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Kathleen Stassen Berger


                      Part I             Chapter Two


Heredity and Environment
What Theories Do

Grand Theories

Emergent Theories

What Theories Contribute
                   Prepared by Madeleine Lacefield     1
                            Tattoon, M.A.
What Theories Do
• developmental theories
  – a systematic statement of principles and
    generalizations that provides a coherent
    framework for understanding how and
    why people change as they grow older
    • lead to pivotal hypotheses
    • generate discover
    • offer practical guidance


                                           2
What Theories Do
• developmental theories
  – grand theories
    • describe universal processes and development
      throughout the entire life span
    • offers a framework for interpreting and
      understanding…change and development of all
      individuals
    • some are emergent theories – new systematic
      and comprehensive theories of the future


                                                     3
Grand Theories
• psychoanalytic
• behaviorism (learning theory)
• cognitive
  – grand in that they are…
    • comprehensive
    • enduring
    • widely applied

                                  4
Psychoanalytic Theory
• a grand theory of human
  development that holds that irrational,
  unconscious drives and motives,
  often originating in childhood,
  underlies human behavior




                                        5
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Freud 1856-1936
  – development in the first six years has
  three stages, each characterized by sexual
    pleasure…
    •   infancy – the mouth – the oral stage
    •   early childhood – the anus – the anal stage
    •   preschool years – the penis – the phallic stage
    •   beginning of adolescence through death –
        latency – genital stages


                                                          6
Psychoanalytic Theory
•       Erikson – 1902-1994
    –        a follower of Freud, interested in
         •     culture diversity
         •     social change
         •     psychological crises
    –        described eight developmental stages
         1.    Trust vs. Mistrust
         2.    Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
         3.    Initiative vs. Guilt
         4.    Industry vs. Inferiority
         5.    Identity vs. Role Confusion
         6.    Intimacy vs. Isolation
         7.    Generativity vs. Stagnation
         8.    Integrity vs. Despair

                                                    7
Psychoanalytic Theory




                        8
Behaviorism Theory

• Watson 1878 – 1958
  – emphasis on unconscious
    • hidden urges
    • all behavior is learned
    • specific laws of learning apply
    to conditioning



                                        9
Behaviorism Theory




                     10
Behaviorism Theory
• Law of Behavior - learning theories
   – …all behavior is learned step by step
     • conditioning
         – the processes by which responses become linked to
           particular stimuli
      • classical conditioning - respondent conditioning
         – a person or animal is conditioned to associate a neutral
           stimulus with a meaningful stimulus
      • operant conditioning - instrumental conditioning
         – learning process by which a particular action is followed by
           something desired – the person will repeat the action
      • reinforcement
         – A technique for conditioning behavior where behavior is
           followed by something desired


                                                                          11
Behaviorism Theory
• Social Learning Theory
    – an extension of
      behaviorism that
      emphasizes the
      influence that other
      people have over a
      person’s behavior
•   modeling
    – The central process of
      social learning by which a
      person observes the
      actions of others and then
      copies them


                                      12
Cognitive Theory
• The third grand theory
  – emphasized the structure and
    development of thought
    processes




                                   13
Cognitive Theory
• Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages
  – sensorimotor
  – preoperational
  – concrete operational
  – formal operational


                            14
Cognitive Theory




                   15
Cognitive Theory
• Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental
  balance.

• If threatened, how do we achieve
  equilibrium again?
  – Assimilation: incorporate new events into
    existing schemas

  – Accommodation: change schema

                                                16
Emergent Theories
…multicultural and multidisciplinary ,
 developed not only by men of European
 ancestry but also by many non-
 Western, non-White, and female
 scientists…




                                    17
Sociocultural Theory
an emergent theory that holds that
development results from the dynamic
interaction between each person and
the surrounding social and
cultural forces

           Lev Vygotsky

                                       18
Sociocultural Theory
• cultural variation
   – adult responses are shaped by culture
   – society provides not only customs but also the
     tools and theories
• guided participation
   – a technique in which skilled mentors help novices
     lean not only by providing instruction, but also by
     allowing direct, shared involvement in the activity



                                                       19
Sociocultural Theory
• Zone of proximal development
  – skills, knowledge, and concepts that
    the learner is close to acquiring but
    cannot master without help




                                            20
Zone of proximal development




                               21
Epigenetic Theory
• An emergent theory of development
  that considers both the genetic
  origins of behavior (within each
  person and within each species) and
  the direct, systematic influences that
  environmental forces have over time
  on genes

                                           22
Genetic Adaptation
• Selective adaptation
  – the process by which humans and other
    organisms gradually adjust to their
    environment
  – genes for the traits that are most useful
    will become more frequent, thus making
    survival of species more likely.


                                            23
What Theories Contribute
• Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of the
  importance of early childhood experiences.
• Behaviorism has shown effect of the immediate
  environment on learning.
• Cognitive theory shows how intellectual process and
  thinking affect actions.

• Sociocultural theory has reminded us of the importance of
  culture in learning.

• Epigenetic theory reminds us of the power of genes and
  their interaction with the environment.


                                                         24
The Nature-Nurture Controversy
• Nature
  – The genes that people inherit
• Nurture
  – To all the environmental influences




                                          25
The Nature-Nurture Controversy
• Nature and Nurture Always interact
  – Heredity vs. Environment

   How much of any characteristic,
behavior, or pattern of development is
 the result of genes and how much is
       the result of experience?

                                       26
Theoretical Perspectives on…
• Hyperactivity
  – Nature
    • They are usually boys who have male relatives with the same
      problem
    • They are overactive in every context, home as well as school
    • They are often calmed by stimulants, such as Ritalin, Adderall,
      and even coffee
  – Nurture
    • The rapid increase in ADHA (from 1 to 5 percent of all U.S.
      children within the past 50 years) cannot be genetic, since
      selective adaptation takes centuries
    • Many environmental factors correlate with ADHD, including
      crowded homes, television, lead, food additives, and rigid
      teaching
                                                                    27
Theoretical Perspectives on…
• Homosexuality
  – Nature vs. Nurture
    • Children raised by homosexual couples
      (either adopted or the biological offspring of
      one of the parents) become heterosexual or
      homosexual in about the same proportions
      as children raised by heterosexual and do
      not seem particularly rebellious or
      emotionally disturbed.

                                                   28
No Answer Yet




                29

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Chapter 2 (Psych 41)Pdf

  • 1. Kathleen Stassen Berger Part I Chapter Two Heredity and Environment What Theories Do Grand Theories Emergent Theories What Theories Contribute Prepared by Madeleine Lacefield 1 Tattoon, M.A.
  • 2. What Theories Do • developmental theories – a systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older • lead to pivotal hypotheses • generate discover • offer practical guidance 2
  • 3. What Theories Do • developmental theories – grand theories • describe universal processes and development throughout the entire life span • offers a framework for interpreting and understanding…change and development of all individuals • some are emergent theories – new systematic and comprehensive theories of the future 3
  • 4. Grand Theories • psychoanalytic • behaviorism (learning theory) • cognitive – grand in that they are… • comprehensive • enduring • widely applied 4
  • 5. Psychoanalytic Theory • a grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlies human behavior 5
  • 6. Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud 1856-1936 – development in the first six years has three stages, each characterized by sexual pleasure… • infancy – the mouth – the oral stage • early childhood – the anus – the anal stage • preschool years – the penis – the phallic stage • beginning of adolescence through death – latency – genital stages 6
  • 7. Psychoanalytic Theory • Erikson – 1902-1994 – a follower of Freud, interested in • culture diversity • social change • psychological crises – described eight developmental stages 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Integrity vs. Despair 7
  • 9. Behaviorism Theory • Watson 1878 – 1958 – emphasis on unconscious • hidden urges • all behavior is learned • specific laws of learning apply to conditioning 9
  • 11. Behaviorism Theory • Law of Behavior - learning theories – …all behavior is learned step by step • conditioning – the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli • classical conditioning - respondent conditioning – a person or animal is conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus • operant conditioning - instrumental conditioning – learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired – the person will repeat the action • reinforcement – A technique for conditioning behavior where behavior is followed by something desired 11
  • 12. Behaviorism Theory • Social Learning Theory – an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior • modeling – The central process of social learning by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them 12
  • 13. Cognitive Theory • The third grand theory – emphasized the structure and development of thought processes 13
  • 14. Cognitive Theory • Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages – sensorimotor – preoperational – concrete operational – formal operational 14
  • 16. Cognitive Theory • Cognitive equilibrium—state of mental balance. • If threatened, how do we achieve equilibrium again? – Assimilation: incorporate new events into existing schemas – Accommodation: change schema 16
  • 17. Emergent Theories …multicultural and multidisciplinary , developed not only by men of European ancestry but also by many non- Western, non-White, and female scientists… 17
  • 18. Sociocultural Theory an emergent theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction between each person and the surrounding social and cultural forces Lev Vygotsky 18
  • 19. Sociocultural Theory • cultural variation – adult responses are shaped by culture – society provides not only customs but also the tools and theories • guided participation – a technique in which skilled mentors help novices lean not only by providing instruction, but also by allowing direct, shared involvement in the activity 19
  • 20. Sociocultural Theory • Zone of proximal development – skills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help 20
  • 21. Zone of proximal development 21
  • 22. Epigenetic Theory • An emergent theory of development that considers both the genetic origins of behavior (within each person and within each species) and the direct, systematic influences that environmental forces have over time on genes 22
  • 23. Genetic Adaptation • Selective adaptation – the process by which humans and other organisms gradually adjust to their environment – genes for the traits that are most useful will become more frequent, thus making survival of species more likely. 23
  • 24. What Theories Contribute • Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of the importance of early childhood experiences. • Behaviorism has shown effect of the immediate environment on learning. • Cognitive theory shows how intellectual process and thinking affect actions. • Sociocultural theory has reminded us of the importance of culture in learning. • Epigenetic theory reminds us of the power of genes and their interaction with the environment. 24
  • 25. The Nature-Nurture Controversy • Nature – The genes that people inherit • Nurture – To all the environmental influences 25
  • 26. The Nature-Nurture Controversy • Nature and Nurture Always interact – Heredity vs. Environment How much of any characteristic, behavior, or pattern of development is the result of genes and how much is the result of experience? 26
  • 27. Theoretical Perspectives on… • Hyperactivity – Nature • They are usually boys who have male relatives with the same problem • They are overactive in every context, home as well as school • They are often calmed by stimulants, such as Ritalin, Adderall, and even coffee – Nurture • The rapid increase in ADHA (from 1 to 5 percent of all U.S. children within the past 50 years) cannot be genetic, since selective adaptation takes centuries • Many environmental factors correlate with ADHD, including crowded homes, television, lead, food additives, and rigid teaching 27
  • 28. Theoretical Perspectives on… • Homosexuality – Nature vs. Nurture • Children raised by homosexual couples (either adopted or the biological offspring of one of the parents) become heterosexual or homosexual in about the same proportions as children raised by heterosexual and do not seem particularly rebellious or emotionally disturbed. 28