CS8601 3 MC NOTES.pdf

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IT6601MOBILE COMPUTING
Unit III
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UNIT III
MOBILE NETWORKS LAYER
Mobiel IP – DHCP -Ad-Hoc –Proactive Protocal –DSDV -, Reactive
Routing Protocals – DSR, AODV, Hybrid Routing –ZRP, Multicast
Routing- Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) – MANET Vs VANET –
Security
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WIRELESS NETWORKS
 Need: Access computing and communication services, on the move
 Infrastructure-based Networks
 traditional cellular systems (base station infrastructure)
 Wireless LANs
 Infrared (IrDA) or radio links (Wavelan)
 very flexible within the reception area; ad-hoc networks possible
 low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)
 Ad hoc Networks
 useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
 military applications, rescue, home networking
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MOBILE IP
 Mobile IP enables an IP node to retain the same IP address and maintain existing communications
while traveling from one link to another.
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Mobile IP
Tunneling
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MOBILE IP COMPONENTS
 Mobile node (MN)
 Home agent (HA)
 Foreign agent (FA)
 Correspondent Node (CN)
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MOBILE NODE (MN)
The Mobile Node is a device such as
-a cell phone,
-personal digital assistant,
-or laptop
whose software enables network roaming capabilities.
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HOME AGENT (HA)
 Home Agent is a router on the home network serving as the anchor point for communication with
the Mobile Node;
 it tunnels packets from a device on the Internet, called a Correspondent Node, to the roaming
Mobile Node.
(A tunnel is established between the Home Agent and a reachable point for the Mobile Node in the
foreign network.)
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FOREIGN AGENT (FA)
 The Foreign Agent is a router that may function as the point of attachment for the
Mobile Node when it roams to a foreign network, delivering packets from the Home
Agent to the Mobile Node.
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CORRESPONDENT NODE (CN)
 End host to which MN is corresponding (eg. a web server)
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HOW MOBILE IP WORKS
The Mobile IP process has three main phases
the following sections.
 Agent Discovery
A Mobile Node discovers its Foreign and Home Agents during agent discovery.
 Registration
The Mobile Node registers its current location with the Foreign Agent and Home
Agent during registration.
 Tunneling
A reciprocal tunnel is set up by the Home Agent to the care-of address (current
location of the Mobile Node on the foreign network) to route packets to the Mobile
Node as it roams.
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TWO IP ADDRESSES FOR MOBILE NODE
 Home address: static
 Care-of address: topologically significant address
The care-of address is the termination point of the tunnel toward the Mobile Node
when it is on a foreign network. The Home Agent maintains an association
between the home IP address of the Mobile Node and its care-of address, which is
the current location of the Mobile Node on the foreign or visited network
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FEATURES OF MOBILE IP
 Transparency : IP address should not be any effect of mobility on any ongoing
communication
 Compatibility: It should compatible with existing Internet protocols.
 Security: It should provide users with secure communication over internet.
 Efficiency : It should neither result in large number of message nor should it incur too
much computational overheads
 Scalability: It should also be scalable to support billions of moving hosts worldwide.
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KEY MECHANISM IN MOBILE IP
Three basic mechanisms
1. Discovering the care-of address
2. Registering the care-of address
3. Tunneling to the care-of address
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1.Discovery the care-of-address
Extension of ICMP Router Advertisement
• Home agents and foreign agents broadcast agent advertisements at
regular intervals
Allows for the detection of mobility agents
Lists one or more available care-of addresses
Informs the mobile node about special features
Mobile node selects its care-of address
Mobile node checks whether the agent is a home agent or foreign
agent
– Mobile node issues an ICMP router solicitation message
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Mobile IP Agent Advertisement Message
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2. Registration
Once a mobile node has a care-of address, its home agent must find out about it
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3. Tunneling to the care-of address
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MOBILE IP TUNNELING
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Across Internet
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Tunneling takes place to forward an IP datagram from home agent to a care-of-address.
 When a home agent receives a packet addressed to a mobile host , it forwards the
packet to the care-of-address using IP-within-IP(encapsulation)
 Using IP-within-IP, the home agent inserts a new IP header in front of the IP header of
any datagram.
 Destination address is set to the home agent’s address.
 Source address is set to the home agents address.
 After stripping out the first header, IP processes the packet again.
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Two Tunneling Methods
IP-within-IP Encapsulation Minimal Encapsulation
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ROUTE OPTIMIZATION
 All the data packets to the mobile node go through the home agent.
 There will be a heavy traffic between HA and CN causing latency to increase.
 To overcome this problem the following route optimization needs
• Enable direct notification of the corresponding host
• Direct tunneling from the corresponding host to the mobile host.
• Binding cache maintained at the corresponding host
The association of the home address with care-of-address is called binding
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CELLULAR WIRELESS
 Single hop wireless connectivity to the wired world
 Space divided into cells
 A base station is responsible to communicate with hosts in its cell
 Mobile hosts can change cells while communicating
 Hand-off occurs when a mobile host starts communicating via a new base
station
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MULTI-HOP WIRELESS
 May need to traverse multiple links to reach destination
 Mobility causes route changes
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MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS (MANET)
 Host movement frequent
 Topology change frequent
 No cellular infrastructure. Multi-hop wireless links.
 Data must be routed via intermediate nodes.
A
B A
B
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WHY AD HOC NETWORKS ?
 Setting up of fixed access points and backbone infrastructure is not always viable
 Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area or war zone
 Infrastructure may not be practical for short-range radios; Bluetooth (range ~ 10m)
 Ad hoc networks:
 Do not need backbone infrastructure support
 Are easy to deploy
 Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or impractical
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MANY APPLICATIONS
 Personal area networking
 cell phone, laptop, ear phone, wrist watch
 Military environments
 soldiers, tanks, planes
 Civilian environments
 taxi cab network
 meeting rooms
 sports stadiums
 boats, small aircraft
 Emergency operations
 search-and-rescue
 policing and fire fighting
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AD-HOC BASIC CONCEPTS
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less
network of mobile devices connected without wires
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CHARACTERISTICS
I. Lack of fixed infrastructure
II. Dynamic topologies
III. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links
IV. Energy constrained operation
V. Increased vulnerability
VI. Other characteristics
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APPLICATIONS
 Communication among portable computers
 Environmental monitoring
 Military
 Emergency applications
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MANET DESIGN ISSUES
 Network size and node density
 Connectivity
 Network topology
 User traffic
 Operational environment
 Energy constraint
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ROUTING
The purpose of routing is to find the best path between the source and the destination
for forwarding packets in any store and forward network.
 Packet routing is usually a much more complex task in an ad-hoc compared to
infrastructure based networks.
 The main complications arise on account of continual topology changes and limited
battery power of the nodes.
 The destination node is not in transmission range of the source node, the route has to
be formed with the help of the intervening nodes in the network.
In MANET, the node making up a route may themselves move or shut down due to low
battery energy - therefore necessary to find a new route each time anode needs to
transmits a message, making routing an expensive and difficult task.
Based on the above discussion,
• Traditional routing protocols would not suitable in an ad hoc network.
• Each node in an ad hoc network needs to have routing capability and also needs to
participate in routing to keep the network operational.
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ESSENTIAL OF TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOL
 The two important classes of routing protocols for traditional networks are the link
state and the distance vector
 Both are extremely popular in packet-switched networks.
 The shortest path is computed according to some specific cost metric such as the no of
hops in the route.
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APPROACHES TO SHORTEST PATH ROUTING
1. Link State Routing or Link State Protocol (LSP)
 Each node knows the distance to its neighbors
 The distance information (=link state) is broadcast to all nodes in the network
 Each node calculates the routing tables independently
2. Distance Vector Routing
 Each node knows the distance (=cost) to its directly connected neighbors
 A node sends a list to its neighbors with the current distances to all nodes
 If all nodes update their distances, the routing tables eventually converge
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LINK STATE ROUTING
 Each node must
 discover its neighbors
 measure the delay (=cost) to its neighbors
 broadcast a packet with this information to all other nodes
 compute the shortest paths to every other router
 The broadcast can be accomplished by flooding
 The shortest paths can be computer with Dijkstra’s algorithm
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LINK STATE ROUTING: BASIC PRINCIPLES
1. Each router establishes a relationship (“adjacency”) with its neighbors
2.Each router generates link state advertisements (LSAs) which are distributed to all routers. The
LSA contains
 The identity of the router originating the message
 The identities of all neighbors.
LSA = (link id, state of the link, cost, neighbors of the link)
3. Each router maintains a database of all received LSAs (topological database or link state
database), which describes the network has a graph with weighted edges
4. Each router uses its link state database to run a shortest path algorithm (Dijikstra’s algorithm)
to produce the shortest path to each network
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A ROUTER IS CONNECTED TO OTHER ROUTERS THROUGH
LINKS
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LINK STATE ROUTING: PROPERTIES
 Each node requires complete topology information.
 Link state information must be flooded to all nodes.
 All routers which are connected to the router added to the tree or in the
candidate list.
 The delay in the candidate list to every other router in the tree are
compared
 The shortest delay is moved in to the tree and attached to appropriate
neighbor router and removed from the candidate list.
 The above steps are repeated till there are no more routers left in the
candidate list.
 The network topology has been determined in the form of a shortest path
tree a router forms its routing table and uses it to find the best route to
any destination.
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OPERATION OF A LINK STATE ROUTING PROTOCOL
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Received
LSAs
IP Routing
Table
Dijkstra’s
Algorithm
Link State
Database
LSAs are flooded
to other interfaces
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
• Builds a topological map –Full knowledge of the network
• Fast convergence –Floods LSPs immediately
• Event-driven updates –LSP sent when there is a change, only contains information
regarding the affected link
• Hierarchical design –Areas can be used to separate routing traffic
Disadvantages
• Significant demands on memory and
• processing resources
• Requires very strict network design
• Requires a knowledgeable network administrator
• Initial flooding can impede network performance 41
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DISTANCE VECTOR(DV) PROTOCOLS
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DISTANCE VECTOR
• The term vector means that routes are advertised as vector (distance, direction)Each
node maintains two tables:
• Distance is the number of hops between the two nodes and direction is defined in
terms of the next hop router to which the packets need to be forwarded.
• The distance vector protocols are based on well known Bellman-Ford algorithm.
• The protocol share everything in the network with neighbors by broadcasting the entire
router table
• Router updates its own routing table by examining the received information and in
turn informs its own neighbors of the changes, called ‘routing by rumor’
• The router do not have knowledge of the entire path, just know the following vector
 Direction in which a packet should be forwarded.
 Its own distance form the destination.
The two popular DV routing protocol are RIP(Routing Information Protocol) and
IGRP(Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages:
• Simple implementation and maintenance
• Low resource requirements (memory, CPU)
Disadvantages:
• Slow convergence (periodic updates)
• Limited scalability
• Routing loops (due to slow convergence)
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ROUTING IN MANET VS - TRADITIONAL NETWORKS
The three important ways in which a MANET routing protocol differs from
routing of packets in traditional networks.
 In MANET each node act as a router, whereas ordinary nodes in a
traditional wired network do not participate in routing the packets.
 In MANET the topology is dynamic because of the mobility of the routing,
the routing table become obsolete and routing process complicated.
 In the simple IP based addressing scheme deployed in wired networks,
the IP address encapsulated in the subnet structures does not work
because of node mobility
To cope with the above three impermanent differences, MANET need to
carryout route discovery and route maintenance.
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TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS
The node initiate the following types of communication.
 Unicast: The message is sent to a single destination node.
 Multicast: The message is sent to a selected subset of the network nodes.
 Broadcast: The message is sent to all node in the network. Since unrestrained
broadcast can choke a MANET, applications usually do not use broad cast.
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A CLASSIFICATION OF UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS
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UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 Many protocols have been proposed
 Some specifically invented for MANET
 Others adapted from protocols for wired networks
 No single protocol works well in all environments
 some attempts made to develop adaptive/hybrid protocols
 Standardization efforts in IETF
 MANET, Mobile IP working groups
 http://www.ietf.org
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POPULAR MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS
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ROUTING PROTOCOLS
 Proactive protocols
 Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
 Maintain routes between every host pair at all times
 Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead
 Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)
 Reactive protocols
 Determine route if and when needed
 Source initiates route discovery
 Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)
 Hybrid protocols
 Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive
 Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)
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PROTOCOL TRADE-OFFS
 Proactive protocols
 Always maintain routes
 Little or no delay for route determination
 Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date
 Maintain routes which may never be used
 Reactive protocols
 Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand
 Significant delay in route determination
 Employ flooding (global search)
 Control traffic may be bursty
 Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and mobility
patterns
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POPULAR MANET ROUTING PROTOCOL
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DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR (DSDV) ROUTING PROTOCOL
DSDV is based on the table driven (Proactive) approach to packet routing, it extends
the distance vector protocol of wired networks (Bellman-Foard routing algorithm) .
Improvement made is the avoidance of routing loops through the use of number
sequencing scheme
Important steps in the operation of DSDV
1. Each node maintains information regarding routes to all the known destinations.
The routing information updated periodically.
2. This can be considered shortcoming – traffic overhead and maintain routes which
they may not use.
 Full Update or full dump: Send all routing information from own table.
 Incremental Update: Send only entries that has changed. (Make it fit into one
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Important steps in the operation of DSDV …..
3. Each router ic node in the network collects route information from all its
neighbors.
4. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the
destination based on the gathered information.
5. Based on the gathered information, a new routing, table is generated
6. The router broadcast this table to its neighbors. On receipt by neighbors, the
neighbor nodes re compute their respective routing tables.
7. This process continues till the routing information become stable.
8. DSDV incorporates a sequenced numbering scheme .
9. Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number
10. Advertise to each neighbor own routing information
 Destination Address
 Metric = Number of Hops to Destination
 Destination Sequence Number
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11. Advertise to each neighbor own routing information
 Destination Address
 Metric = Number of Hops to Destination
 Destination Sequence Number
12. Rules to set sequence number information
 On each advertisement increase own destination sequence number (use only even numbers)
 If a node is no more reachable (timeout) increase sequence number of this node by 1 (odd
sequence number) and set metric = 
13. Update information is compared to own routing table
 Select route with higher destination sequence number (This ensure to use always newest information from
destination)
 Select the route with better metric when sequence numbers are equal.
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DSDV (Table Entries)
 Sequence number: originated from destination. Ensures
loop freeness.
 Install Time: when entry was made (used to delete stale entries from table)
 Stable Data: Pointer to a table holding information on how stable a route is.
Used to damp fluctuations in network.
Destination Next Metric Seq. Nr Install Time Stable Data
A A 0 A-550 001000 Ptr_A
B B 1 B-102 001200 Ptr_B
C B 3 C-588 001200 Ptr_C
D B 4 D-312 001200 Ptr_D
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DSDV- ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
 Advantages
 Simple (almost like Distance Vector)
 Loop free through destination seq. numbers
 No latency caused by route discovery
 Disadvantages
 No sleeping nodes
 Overhead: most routing information never used
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DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR) PROTOCOL
 DSR is a source initiated on-demand (or reactive) routing protocol for ad hoc
networks.
 It uses source routing, technique in which sender of a packet determines the
complete sequence of nodes through which a packet has to travel.
 The sender of the packet then explicitly records this list of all nodes in the packet’s
header.
 Not exchange the routing table information periodically
 Each mobile node in the protocol maintains a routing cache – which contains the
list of all routes that the node has learnt and maintains a sequence counter called
request id to uniquely identify the last request it had generated.
 DSR works in two phases:
I. Route discovery
II. Route maintenance
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Route discovery -
 First checks its own routing cache. If there is a
valid route, sends put the packet other wise
It initiate the route discovery by route request
 The route request packet initiates a route
reply wither by the destination node of by an
intermediate node that knows a route to the
destination.
Route maintenance
 Route maintenance is the process of monitoring
the correct operation of a route in use and
taking the corrective action when needed.
 As soon as the source receives the RouteError
message, it deletes the broken-link-route from
its cache.
 If it had another route to the destination, it
starts to retransmits the packets using
alternative route otherwise it intimates the
route discovery process again.
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DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
 Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate
reduces overhead of route maintenance
 Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead
 A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying
from local caches
Disadvantages
 Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
 Potential collisions between route requests propagated by neighboring nodes
 insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ
 Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to nodes replying using their local cache
 Route Reply Storm problem
 Stale caches will lead to increased overhead
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AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)
 DSR includes source routes in packet headers
 Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance particularly when data
contents of a packet are small
 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes, so
that data packets do not have to contain routes
 AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only between
nodes which need to communicate
 Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar to DSR
 When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a reverse path pointing
towards the source
 AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links
 When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it replies by sending a
Route Reply (RREP)
 Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when Route Request is forwarded
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ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)
 ZRP combines proactive and reactive approaches –hybrid Protocol.
 It incorporates the merits of both on demand and proactive protocols
 All nodes within hop distance at most d from a node X are said to be in
the routing zone of node X
 All nodes at hop distance exactly d are said to be peripheral nodes of node
X’s routing zone
 Intra-zone routing: Proactively maintain routes to all nodes within the
source node’s own zone.
 Inter-zone routing: Use an on-demand protocol (similar to DSR or AODV)
to determine routes to outside zone.
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ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)
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Radius of routing zone = 2
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MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR MANET
• Multicast is the delivery of a message to a group of destination
nodes in a single transmission as shown in figure
• Providing efficient bandwidth, Reducing communication cost,
Efficient delivery of data, Supporting dynamic topology Multiple
uncast
• Minimizing network load ,Providing basic support for reliable
transmission, Designing optimal routes, Providing robustness,
efficiency, and adaptability
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There are two main categories of multicast routing protocols: Tree-based protocols, and Mesh-based
protocols
Tree-based protocols : Establish a single path between any two nodes in the multicast group. Minimum
number of copies per packet to be sent in the tree. Bandwidth efficient .
Example Multicast Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (MAODV) routing protocol
Mesh-based protocols : Establish a mesh of paths that connect the sources and destinations. They are more
resilient to link failures as well as to mobility. Drawback – Multiple copies of the same packet are
disseminated through the mesh., resulting in reduced packet delivery and increased overhead under
highly mobilized conditions.
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VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS(VANET)
 VANET is a special type of MANET in which moving automobiles from the
nodes of the network
 Vehicle can communicate with other vehicle that are within a range of about
100 to 300 meters – Multi- hop communication.
 Any vehicle that goes out of the signal range in the network excluded from
the network.
 A vehicle come in the range of a vehicles of a VANET can come in the range
can join the network
 A VANET can offer a significant utility value to a motorist.
 It can help drivers to get information and warnings from a nearby
environment via message exchange
 It can help disseminate geographical information to drivers as he continues
tor drive
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 The driver can get road condition ahead or a warning about the application of
emergency electronic brake by a vehicle ahead in the lane.
 Drivers may have the opportunity to engage in other leisurely tasks, VoIP with
family, watch news and participate in an office video conference etc
 Two vehicles are involved in a collision. The trailing vehicle get advance
notification of the collision ahead on the road. The scenario shown in figure.
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MANET VS VANET
MANET VANET
A mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a self-configuring
infrastructure- less network of mobile devices connected
by wireless.
Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) is a subclass of
mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs)
Each device in a MANET is free to move independently
in any direction, and will therefore change its links to
other devices frequently
These networks
have no fixed infrastructure and instead rely on the
vehicles themselves to provide network functionality.
Dynamic topologies
• variable capacity links
• Energy constrained operation
• Limited physical security
The very high speed of the nodes
Vehicles that are not subjected to the strict energy,
space and computing capabilities restrictions
he VANET nodes are not subject to storage and power
limitation.
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SECURITY
MANETs are much more vulnerable to attack than wired network. This is because of the following reasons :
 Open Medium - Eavesdropping is more easier than in wired network.
 Dynamically Changing Network Topology – Mobile Nodes comes and goes from the network , thereby
allowing any malicious node to join the network without being detected.
 Cooperative Algorithms - The routing algorithm of MANETs requires mutual trust between nodes which
violates the principles of Network Security.
 Lack of Centralized Monitoring - Absence of any centralized infrastructure prohibits any monitoring agent in
the system.
 Lack of Clear Line of Defense –
 The important characteristics of ad hoc networks that can be exploited to cause security
vulnerabilities
• Lack of physical boundary – difficult to deploy firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic.
• Low power RF transmission – signal jamming lead to denial of service(DoS) attack
• Limited computational capabilities- Inability to encrypt messages – spoofing and routing
attacks.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF SECURE AD HOC NETWORKS
A secure ad hoc network should have the following characteristics
Availability – able to survive denial of service(DOS)
Confidentiality- Prevent unauthorized users to access confidential
information
Integrity- no tampering of transmitted messages.
Authentication – Guarantee about the true identity of peer node
 Non-repudiation- Should ensure that a node having sent a message
can not deny it.
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References
 Book: Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Rajib Mall, “Fundamentals of Mobile Computing”, PHI Learning
Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi – 2012.
 http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/ios/12_2/ip/configuration/guide/fipr_c/1cfmobip.html#wp101
0213
 http://www.hh.se/download/18.70cf2e49129168da015800072015/
 https://www.hh.se/download/18.70cf2e49129168da015800088935/Distance+Vector+Routing+Proto
col.pdf
PPT
• http://www.it.iitb.ernet.in.in/~sri
• www.comm.utoronto.ca/~jorg/.../Routing-distancevector-linkstate.ppt
• cone.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/teaching/vorlesung/manet.../DSDV.ppt
• www.drrbpatel.org/lecture/CSE-302-MANET-DSR.ppt
• ftp://ftp.kemt.fei.tuke.sk/.../MANET/MANET_Presentation.ppt 70
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