modern humans, and the ancestors of other infamous bi–pedal species. But figuring out how
it all ties together is another conundrum. From my research and attained knowledge from class I
believe that Sahelanthropus was the first to come, followed by Orrorin, and then Ardipithecus. One
of the biggest factors to have brought me to this decision is the existence timetable. Sahelanthropus
was thought to have been around 6–7 million years ago, mya, followed by Orrorin 6 mya and then
Ardipithecus 4 mya. These facts make it at least possible that one had followed another. Between the
three species traits, you can see the shift in characteristics. For example, Sahelanthropus showcases
the phasing out prognathic facial structure. Additionally, they have no diastema and smaller canines
which suggest a changing diet (Fossil Evidence 2017). I believe Ardipithicus gave rise to the
Austrolopithecines. I ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From research, I believe they don't display enough differences to be considered separate. While
many of these species have extensive fossil records, however for H. rudolfensis there is a single
quality fossil (Fossil Evidence 2017). Lack of physical record makes any categorization difficult.
The main difference between the two is their size (Larson 2014). From looking at the crania in class
the structures themselves were very similar, they both had post orbital constrictions and similar
dentition. However, the size is what separated them. H. habilis occurred 2–.2.5 mya it is plausible
that in that time a variation in size occurred within the species explaining the diversity (Fossil
Evidence). I have H. Habilis branching from Au. africanus. I chose this path, because
chronologically it is plausible, additionally. Au. africanus proposed alive 3–2 mya, and H. habilis
from 2–2.5 mya (Fossil Evidence

Fossils: The Evolution Of Human Species
Throughout time human species have evolved. It all started seven million years ago. Many different
kinds of ancient humans have roamed Earth. The first species were discovered in Africa and later in
Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Americas. Paleoanthropologists, geologists, anatomists, and
paleoecologists determined when and where new species evolved by analyzing hominid fossils.
They can also tell us how species lived and died, which other species they are related to, what was
the climate like, and the plants and animals people relied on. Analyzing fossils is a difficult task.
Fossils are the most important resources for scientists when it comes to researching about prehistoric
life. Their information can educate society about their past. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This variation comes from recombination, meaning DNA changes when chromosomes shuffle, or
recombine. This normally occurs in the process of making a sperm or an egg. As a result the child or
offspring inherits a unique characteristics from each parent. This can also be a bad thing if the parent
has a medical condition, such as being color blind, which increases the chances of the child
inheriting the same condition.
Mutation can also be a factor explaining why we look slightly different from each other. This can
occur at anytime affecting your DNA. Some mutations affect the visible feature of the individual,
while others can create a resistance to a virus, such as HIV. Depending on the environment mutation
can be a good or bad thing. Humans received information by communicating with each other.
Before they spoke to each other with words, they communicated with gestures and "body language"
in addition to simple sounds. Language probably started with individual words. Linking words into
sentences probably came next. Humans were believed to use music–like phrases similar to the way
parents talk to babies before language was

Comparing Oedipus And Australopithecus
Australopithecine or Australopith, is an informal term used, primarily, to describe all species in the,
related, Australopithecus and Paranthropus genera (McHenry 2017). The clade does, however, also
include; Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 mya), Orrorin tugenensis (6 mya), Ardipithecus kadabba
and Ardipithecus ramidus (5.8–4.4 mya), Kenyanthropus platyops (3.5–3.2 mya), and other human–
like primates (McHenry 2017; Szpak 2017). The distribution of Australopithecines stretches across
Africa, encompassing species of varying ages and complex relationships (McHenry 2017).
Paranthropus and Australopithecus are often referred to as 'robust' and 'gracile' clades of
Australopithecine, respectively, as opposed to individual genera (Szpak 2017).
Australopithecines

Australopithecus Augusis Research Paper
Australopithecus afarensis:
Australopithecus afarensis is one of the best known of the of the australopithecine species with
Laetoli footprints found in Tanzania and many bones and bone fragments found in Ethiopia and
Kenya. Because of certain very well preserved remains, we can tell a lot about this species. The
most famous of these remains is "Lucy", a skeleton with remains from almost every bone dating 3.2
million years old. This is a sexually dimorphic bipedal species, meaning the males and females have
different characteristics and they walk on two legs. Males tend to be about 1 and 1/2 times the size
of females and have larger canine teeth, but these teeth are still smaller than those of the
Chimpanzee. Body size ranges between 1.1 and 1.6 meters and weight can be anywhere between 29
and 45 kilograms. This species has a jutting lower face (prognathic) and closely resemble an ape
from the waist up and a human from the waist down. The curvature that the fingers and toes and
elevated position of the shoulder joint show that this species is more adapted to tree climbing than
more recent human ancestors. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This species was very similar in size to the Chimpanzee. They had thick enameled teeth that were
small and similar to those of humans. The most important of all of the fossils found, the upper
femur, shows that this species was bipedal. Anthropologists and biologists believe that this species is
about 1 and 1/2 times larger than A. afarensis due to the fact that the femur and humerus bones are
this much larger.
Source:

Lucy And Otzi Similarities
Introduction:
Ardi, Lucy, and Ötzi show many similarities and differences in their bipedality, teeth, tool usage,
and cranial sizes, which have all advanced over time due to evolution. All three species are
immensely diverse in the ways they survive and act. From Ardi to modern day humans, these
ancestors have slowly adapted more human like traits to manipulate their environments. These
changes are shown in each species tool usage, brain size, teeth, and ability to walk on two legs.With
respect to these categories, Ardi and Lucy are very similar due to them living in the same
environment. However, with the push up north where Ötzi lived, species would need smarter
adaptations to survive.
Bipedalism:
With regards to bipedality, Ardi, Lucy, and Ötzi are much alike. As stated in the passage, "...mix of
primitive and derived features suggest that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As stated in the text, "There is no evidence for any specific cultural attributes, but they may have
used simple tools similar to those used by modern chimpanzees". This passage shows that Ardi used
only simple materials and "tools" to survive, which is the same method Lucy used. The passage
reads, "The species probably used simple tools that may have included sticks and other non–durable
plant materials found in the immediate surroundings". This citation explains that Lucy used simple
resources and "tools" to survive, much like Ardi, but nothing that could manipulate the environment
around her. However, Ötzi used tools that provided him advantages in his environment. According
to the article, "The most important item of the Iceman's equipment is his copper–bladed axe... Other
tools included: A dagger A bow A quiver and its contents Arrows ...". This quote explains that Ötzi
had a large variety of tools used for different aspects of survival. Nonetheless, a species cannot use
tools without a large and well functioning

Conflict Between The Multiple Theories Of Bipedalism
Conflict Between the Multiple Theories of Bipedalism Why early hominins, the evolutionary
ancestors of Homo sapiens, originally became bipedal is a source of contention among many
physical anthropologists both today and in the past. There are multiple theories and models that have
surfaced over the years to explain why these early hominins evolved to become bipedal, but because
there is limited fossil evidence and very few intact pelvises from that time period to study, it's
difficult to conclusively conjecture about why this bipedal trait was initially selected for, and also
what events or characteristics made bipedalism more useful to early hominins. One of the more
interesting models to be developed on the subject of bipedalism was ... Show more content on
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More fossils being discovered and the research that follows those discoveries can help to explain
why early hominins – and only hominins out of all of the other ape–like species that were sharing
the planet at the time – evolved to become entirely bipedal. Here, we will look at Wheeler's original
Thermoregulatory Model and what it gives as the reason for the evolution of bipedalism, and at two
other papers that mention Wheeler's Thermoregulatory model and discuss just how much they
believe the evolution of the bipedal trait was influenced by these thermoregulatory factors.
Wheeler's original 1984 paper on his Thermoregulatory Model states that bipedalism mainly
evolved to become a more efficient thermoregulatory system for early hominins, because of a much
needed internal cooling system for their larger brains. He says that, "hyperthermia, induced by
muscular activity or high environmental temperatures," is a serious problem for animals that are
mostly terrestrial, and that, "the central nervous system is particularly sensitive," to these elevations
in body temperature. (Wheeler 91) While many animals that have adapted to these hot environments
have a carotid rete – a system of veins and arteries near the bottom of the brain – to regulate brain
temperature, hominins and all other primates lack such a biological trait.
Since the newly diurnal hominins often went foraging on the open savanna during the day where
heat was an intense issue, and

Ardipithecus Research Paper
Ardipithecus and other early Australopithecines lived in a habitat much wetter than the environment
of Aramis, Ethiopia today. The set for scene one could at times experience a "rain fall," and should
include a woodland habitat with patches of denser forest and an abundant amount of monkeys just as
what would have been seen between five and three million years ago. In 1992, an expedition led by
Tim White of the University of California, Berkeley discovered the fossil of Ardipithecus ramidus,
dating back to 4.4 million years ago. The skeleton nicknamed "Ardi" ended up weighing around 112
pounds, stood almost four feet tall, (somewhat larger than a male chimpanzee but smaller than a
female gorilla) and was most likely a female. Ardi's ape sized brain has a cranial capacity of only
300 to 350 CC. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The size of Ardi's teeth and the U–shaped dental arcade is also similar to that of a chimpanzee,
however, Ardi's incisors were slightly smaller. A large amount of commonalities with chimpanzees
may make a living, trained, male chimpanzee the best and cheapest option to play the role of
Ardipithecus ramidus. The special effects crew could utilize CGI in order to alter the structure of the
chimpanzee's face in close up shots. White's research team found little sexual dimorphism present
between male and female Ar. ramidus' based off the only slight differentiation in tooth size. The
scene might then only include hominins relatively close in size. Ardipithecus ramidus most likely
lived in a community similar to the social structure of chimpanzees, comprised of adult males and
females and their offspring. Anthropologist Owen Lovejoy believes that there was even an
intensified male parental

The Theory Of Natural Selection
A theory discovered by Charles Darwin, and released to the public in 1859, answered many
questions for scientists who weren't able to figure it out. Using the Theory of Natural Selection, he
came up with the Theory of Evolution. In the Evolution theory, it states the genes that allow a
species to thrive are passed down from parent to offspring and it also provides us with an insight of
the changes an organism goes through over time, in which it relies on Natural Selection to do so.
Despite doubters and opposers, there has been lots of evidence to prove it such as Biogeography,
Biochemistry, relative dating, embryology, and homology. Biogeography refers to the distribution of
plants and animals, while biochemistry refers to DNA similarity ... Show more content on
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In order to do so, I had to find the opisthocranion–opisthion distance and the opisthocranion–orale
distance for the bipedalism, the maxillary angle for prognathism, and the height, length, and width
of the skull to find the cranial capacity. The ardipithecus ramidus has an opisthion index of 32, the
australopithecus aethiopicus is 27.3 cm, the australopithecus afarensis is 22.2222 cm, the
australopithecus africanus is 27.58 cm, the australopithecus boisei is 28.12 cm, the homo erectus is
34.5 cm, the homo habilis is 30.8 cm, the homo heidelbergensis is 26.7 cm, the homo
neanderthalensis is 43.75 cm, the homo sapiens are 72.72727272 cm, and the sahelanthropus
tchadensis is 23.333 cm. Based on MY data, all of the tested skulls were bipedal organisms who
could walk on two legs. Using the same order as a while ago, the maxillary angle were 27, 39, 85,
102, 47, 56, 90, 59, 75, 42, and 70 degrees. So out of the fourteen skulls, about 6 of them were
prognathic, meaning they have the lower jaw sticking out. Using the same order as a while ago, the
cranial capacity of the skulls were about 622.04, 1,431.13, 850.85, 975.46, 1,884.96, 1,744.64,
964.86, 1,446.45, 1,979.21, 2,243.102, and 942.48cm^3. The skull with the biggest capacity are the
homo sapiens, while the ardipithecus ramidus had the smallest. My data shows how the current
human skull has evolved a lot from our ancestors in many ways. Based off my data and information,
I predict that the climate and

Fossil Analysis Paper
Fossil Analysis Paper
Locomotion
The skeletal characteristics of these hominines suggest that their mode of locomotion was likely a
cross between occasional bipedalism and obligate bipedalism. From the reading we have learned
that obligate bipedalism is bipedal locomotion that is practiced all of the time while occasional
bipedalism is bipedalism that is practiced on occasion. The ratio of arm length to leg length (longer
arms) suggests that they did spend time climbing trees, however the cranial and post cranial traits of
these fossils suggest that they spent much of their time on the ground and likely ambulating
bipedally combined with a variation of upright walking and knuckle walking. This is evidenced by
two factors: the fact the foramen magnum of the skull is centrally located, and the ratio of arm to leg
length. In creatures with bipedal ambulation, the foramen magnum is located in the center of the
base of the skull to keep the head aligned over the center of gravity of the creature. If the fossils
were walking primarily with their knuckles, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Oldowan tools are a very rudimentary form of a stone tool in which it is formed simply by smashing
two rocks together until the rock splinters. If the splinter becomes sharp, it can be used as a tool for
cutting. These tools were likely used for scavenging and cutting meat from animals that were
previously killed by another predator. An individual would either use the oldowan tool to scrape and
cut meat from a bone, or smash the cranial and long bones to obtain brain matter or bone marrow.
The bones of local fauna show a parallel scrape marks that indicate tool use. Under a microscope,
one can see the patterns created by these tools. If the marks were in a "V" shape, it would indicate a
scrape pattern consistent with the bite of a carnivore. Because of the parallel scrape marks; we can
deduce that tools made the

The Anatomy of Homo Sapiens is Unique
The anatomy of Homo sapiens is unique in several ways and sets us apart from other species all
across the world. One of the most distinguishing characteristics that differentiates Homo sapiens
from other species is the utilization of bipedal locomotion. Humans have established a unique way
of moving from one location to another that is due to the evolution numerous anatomical
developments over millions of years. Hominid bipedalism has evolved as a product of natural
selection, a theory coined by Charles Darwin in 1859. This theory of evolution through the process
of natural selection explains that some organisms are more reproductively fit than others. Therefore,
these organisms are able to pass on their beneficial genes to the next generation. Essentially, traits
that give certain organisms specific advantages, such as bipedalism in hominids, will be selected for
in greater numbers, and therefore more individuals in the succeeding populations will display these
beneficial traits (Darwin 1859). Darwin's theory can be used to help describe the central idea behind
the fascinating transformation process from quadrupedalism to bipedalism.
One of the most intriguing aspects surrounding this topic is the multiple different hypotheses for the
evolution from quadrupedal gait to bipedal locomotion. Due to the fact that evidence suggests that
the emergence of bipedalism occurred as early as 6 millions years ago, there have been many
hyptotheses as to how the earliest hominids

Ardipithecus
The most common way to differentiate between modern humans and apes is human's bipedalism.
There are two fossil species available to the study of Ardipithecus: Ar. ramidus and Ar. kadabba
(Gibbons, 2009). There is much greater evidence to analyze Ar. ramidus, a hominine that lived from
the Late Miocene to the Early Pliocene (Gibbons, 2009). The 1994 discovery of A. ramidus,
commonly referred to as Ardi, included "125 pieces of her skeleton" such as "pelvis, hands, arms,
leg, and feet" (Gibbons, 2009, p. 1598). Furthermore, it was determined that Ardi was a female
"based on probability assessments of canine size" (White et al., 2009, p. 80). The same paper also
argues paper that Ardi lived in the "Afar Rift region of northeastern Ethiopia" six ... Show more
Ramdius has a small cranial capacity that is "metrically and morphologically derived in the direction
of later hominids" and shows a "reduction" in upper canine size (White et al., 2009, p. 80).
According to White et. al. (2009), this signifies that Ar. Ramidus was an omnivore, and while its diet
may "have included some hard foods," it generally stuck to ripe fruit (White et al., 2009, p. 64, p.
80). Adding further evidence, Ardipithecus does not have "sharp, daggerlike upper canines seen in
chimpanzees" (Gibbons, 2009, p. 1599) Moreover, the muzzle of Ar. Ramidus "juts out less than a
chimpanzee's does," also likening the hominid to its ancestors (Gibbons, 2009, p. 1599). However,
Ardipithecus differentiates significantly from Australopithecus in the types of plants it did eat.
Australopithecus has a diet "of more than 30% C4 plants" while the diet of Ar. Ramdius "vary only
between ~10 and 25% C4" (White et al., 2009, p. 79). This delineates that Ardipithecus "exploited a
wider range of woodland resources" than chimpanzees. It also "did but did not have access to the
"open biotype foods" later consumed by Austraolopithecus (White et al., 2009, p. 79). Socially,
Ardipithicus "lacks the delayed canine eruption" found in chimpanzees" (White et al., 2009, p. 79).
Similar to Australopithecus, this indicates that "canine was not an important component of adult
sociobehaviroal relationships" (White et al., 2009, p.

Ardipithecus Ramidus Kadabba: The Oldest Hominid Essay...
Ardipithecus Ramidus Kadabba: The Oldest Hominid
There was a chief new discovery of fossil bones and teeth belonging to the earliest human ancestors
ever discovered. The fossil bones predate the oldest formerly discovered human ancestor by more
than a million years. The discovery was of fossil remains of a hominid that lived in present day
Ethiopia between 5.2 and 9.8 million years ago. (Hominids include all species following the split as
of the chimpanzees on the "human" side of the evolutionary tree.) "Analyses of the hominid indicate
that they belonged to a previously unidentified species, which anthropologist Yohannes Haile–
Selassie of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History and his colleagues are calling ... Show more
Giday WoldeGabriel, a geologist with Los Alamos National Laboratory, and his colleagues,
described the hominid's environment in Africa. The creature lived during the Miocene era
approximately 5 to 6 million years ago. Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba lived in a forested
environment. The surroundings that he lived in were much different then the present are today;
which include harsh deserts. When the hominids were living there the area was much cooler and
more wet, also about 1,500 feet higher in elevation. Based on a toe bone discovered among other
fossils belonging to this new hominid, it has been determined by Haile–Selassie that "Ardipithecus
ramidus kadabba almost certainly walked on two legs when on the ground. The creature's teeth share
more characteristics with all later discovered hominids than with the teeth of all fossils and modern
apes" (Rickman 2001). Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba ate a smaller amount of fruit and more soft
leaves than prior chimpanzees, according to the fossils of the hominids relatively large back teeth
and narrow front teeth. Finding Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba was a remarkable challenge. The
present day Middle Awash area where the hominid was found is now covered with lakes, forest
areas, volcanic rocks and sediments. Only one percent of the Middle Awash contains exposed
ancient–sediments that contain mammal fossils. "The new

Human Evolution Lab Report
Introduction:
The meaning of evolution is the different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed
and diversified. The evidence that scientist have regarding evolution is the common ancestry traits
humans have with animals examples a monkey and humans have a lots of similar traits. The purpose
of the lab is to view the evolution of skulls and to examine bain sizes.
Hypothesis:
My prediction about this experience is that monkey skulls was going to have a lower whole where
the spinal bone connects because their heads would be lower. I think that all the skulls were bipedal
because they all had skulls and it looked like a human brain so i thought they were but if they
weren't then I guess my hypothesis was wrong.
Variables:
Dependent: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The people or skulls with no bipedalism is going to function more animal or just poorly to sum of
the environment some monkeys are smarter than us humans.A Lot of them have evolved but i feel
like the bipedal ones have evolved a lot over the wears from having a less weird shaped cranium to a
human like head.
Conclusion:
My hypothesis did support my research because over time the jaw of the monkeys have went out
less basically it doesn't have a overbite anymore and the whole were the spinal cord and the head are
much higher than the other ones and that's how humans evolved over

Lucys and Ardis Role in Human Evolution

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Lucys and Ardis Role in Human Evolution