1. The Spanish Military Hospital Museum
Recently, I visited the Spanish Military Hospital Museum in St. Augustine. Even though there are many cultures and co–cultures involved in my
experience I will focus mostly on the Spanish culture and its position in the hospital. The Spanish Military Hospital includes three small buildings
Hospital East, Hospital West, and the William Watson House which was also the apothecary. When I visited we went in the William Watson House,
because the other two locations were destroyed in a fire. The hospital served military personnel only and used Spanish methods to adhere to their sick.
While touring the museum many artifacts such as a pill roller, iron bells, ophthalmic speculum, herbs and many other tools were viewed and
discussed. During my tour I viewed three rooms and the herb garden of the small hospital. One room specifically called the "mourning room" is where
soldiers just rested until there death. Another room housed six to eight beds were soldiers rested while they recovered from there surgery. At this time
period germ theory or anesthesia had not been developed yet so survival after surgery was risky. Most hospitals had a 30%– 40% survival rate but the
Spanish military hospital had a 60% – 70% survival rate based on their Spanish tactics. For example when dressing the wound the Spanish used a lynch
mixture made out of cotton and corn flour. This form of wound dressing was more efficient and cleaner than other wound dressings during this period.
Also the Spanish changed
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2. Pelayo
The Christian Realms of Asturias and LeГіn
As the Muslim invasion quickly spread across the Iberian peninsula starting in 711, it swallowed up the former Visigothic landholdings, leaving
Christian rule in its wake. This, however, was not to last, as the Kingdom of Asturias was born. Pelayo, the first Asturian king, has his beginnings
embellished in a myriad of supposed upbrings. Regardless of these many variations, the reputable historian, Roger Collins, claims that Pelayo had
likely been an Asturian noble prior to the Muslim conquest. Either way, in 718 Pelayo was elected leader of the Asturian people and subsequently
defeated their Muslim rulers at the legendary Battle of Covadonga. Shortly thereafter, Pelayo married off his daughter, Ermesinda,... Show more
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During the year, a conspiracy amongst the sons of Alfonso III resulted in his "forcible deposition," and the movement of the capital from Oviedo to
LeГіn. Under this new Kingdom of LeГіn, OrdoГ±o II expanded east from Castilla into La Rioja, broadening the kingdom's boundaries.
Over the next century, the Kingdom of LeГіn prospered, but it was short–lived. In 1030, Sancho III of Navarre invaded LeГіn, leaving Vermudo III
with only Galicia. This sudden and massive loss of land would only last five years until Sancho's death, but after that a far worse fate was in store.
Following the creation of the Kingdom of Castilla in 1035, the new Castillian king, Ferdinand I, invaded LeГіn, killing Vermudo III, and uniting the
two kingdoms under his rule.
Only in 1157 did LeГіn ever regain its independence, following the death of King Alfonso VII in 1157, who had partitioned his land amongst his two
sons. In that same year, Ferdinand II ascended as the first king of LeГіn in over a century. In 1196, though, fearing the threat of Castillian hegemony,
LeГіn allied with Navarre and the Muslim Almohads in raids of Castillian territory. This, however, proved unsuccessful following Almohad unrest in
Tunisia, and their subsequent treaty with the Castilians. Then, in 1224, the Almohad decline reached a peak, resulting in their fall from power in
al–Andalus. With this, LeГіn pounced, taking Caceres (1227), Merida
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3. Short Essay On Medieval Spain
Medieval Spain (Intro)
Medieval Spain started with the arrival of the Visigoths in the late 5th century to the end of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella in the 16th century.
However, its roots can be traced back to the medieval countries and kingdoms including Galicia, Leon, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Catalonia, Valencia,
Murcia, and Granada. These countries all contributed to what has been known as the Spanish language as well as the country itself.
Medieval Spain and Feudalism
There was quite a debate whether feudalism existed in Spain or not. Historians believed that feudalism can be traced back to the height of the dark
ages, especially when dealing with the history of Spain. However, English scholars had the tendency of downplaying feudalism ... Show more content
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These cities served as cultural and administrative centers, where the bishops, kings and government officials were situated. These cities also had large
markets and houses that expanded from a fortified stronghold across the peninsula. Medieval Spain was also known for its great cities such as
Barcelona, Leon, Granada, etc.
Medieval Spanish Castles
Spain has the most formidable castles in the world. Spain has more than 1000 Spanish castles recorded through history. The castles were built for
various reasons. However, the primary reason was to stop the Arabs when they invaded Spain in 711. The Spanish built so many of them in fact. These
castles were mostly concentrated in the northern part which was where the Arabs advanced when they attacked. And when the Spanish military moved
to reconquer the peninsula towards the south, they built additional strongholds to prevent the Arabs from reclaiming Spain. These castles were known
as Castilla.
Medieval Spanish Kings & Queens
The Hispanic–Goth monarchy was the known political and legal monarch that succeeded to Rome on the peninsula. This was the first effective
independent Kingdom in all of Spanish territories. The crown and leader of the monarch was elected and selected from a particular
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4. The Siege Of Baghdad: The Islamic Golden Age
The siege of Baghdad is a turning point in world history. This single event ended the Islamic golden age, many buildings were destroyed, but after their
invasion the city became an economic center and religious affairs flourished.
The siege on Baghdad by the Mongols marked the end of the Islamic golden age. How? The Mongols sacked Baghdad, committing numerous atrocities
and destroyed the Abbasids' vast libraries, including the House of Wisdom. The Mongols executed Al–Musta'sim and massacred many residents of the
city, which was left greatly depopulated. This siege is considered to mark the end of the Islamic Golden Age, during which the caliphs had extended
their rule from the Iberian Peninsula to Sindh, and which was also marked by many
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5. Muslim Spain (711-1492)
Over a thousand years ago, Europe experienced one of its greatest periods of cultural enlightenment.Islam in Spain has had a fundamental presence in
the culture and history of the nation. The religion was present inmodern Spanish soil from 711 until 1492 under the rule of the Arabs and Moors of
al–Andalus.Islamic Spain was a multi–cultural mix of the people of three great monotheistic religions: Muslims,Christians, and Jews.For more than
three centuries in Medieval Spain, Muslims, Jews and Christians lived together and prospered in a thriving multicultural civilization. Here, remarkable
individuals of different faiths made lasting contributions in such areas as poetry, art, architecture, music, dining etiquette, science, agriculture,... Show
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Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Straight of 'Gibraltar' at first with the sole intention of avenging king Roderic for the crime he committed. However,
because of the weakness of the kingdom due to civil war, Tariq opted to continue his occupation of Roderic's entire empire. Another theory for the
occupation by the Arab Muslims of Spain is that because of their persecution, the Jews called upon their contacts in North Africa, who in turn
encouraged the able Arabs to capture Spain. This allowed the Almoravids and the Almohads to establish themselves in Spain.Nevertheless, without a
doubt, the Jews supported and welcomed Muslims in Spain because they were great beneficiaries under Muslim rule. Rule The majority of the Army
as well as commander Tariq himself were not Arab but Islamic Berbers, and in timeIslamic migrants from places as diverse as North Africa to Yemen
and Syria came to live in the Iberian peninsula.The Islamic rulers called the Iberian peninsula "Al–Andalus", which some say means "Paradise." That
was the rootfor the name of the present–day region of Andalusia, the southernmost region of Spain. For a time, the area that is today Spain and Portugal
was one of the great Muslim civilizations, reaching its summitwith the Umayyad Caliphate in the 10th century.Muslim Spain was not a single period,
but a succession of different rules. Muslim Spain had the following chronological phases: The Emirate
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6. The Puritanical Bans Introduced By The Almohads
In addition to the puritanical bans introduced by the Almohads, the movement also subjected the dhimmi population to violence. Going further than the
Almoravids, the Almohads were responsible for massacres and forced conversions of Jews and Christians alike, driving them into Christian Iberia. By
1200, the indigenous Christian inhabitants of al–Andalus had, for the most part, been forcibly converted or rooted out. The only Christians left in the
area were prisoners of war, mercenaries, and merchants. To emphasize the severity of the treatment of the dhimmis by the Almohad rulers, in 1224, an
Almohad chronicler, al–Marrakushi, made the claim that, "No pact of protection has been signed between us and the Jews or the Christians since the
rise of Almohad power." It was not only the Christians who were persecuted by the Almohad movement, as Jews were also the object of abject
discrimination. In addition to his previous statement, al–Marrakushi also noted that "In all the regions of the west there are no synagogues or
churches." The Almohads under Caliph Yaqub (1194
–1199) became increasingly paranoid about crypto–Judaism in Jewish families which had
converted to Islam. Such was his paranoia and contempt for these families that he demanded that they put on a humiliating garb consisting of black
clothing with sleeves that reached all the way down to the wearer's ankles in addition to a hat with ear–flaps. It was in this manner that the Jewish
ethnicity was discriminated against
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7. Religious Tolerance In Medieval Spain
In a post September 11th broadcast, Osama bin Laden's deputy describes the intermingling of various religions as "the tragedy of al–Andalus." This
reference highlights the overly romanticized characterization of religious tolerance in medieval Spain. Aptly known as La Convivencia, "the
coexistence" in English, this period is noted by as a time of flourishing social, cultural, and economic advancement for the major religious groups
residing in Spain. Although true in many ways, the notion that it was a time of extreme tolerance is a severe exaggeration, as is seen by the
mistreatment and exile of Jews and Christians from Andalusia. Despite cases of non–Muslims rising to positions of authority, non–Islamic groups in
Andalusia faced great discrimination... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In ORNAMENT OF THE WORLD, MarГa Rosa Menocal supports the idea of religious tolerance, stating "It was there the profoundly Arabized Jews
rediscovered and reinvented Hebrew; there that Christians embraced nearly every aspect of Arabic style." (chapter 1) This is problematic for a
number of reasons. First, that it is an overarching and simplified assessment of the situatuion. Menocal proves this point by highlighting events such
as the massacre of Jews in Grenada in 1066 by a mob of Muslim individuals. This contradiction shows that given that such incidences were still taking
place, Andalusia was by no means a utopia of religious intolerance, and some attitude of discrimination or tension existed amongst the cohabiting
groups. Even if you do believe that these groups were coexisting at a more tolerant level, there are several concessions that Menocal fails to make that
are essential in terms of scholarly analysis. The first being that even if certain actions such as taxation and differing clothing for non–Islamic peoples
should be viewed only within the confines of limited social and symbolic actions rather than as systematic discrimination, is this still perhaps an effort
on the part of the Islamic governing body to make assimilation more enticing? Just as in Hellenistic cities special privileges were meant to encourage
non–Hellenistic groups to assimilate to their conquerers' culture, is this not the same in many ways? Regardless, how can such actions not directly be
seen as discrimination or an attempt to encourage assimilation by incentivizing conversion? It is clearly evident from first person accounts and laws
from the period that groups were in face
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8. Afro-Eurasia Dbq Analysis
How does a single faith survive for almost 1500 years? This is a complex question that could be answered differently for every religion that has
managed to survive that long. However, for Islam, it is a matter of studying the history of its growth. From its beginnings, Islam was unique and
continued to remain so. It was highly influential to life in Afro–Eurasia and continues to remain intact today. The establishment of Islam in the seventh
century heavily influenced the next millennium in Afro–Eurasia through the conversion of mass populations, the growth and standardization of trade,
and new scholarly developments. By studying the phases of Islam and the changes it brought to the age of third wave civilizations, we can begin to
understand ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It grew from a local, oppressed faith that was pioneered by Muhammad and his close family and friends, to a force that united nations under one of the
largest empires that the world had ever seen. It would have never become what it was without the incorporation of whole populations into the faith, the
unified network of trade it provided, and the scholarly developments it pioneered and renewed. Without the deliberate conquests of different nations,
Islam would not have grown so rapidly. If Islam had not grown so large, so quickly, the entirety of Afro
–Eurasian trade would not have been so
standard and unified. Likewise, if there was no such established network of trade, the ideas and innovations of Muslim education would not have
become so widespread. Therefore, it is evident that each of these effects of the Islamic faith and its empire needed the others. Without all of them, Islam
would not have been so influential to the history of Afro–Eurasia and would have produced a very different outcome that would have affected the
history of Islam up until
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9. Speech And Speech: The Golden Age Of Islam
Purpose
At the end of my speech, the audience will have a clear view of the most important achievements of the "Islamic golden age".
Introduction
At the beginning of the 8th to the 13th century, a new era has emerged and placed a stamp in the Islamic history that is called "the golden age of Islam",
throughout which the Islamic history was ruled by various important caliphates where many scientific, economical, and cultural developments took
place. The Abbasid caliph Harun Al–Rashid was the ruler during that time (786 to 809) with the existence of House of wisdom in Baghdad, all the
researchers from around the world with different backgrounds and knowledge gathered to translate the traditional information into Arabic language.
The main ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Muslim engineers also created crankshafts and water turbines which worked for the better techniques of extracting natural resources like water and
fossil fuels, they also established the use of dams as sources of water power. These advances replaced the manual tasks that were previously made by
labor with machinery in Islamic world. An uprising industrial growth also emerged to Europe after these technologies were transferred to
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10. Cultural Diffusion In The Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages there were three cultures, one gained, one suffered, and one started the Crusades because of greed, fear and intolerance. The first
culture that gained the most in the Middle Ages were the Muslims because In Unity, O'Roark and Wood stated that "Abd al
–Rahman III allowed
cultural diffusion by allowing for growth of knowledge in agriculture, text" (O' Roark and Wood) also Muslim, "The Caliph Al Andalus identified ways
to bring cultural diffusion to his land, by building monuments, pristine architecture, enormous economic expansion, allowing lots more money. His
palace was open with arches everywhere, the gardens were lush and part of the decoration. The rooms were filled with gifts from around the world."
(O'Roak and Wood). The evidence collected consistently supports the assumption of the Muslim towns having functioning bathhouses with WARM
water to soak in. Lastly Abd al– Rahman hires a Jewish scholar, Ibn Sharut, to be an ambassador and his personal physician. This man cured Top
Rahman, Top Rahman trusted him implicitly. Ibn Shaprut also worked with Byzantine men and Eastern Monks to decipher what medicinal books said
because they were written in Greek and Latin. But some may also argue that the Muslims suffered greatly during the Crusade leaving devastation
everywhere because they attacked Spain (Al–Andalus) causing cultural division between German Visigoths (Christians) and Muslims because the
Muslims also won the war against the Visigoths.
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11. The Rise Of Islam, And Its Subsequent Diffusion Across...
Islam is thought to be the religion of the people, whatever race or background they might be (Haghnavaz, 2013). The rise of Islam began circa
613CE, when the Islamic prophet Muhammad, began to spread the word of the revelations God (Allah) gave to him. From the cities of Makkah in the
Arabian desert, the message of Islam spread with great speed. Within half a century since the Prophet Muhammad's death, the message of Islam had
risen in 3 continents (Haghnavaz, 2013). The aim of this essay is to discover what factors contributed to the rise of Islam, and its subsequent diffusion
across Eurasia. In discovering what factors have contributed to the rise of Islam and its succeeding diffusion across Eurasia, we have looked into
economic, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was the Silk Road which, according to legend, led a delegation into China inviting the emperor to embrace Islam (Jones‐Leaning & Pratt, 2012).
The Arab overthrow of Central Asia was an extensive military takeover which was followed by forced religious conversions (Liu, 2011). According to
Islamic empires, the Arab takeover of Central Asia was an extension of the victory of the Sasanian Empire (Liu, 2011). Islam thrived during the harsh
but religiously tolerant Mongol Yuan dynasty. While in todays society Muslims can be found in any rural or urban centre throughout China, in earlier
times they were settled in more distinct areas. During the Tang and Song dynasties, the areas with the major Muslim capital were those on the
south–eastern coast and, in the Ming dynasty, Nanjing became a "major centre of Islamic learning" which from Nanjing, Islam teachings spread even
more (Jones‐Leaning & Pratt, 2012). As the spread into Asia came through a trading route, trade is thought to be a crucial role in Islam's rise.
Evidence of Islamic trade has been found across Europe, through the findings of Islamic coins (Mitchiner, 1987). From the 10th century onwards, the
Arab merchants becoming more important than Persians when it came to long distance trade (Deoliya, 2013). A number of factors stemming from
Mongolian unrest led to the replacement of a direct long distance trade route
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12. Early Interactions between Muslims, Jews, and Christians...
When it comes to the modern relationship that Islam shares with both Christianity and Judaism, it is not difficult to recognize mutual hostility. Islamic
extremism has been gradually dominating the Western perception of Muslims–in the midst of this, the World Trade Center attacks could only
exacerbate the situation. On that account, it was no surprise when these hostile attitudes were unmistakably revealed during the "Cordoba House"
mosque controversy at which point in 2010, it was proposed that a mosque dubbed the Cordoba House be established near ground zero. Sure enough,
the proposition was met with overwhelming opposition and rebuke (Barbaro). Most of the country objected to the mosque while many of those with
more personal experiences... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Umayyads started out as one of the elite clans of Mecca who at first rejected Muhammad's divine revelations (Kishlansky, Geary and O'Brien).
However, Muhammad utilized his resources and quickly grew a strong following, organizing them into the Umma, an Islamic family "that transcended
the old bonds of tribe and clan" (Kishlansky, Geary and O'Brien). As his support proliferated, his opposition dwindled and increasingly converted to
Islam. In 629, with 10,000 warriors at his command, Muhammad marched onto Mecca and quickly conquered it with few casualties. The elite Meccan
clans–the Umayya among them–were swiftly rehabilitated into the Umma, much to the chagrin of Muhammad's earliest followers.
The Umayya remained a powerful clan as Islam spread under Muhammad and, after his death in 632, his two successors, or caliphs–successors of the
Prophet. Still, the clan's power had far from peaked. After the death of Umar, the second caliph, a member of the Umayya became his successor:
Uthman ibn Affan (Kishlansky, Geary and O'Brien). Uthman, however, was quickly murdered because he privileged the Meccan elite over the early
converts. Shaken by his death, the Umma charged the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as being complacent with Uthman's murder. Eventually Ali
himself was murdered by the Umayyad's supporters, giving rise to an Islamic state ruled by the Umayya, the Umayyad Caliphate, where the Islamic
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14. Essay on The Arabic Invasion
Early history of Islam is marked by a remarkable political will to consolidate the fragmented tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. Accordingly, it emerged a
unified polity and administration, first under Prophet Muhammad and then the first Caliph Abu Bakr that set the stage for the early Arab conquests.
The conquests continued unabated during the reigns of Caliphs Omar and Othman, and then by the Umayyads and the Abbasids and other Muslim
dynasties that established strong centers of power in the world. By the 11th century AD, the Islamic society could boast of a number of cultural and
technical centers of leaning with eminent scholars of all the known disciplines of the time. Thus, when the Arab–Islamic armies invaded distant lands,
they... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Church was also vibrant but largely in acquiring lands for donor's salvation, to the extent that by the end of Carolingian era, over one third of the
land of Gaul belonged to the church. The Arabic culture, politics, and economy influenced Europe tremendously. The Arabic conquest ofSpain shows a
great example for its succession. The kingdom of "Al Andalus" displayed political centralism; it became an important location for trade It is also true
that conquering armies too are affected by the culture of the conquered lands. The Abbasid period also witnessed the Muslim Agriculture Revolution
and the Scientific Revolution during the reigns of al–Mansur 9754–775, Harun Al Rashid 786–809 and Al–Mamun 809–813.Thus, when Crete was
conquered in 827 AD, the Arab civilization was surely at its peak.
Initially, indeed, the Arab society was not an ideal social and cultural set up and the Muslims were aware of the fact that contemporary civilizations are
far superior. To fulfill the requirements of a developing intercontinental empire they adapted at a large scale. They tried and benefitted liberally from
Babylonian, Hellenic, Roman, Persian, Indian and Egyptian civilizations. The rich heritage thus gathered was judged and reinterpreted in the light of
contemporary demand and they never shied away from experimenting and upgrading. They updated math to calculate inheritance and taxes, made
innovations in architecture for
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15. Explain Why the Arab Invasions of 710 and 711 Were so...
Explain why the Arab invasions of 710 and 711 were so successful. In answering this question we must first appreciate the difficulty historians face in
discovering the real truth of the early Arab invasions, a fact well demonstrated in the varying estimates of Arab invasion forces (ranging from
1,700–9000 in current publications). Scant contemporary evidence exists beyond a short narrative present in a Spanish chronicle of 754, a vital
surviving Islamic administrative document of the time, and some archaeological remains. Our knowledge of the invasions is largely founded on the
works of later Islamic historians, the Ajbar Machmua text for example and the works of Ibn Idhari and al Maqqari. Unfortunately there are fewer
Christian... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The existence of a rival claimant caused dangerous divisions throughout the kingdom and in Akhila's demesne land of Tarragona and Narbonne coins
were minted without the king's image, a clear measure of defiance. It is also reported in some sources that during the invasion Akhila conspired with
the Arabs to depose Roderic. Some go as far as to say that during the final battle a wing of Roderic's army loyal to Akhila turned on him in the midst of
the fighting. Whether this is true can hardly be proven but something catastrophic must have happened for the King's army supposedly far larger than
Tarik's (Estimates 24,000–30,000 ) to suffer such a devastating defeat. Many historians support the idea that elements within the Visigothic nobility
gave assistance to the invaders probably as a means of removing Roderic. It is unlikely however that they foresaw the long term implications of the
invasion and the extension of Muslim presence in Iberia. It is argued that as well as the problems the succession dispute posed, the very fabric of
Visigothic society itself was weak. It is suggested that the Visgothic nobility of the time, who had placed themselves above the native Hispano–Roman
population in terms of rights and privileges, were suffering a backlash from the lower sections of society. Incidents of rebellion had increased as had
the number of slaves deserting their Lords. Many runaways turned to outlawry and as a consequence
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16. The Alambra And The Alhambra
After the Umayyad caliphate of Iberia splintered into small kingdoms across modern–day Andalusia in the eleventh century, al–Andalus witnessed the
reigns of three important powers: the Almoravid, Almohad, and Nasrid dynasties. As each dynasty confronted the gradual encroachment from the
Christian north, most notably with Alfonso VI's conquest of Toledo in 1085. It would be the Nasrid dynasty (1230–1492) who would ultimately
witness the end of Muslim rule in Spain when they surrendered to Isabella I and Ferdinand II in 1492 at Granada.
As a fortress and a palace, the Alhambra is arguably the most important fixture of Nasrid art and architecture. The Alhambra, or "The Red One", was
built on the remains of Roman fortifications, just as the Great Mosque of CГіrdoba had been with spolia. Although the fortress had been built in the
ninth century given its location on a strategic point overlooking the city of Granada, the Nasrid dynasty transformed the fortress into a royal city under
Mohammed I (1238–1273). However, it was under Yusuf I (1333–1353) and Mohammed V (1353–1391) that the Alhambra was transformed. Yusuf I in
particular emphasized the importance of art, "[beginning] a glorious age of Nasrid cultural achievement... [under his rule was] where the Alhambra
came into full glory" (Drayson 17). Both rulers augmented the structure with the Alcazaba, the fortress component, and gardens that would survive
even through the brutal Granada War at the end of the fifteenth century.
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17. Abbasid Research Paper
The Abbasids had rebels within their group, which made their hold of their lands looser. This is evident when Hindu rulers try to reconquer parts of
the lower Indus valley. Land and sea travel was slow and dangerous for people. Most people kept regional identities instead of to the caliph. Their
military technology was equal or even less than the enemy's. Over time, the leadership quality worsened, and the caliphs were no longer frugal but
began to buy luxurious items. These luxuries cost them the future, and resources were decreasing from less territory. Women's rights regressed even
further as they were kept to men and confined. When wealth grew, so did the demand for slaves that were mostly captured or purchased. The slaves'
worth was based... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There was even a brahman–inspired attempt to assassinate him, but Harsha's preference of Buddhims over Hinduism strengthened. Muhammad ibn
Qasim led over 10,000 horse– or camel–mounted warriors to Sind from India and declared the Sind interior and the Indus valley to be Umayyad
provinces. The new caliph in Damascus was Hajjaj's–the Umayyad viceroy of eastern provinces–enemy. He killed Hajjaj as well as execute his
son–in–law, Muhammad ibn Qasim, after disowning him. Islam did little to change life in India. Many converted to Islam. Of these, the most converts
included low–castes, outcastes, Buddhists, and some animists. A Muslim community was eventually established in India, although most of the
population still remained Hindu, even with the Sufi mystics. Islam spread to Southeast Asia through trade from India, where they had contact with Sufi
mystics. Conversions in Southeast Asia were especially made after the fall in the 13th century, when the pious Buddhist trading empire, Shrivijaya, fell,
allowing them to convert to Muslim like other traders and
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18. Arnold Palmer Hospital And Surgery Environment
Arnold Palmer Hospital in Orlando is one of the top hospitals in the country for children. They have received numerous awards over the years and
consistently rank in the top 50 pediatric hospitals in the United States. Arnold Palmer Hospital was recently recognized by U.S. News & World Report
and received the following rankings:
#31 in Urology
#39 in Orthopedics
#45 in Gastroenterology and Gastrointestinal Surgery
#45 in Diabetes and Endocrinology
#48 in Cardiology and Heart Surgery
In addition to their focus on providing the best medical services possible to their patients Arnold Palmer Hospital has also reviewed their internal
inventory processes and implemented Just in Time and Lean inventory strategies. This has allowed them to operate at a much more efficient and cost
effective level.
Being able to apply these methods to the hospital and surgery environment is a great example of how JIT can be used in non–manufacturing industries.
When I think of everything that is needed from start to finish for a surgery and how important each of those items are, JIT is not something that
immediately pops into my head. However, the more I think about it the more I see how JIT can be utilized as a valuable tool. Improving delivery
times, reducing waste and defects, less inventory to store and track and less time spent on inspecting inventory received are perfect examples of why
JIT should be used in this type of environment.
Most non–emergency surgeries are scheduled
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19. Tension And Legitimacy : Politics
Tension and Legitimacy: Politics' Effect on Religious Tolerance in al
–Andalus In this paper, the following question will be answered: "What was the
main factor that influenced the degree of religious tolerance or oppression by Berber rulers in al–Andalus during the years 1094 –1248?" In particular,
this question will be examining the treatment of dhimmis, or "protected people," which is to say Christians and Jews by Almoravid and Almohad
rulers. In addition, this paper will address the practice of labeling those who were perceived to be bad Muslims as kafir and how this label was used
by the Almohad Movement in order to delegitimatize the ruling Almoravid dynasty and conquer their territory, while at the same time used to reenforce
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The Almoravids' origins can be described as awash with religious zeal, and it is this zeal, which motivated them to come to the aid of the Muslim
states of al–Andalus when called upon. The main driving factor behind the Almoravids' foreign policy can be described as a pushing back against an
expanding Christian Iberia, which set the stage of religious tension after the Almoravids established a permanent presence in the peninsula. The
aforementioned desperate appeals from Muslim states in al–Andalus, peppered with religious rhetoric and appeals, spurred the Almoravid intervention
during the Reconquista. They would later use this intervention as a means to spread their strict interpretation of Maliki law, which, in a sense, was their
religious mission. Christians in al–Andalus began to take on conflicting roles. From a political standpoint, the Christians were the people of the enemy,
while, from a religious standpoint, they were people who were afforded protection under Maliki law. Conversely, since there were no extant Jewish
states to fight the Almoravids, less religious tension developed between the two religions during the Almoravid period, although that does not
necessarily mean that they were treated fairly. Jews were forced to pay the standard protection tax, or Jizya, which guaranteed their status as dhimmis.
While, on the other hand
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20. Similarities Between The Abbasid And The Umayyad
The Umayyads were a family that took over after the death of Ali, they ruled the Islamic Empire helping spread the faith through conquering. The
Abbasids were the next family that took over after the fall of the Umayyads. The Abbasids had many achievements, and helped expand the empire
further. The Umayyads and the Abbasids both ruled the same areas, and they both conquered more area to spread their religion. Although they share
features they also are different in their government, and the treatment of the social classes. Some similarities between the Umayyads and the Abbasids
are their government, where they rule from, and how they treat the people they conquer. For example both the Umayyads and the Abbasids left the
monotheistic religions such as the Christians and the Buddhists to their faith. They let them keep their faith, culture and follow their own laws. Also
both empires initiated the jizya, a tax, for all monotheistic non– Muslims. Religions like the Christians paid the tax so they did not have to convert, and
the Muslims collected the money for their own use. People of other religions like, religions of pagan gods, were forced to convert. Another similarity
is where the empires ruled from. During the Umayyad empire, their capital was Damascus, on the coast of Persia. While during the Abbasid period, it
was moved to Baghdad, also in Persia. Both empires capitals were centered in Persia, which eventually influenced their culture and traditions. Their last
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21. World War Between England And France
Throughout the course of human history there are countless manifestations of conflicts that prolonged decades, let alone centuries. When one first
hears of drawn out European conflicts the foremost one that comes to mind is the Hundred Years War between England and France. However, the
Reconquista, or the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (modern day Spain) fought between Christians and Muslims, was considerably lengthier,
spanning 770 years from 722 at the battle of Covadonga and ultimately ending in 1492 with the expulsion of Muslim forces from Granada. The
Reconquista began in response to an invasion of the peninsula in April of 711 by the Moors. Generally the Reconquista is thought to be a 700–year of
ideology, "but it would be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, LeГіn, Aragon, and Catalan were ruled independently and often warred against one another, resulting in further
fragmentation. This fragmentation affected the economy of each kingdom also. For example the economy of Castile was based off of the concept
of the Maesta, which were large collectives ruled by noble families who controlled large herds of sheep in favor of agriculture due to the harsh
environment of the plateaus that Castile was situated. This led to an increased dependency of trade with, "the finest example of these busy plateaus,
however, is in the centre of the Spanish peninsula, the plateau of the two Castiles, Old and New chequered with roads or rather tracks which were
none the less inundated with people on the move, swarming with caravans of arrieros...They transported anything that could be sold along the way,
wheat and salt, wool and wood, earthenware and pottery from Talavera... to maintain the links between the peripheral regions of the peninsula which
surround it and in places separate it from the sea. It was this, and not Castile unaided, as has been said which made Spain. This traffic determined and,
it could be said, revealed the basic economy" . Due to the lack of natural resources found in the plateau regions of the Iberian Peninsula it comes as no
surprise that the Reconquista took
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22. Mezquita De CГіrdoba in Southern Spain
Mezquita De CГіrdoba The Mosque–Cathedral of CГіrdoba represents the many cultural changes the city of CГіrdoba and the areas around it have
gone through. It has stood in the center of the city for over a millennium, and it doesn't look like it will fall anytime soon. It covers over 24,000
square meters (about 250,000 square feet), and is 9 meters tall at its lowest and 30 meters tall at its highest. The Cathedral of CГіrdoba is officially
called The Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption, but it was originally built by the Islamic Moors to be a place of worship for muslims.
Historians believe that before the mosque was built, there was a temple to the Roman God Janus on the same site. That temple was then converted
into a church by the Visigoths before they were conquered by the Moors. It was split in 2 and used as both a church and a mosque until it was torn
down and replaced with the Mosque of Cordoba. In the year 784 AD, construction for the mosque started under the emir Abd Ar–Rahman 1. It took
well over 2 centuries to finish, and even after it did it went through many changes. A new minaret was added, and some design changes were made
including a more decorative mihrab (signals the direction of Kaaba, a place that is very holy to muslims), and a courtyard for orange trees was placed
inside it. It reached its current size in the year 987 when construction was completed. The architects of the building planned to place Roman columns
with special capitals, including some that
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23. The Culture Of Spain And Spain
The following is an overview of the culture of Spain.
1. Values and attitudes
Family, including extended family is extremely important in Spanish culture and is the basis of society. Families provide a social and sometimes
financial support network. Increased individualism is having its effect, however, as families become less close, family size decreases and a respect
for personal preference decreases the frequency of people working for their family businesses (Spain – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette).
General manners and customs
Spanish culture is unique in Europe, but similar enough for people to easily adapt. In Spain, men greet each other with handshakes or hugs and women
greet everyone with a kiss on both cheeks (Spain – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette). People verbally greet strangers in places like elevators,
shops, lockers rooms, etc. (Hendr). Dress is more formal in Spain and shorts are not usually worn in public (Priest). When dining, it is important to
keep both hands visible on the table and use utensils to eat most things (Spain – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette).
3. Business–specific manners and customs
Spaniards conduct their business very personally. They prefer face–to–face contact and like to engage in small talk to get to know the other party
before beginning a business relationship. They tend to only do business with people that have earned their trust (Spain – Language, Culture, Customs
and Etiquette). Conducting business
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24. Will The Abbasids Do Better Or Better Than Umayyads?
Will the Abbasids rule do better or worse than Umayyads? Or will the Abbasids fall without success? The Umayyads were disfavored by the
Muslims because they were more government leaders than religious leaders. In the following paragraphs, the Abbasids' rise, tactics for expansion, and
the fall will be discussed. In 750 A.D., the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids, which is how the rise of the Abbasids started. How the
Abbasids ruled compared to the Umayyads didn't change, so the Muslims weren't very happy. The Abbasids promoted Sunnis more than the Shiites.
Non–arabs were welcomed by Al–Mansur. So the Muslim court was influenced by Persian cultures as the empire began to expand. Damascus was the
old capital as the Abbasids moved
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25. The Ottoman And The Aztec Empire
Comparative Essay The post–classical era in history (600CE– 1250CE) saw the rise and fall of many great empires. In the early part of the era, the
Islamic Caliphates acted as a core region in the Middle East, heavily influencing the region around them. On the other side of the world, the Aztec
Empire rose to power in the later part of the era with minimal trans–regional influence. Although on different sides of the world, both empires found
similar ways to adapt to their diverse environments. In the post–classical era, the rise of the Islamic Caliphates and the Aztec Empire were similar in
that they established cohesion through their respective cultures and used military conquest to come to power. Although there are similarities in the rise
of power in the Caliphates and the Aztec Empire, there is a difference in the speed of expansion given that the Caliphates were located in a central
trading region while the Aztec Empire was not.
Both the Caliphates and the Aztec Empire show a similarity in how each used their cultures to achieve cohesion among their respective empires. In the
Caliphates, Islamic culture helped unite the population while Aztec ritualistic culture unified the ethnically diverse peoples of the Aztec Empire.
Islamic culture unified much of the region under Umayyad and Abbasid rule. As Islamic merchants and missionaries spreadIslam to the people, forms
of Islamic culture spread with them. Islamic art, sciences, maths, medicine, architecture, Islamic
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26. Islamic Golden Age Research Paper
The Islamic Golden Age is traditionally dated from the mid 7th century to the mid 13th century. During this time, Muslim rulers established one of the
largest empires in history. Artists, engineers, scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders contributed to the Islamic world with agriculture,
the arts, economics, industry, law, literature,navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology and technology. They were able to contribute because they
preserved earlier traditions and used inventions and innovations of their own. Also at this time, the Muslim world became a major intellectual centre
for science, philosophy, medicine and education. In Baghdad, the "House of Wisdom" was established. It was a place where scholars, both... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many classic works of antiquity, that would otherwise have been forgotten, were translated into Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Sindhi,
Persian, Hebrew and Latin. Knowledge was synthesized from works originating in ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Rome, China, India, Persia, Ancient
Egypt, North Africa, Ancient Greece and Byzantine civilizations. Rival Muslim Dynasties, such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of
Al–Andalus, were also major intellectual centres. Cities such as Cairo and CГіrdoba were rivals Baghdad. The Islamic empire was the first "truly
universal civilization," which brought together for the first time "peoples as diverse as the Chinese, the Indians, the people of the Middle East and
North Africa, black Africans, and white Europeans." A major innovation of this period was paper– originally a secret tightly guarded by the Chinese.
The art of paper making was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas spreading to the Islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad. The
Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the Chinese
for brushes. By AD 900, there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for books in Baghdad and public libraries began to be
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27. The Theory Of ' Convivencia ' Between Christians And Muslims
Is the theory of 'convivencia ' between Christians, Jews and Muslims in Iberia convincing in the first four centuries after 711?
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The theory of 'convivencia' between Christians, Jews and Muslims is considered to be the period in Medieval Spain in which the three Abrahamic
religions were able to coexist and live together peacefully. The notion of convivencia not only refers to the overall tolerance of Christians and Jews to
be able to practice their religion in Al–Andalus, it also incorporates the idea of members of these three faiths sharing a common culture, a language
and working towards advancing civilisation through poetry, literature and science. Historians who have studied this issue are largely divided on
whether this time period really was as harmonious as it is commonly described. Historians such as Bat Ye'or highlight the lack of convivencia by
placing emphasis on how leaders of Al–Andalus would enforce rules such as granting non–Muslims with the status of dhimmi, essentially making them
second–class citizens which by today's standards would undoubtedly lead to the theory of convivencia being somewhat unpersuasive. However,
relative to this era, Islamic Iberia was the apex of religious tolerance, immensely surpassing the level of tolerance in surrounding nations and empires.
Montgomery Watt goes as far to say that under Muslim rule, Jews and Christians were considered as "People of the Book" who were to be a
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28. Spain And Spanish Culture
When examining any culture, pieces of other ideologies and cultural normalities different than the foremost culture prevail, intertwining different
cultures together. Spain, historically, has been known to be a passing point for a wide variety of religious groups. During the ancient world, Christian,
Muslim, and Jewish peoples coexisted, each ultimately contributing to Spanish culture. Starting around 701 C.E., Muslim forces began to expand into
areas around the Middle East, gradually broadening this land mass to reach Spain. Initially, Arab invaders were met with vigorous resistance; however,
as time went on, invaders experienced little opposition, allowing them to reap city after city. Within the newly Arab–conquered cities, other religious
groups faced little discrimination. Additionally, this conquest established the ever–present influence of Islam on Spanish culture. In this case, Spain
adopted Islamic cultural innovations such as: forms of writing, religious aspects, architectural styles, and materials supplied for said architectural
innovations. Trailing into the modern world, traces of Islamic culture are evidently intertwined into Spanish culture. Due to Spain's rich history in
interweaving cultures, it can be said that Spanish culture is intensely influenced by Islamic culture through the invasion of Arab military in medieval
time, visually retaining influence through culture, religion, and architecture.
At the beginning of the early 700s, Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula began their conquest by convincing nearby Germanic tribes to surrender;
though it was not until they travelled across the Straits of Gibraltar and attacked around 711 that their expansion truly began. As stated earlier, other
religious groups within Muslim Spain faced little discrimination. This impartial society could be explained by the Treaty of Tudmir. This treaty
promised that "[Christians] will not be coerced in matters of religion, their churches will not be burned, nor will sacred objects be taken from the
realm" (Treaty of Tudmir). Islamic forces continued their invasion and took control of Zaragoza, Spain by 714 C.E. In an opportunity to encourage his
men, Tarik, a leader in the conquest of Spain wrote: "attack this
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29. How Did Byzantine Architecture Influence The Islamic Empires?
Before Muslim rulers came to power, people such as Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews were already living in Arab lands. Two great Empires that were
in power were the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanian Empire. These societies had already established their own arts and architecture. When
Muhammad received revelations from the angel Gabriel, he began to create the Muslim umma (community). After his death in 632, the four rightly
guided caliphs ruled the umma. In their rules, these caliphs began to extend the Islamic Empire. As they acquired more territories, they adapted new
styles of arts and architecture and were influenced by the societies they conquered. The website simply calls it "Islamic Art" while the museum uses the
long name " Art of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the Quran, "O believers, wine and arrow–shuffling, idols and diving–arrows are an abomination, some of Satan's work; then avoid it (79
Art and Artistic Taste)." While there was nothing in the Quran that stated the punishment of artwork, some hadiths claimed that only god can create
living things and it is not within the power of humans. But other scholars argued otherwise and drawing of living things continued to exist in the
Islamic Empire. At the same time, it is important to take into account that the prophet Muhammad broke the idols from Ka'ba but kept the picture of
Mary and Jesus. If Muslims followed the Sunna then drawings of humans should not be forbidden. I do not all the art is Islamic, but I think it
depends on who is the audience. For example, a secular Muslims might not see a problem in all the sculptors and figural representations of the arts
and view it as Islamic, but an orthodox Muslim might forbid the figural representations and only consider the geometries, calligraphy and vegetal
designs as Islamic. I don't believe all the art is Islamic because I grew up knowing figural representations was forbidden in my religion, and therefore
would consider most of the arts as non–Islamic. Moreover, it cannot be all Islamic because before the Muslims took over the land, cultures already
existed. These cultures influenced the livelihood of the
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30. The Spanish Reconquista
Spain has always been a melting pot of ethnicity and culture. From the Celts and Visigoths that came from the north to the Africans and Arabs from the
south to the Romans from the East, empires, kingdoms, and tribes all over the world have recognized and tried to take advantage of the benefits of
Spain. War, conquest, and reconquest are frequent throughout the entire history ofSpain, and the history of Moors in Spain is no exception. It began in
the year 711 when the Moors first crossed over to the Iberian Peninsula, until their expulsion from Granada in 1492 which marks the end of the
Reconquista, they influenced the native Iberians in many ways including culture and religion. The Moors were people of Berber, Black African, and
Arab ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Christians and Jews were heavily taxed for the right to practice their own religions. Those who converted to Islam, however, paid lesser taxes and had
more privileges. Around 718, Pelagius, a Visigoth nobleman, established an independent Christian state in opposition to the Moorish dominance in
Spain. Due to his opposition of Muslim control, Pelagius and a group of 30–some men were exiled and lived in a cave, refusing to pay taxes and
harassing the Moors. Between 718 and 722, Pelagius and his small band of warriors fought and triumphed against the Moors at the Battle of
Covodonga. This is considered the beginning of the Spanish Reconquista. The Reconquista was a period of around 774 years where the Christian
kings reclaimed the Iberian Peninsula from the Islamic Moors. The Reconquista was not carried out by the Spanish alone, however. King
Charlemagne of France reclaimed the western Pyrenees and formed the Marca Hispanica to defend the border between the Frankish Kingdom and the
Muslims. Christians from all over Europe traveled to the Iberian Peninsula to participate in the reclaiming of Spain in the name of God. The
Reconquista was not all war and conquest, but also the re–population of Christians on the peninsula. As the Berbers abandoned towns and fortresses,
the Christian kings took their people and re–inhabited those areas. In some places, Christian peasants, monks, and nobles were granted lands by their
king or lord to
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31. Essay on A Comparison of Christian and Islamic...
A Comparison of Christian and Islamic Architecture in Spain
By the 6th century a Germanic tribe called the Visigoths, converts to Arian Christianity, had established themselves as the aristocratic elite. The
Christians built many monumental basilica–plan churches. The Santa Maria de Quintanilla de las Vinas, Burgos, Spain and San Juan de Banos de
Cerrato are two such churches that still remain today. In the beginning of the 8th century Islamic Muslims conquered Spain and ended Visigothic rule.
They constructed militaristic and religious architecture including castles, watchtowers, rock castes, the Great Mosque, and the Red Palace. The
remaining Christians adopted some of the Islamic styles and soon built upon a new style that ended up ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Moors also built atalayas, or watchtowers and rock castles that served as part of the defense system for the castle. The watchtowers were used as
communication devices for castles that were great distances apart. The watchtowers would signal the castle in case of an enemy attack by using smoke
and mirrors. They built rock castles, or small defense castles high on rocks, using the natural terrain to the maximum effect. Since the rock castles were
small they did not house many soldiers.
Another important Islamic site is situated in Cordoba, southern Spain, along the banks of Guadalquivir river (the Great River). Cordoba served as the
capital of the Caliphate of Cordoba. Cordoba houses the famous Great Mosque or Gran Mezquita, the largest mosque in the Western World. The
interior of the mosque consisted of a mirhab, a niche that separates the qibla wall from the others. The mirhab was intentionally positioned facing
Mecca for the faithful who prayed in that direction.
The mosque can be identified by its elaborate squinch–supported domes. The Great Mosque of Cordoba is one of the finest surviving examples of
Umayyad architecture in Spain. The mosque has marble capitals and columns in the hypostyle prayer hall. A person enters the hall through an open
courtyard called a sahn. Its famous horseshoe arches have an alternated pattern of pale stone and red brick voussoirs
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32. The Islamic Storming Of Spain
The Islamic storming of Spain was a tempestuous and conflicted time in history. Today it is often portrayed by historians as a battle of good versus
evil; a forfeiting of an ebullient culture that diminished at the hand of Abd Al–RaḥmДЃn 's Muslim–led army that began infiltrating Spain from
North Africa in AD 711. However, what ensued thereafter was a convergence of great knowledge, trade innovation, and hydraulic technology that had
not existed in the region before Islamic arrival. The idealistic "garden of paradise" came closer to reality with the rich climatic environment of Spain
and the fabric of knowledge handed down from the Islamic world of the Moors. Upon the arrival of the Moors, who were essentially Muslims from
North Africa, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most of Europe, especially that of which was under Christian rule, was very skeptical of pagan texts of the ancient Greeks and Romans and never
came to study these writings due to discrimination. Muslims, however, did not ignore these valuable teachings and strove to find new knowledge
within other cultures and societies. Much of Greek knowledge stems from the ancient Egyptians, the bulk of it being preserved at the Library of
Alexandria. During the Muslim occupation of Alexandria, they had direct access to this elusive bank of knowledge and translated large amounts of
books into Arabic, including the bible. From this, Islamic society tapped into a great understanding of the world around them and eventually brought
this rich knowledge with them to the al–Andalus. Among theses teachings, Muslims had a great understanding of irrigation and hydraulic systems
passed on from the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, which would become a great asset to their success in agriculture, landscaping, and
gardening in Spain ("Al–Andalus History"). Virtually barren lands of the Iberian Peninsula became flourishing centers of agriculture through the
implementation of hydraulic and irrigation technology of the Muslims, thus bringing great wealth and power to the region through trade. Plants
including palm trees, citrus, avocado, and pomegranate, none of which had been seen in Europe before, became bountiful in al–Andalus
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33. The Fall Of The Moors
Name
Class
DR.
Date
The Fall of the Moors In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the new world. That year also marked the fall of the Moors (Medieval Muslims).
They ruled over the Moor Kingdom of Granada in the Iberian Peninsula from 711 to 1492, where the three Abrahamic religions lived in peace. In that
year, the battle of Granada caused their great empire to fall. After this battle, Muslims were forced to convert toChristianity or be expelled from the
land. This oppression went to the extent of forbidding any Islamic acts, behaviors, and scriptures, with violators being prosecuted, which resulted in
unfair and unjust treatment for the Moors in Spain. The Moors arrived at the Iberian Peninsula in 711 by crossing the Mediterranean Sea near North
Africa (Florian 20). Within seven years, the Iberian Peninsula (which they called Al–Andalus) was almost completely occupied by these people (De
Luca et. al. 5). Moors had control of the majority of Iberian Peninsula, but, in late 718, King Visigoths Pelayo of Alcama, fought against the Moors
and defeated them at the battle of Covadonga. Later on, they were defeated at another battle: the battle of Granada. The unity of Spain played heavily
in this battle. It was between Aragon 's King Ferdinand and Isabella I, the Queen of Castile. They were married in 1469, soon after which the united
forces of both states rose against the Moors (Florian 183). Their combined forces participated in the Reconquista, which led to the fall of
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34. An Essay About The Alhambra
Alhambra, a palace built in Granada, Spain, grew significantly in the 14th century. It was constructed by the Berbers of the Emirate of Granada in
al–Andalus. It is built on a high–leveled land that overlooks the Granada city. The area where the Alhambra is built is a mountainous region, where the
Nevada Mountains are ascending over the Alhambra palace. The area is known for its extreme temperature where it can be very cold or extra hot.
The name "Alhambra", whose literal translation is "red fortress", is derived from the color of the bricks composing the outer walls, which is of made
of clay and gravel. Portions were rebuilt in the Renaissance fashion, and a piece was destroyed to build an "Italianate palace designed by Pedro de
Machuca in 1526".
The Alhambra reflects the culture of the final centuries during the Moorish rule of Al Andalus. It incorporates extensive gardens– the Generalife. The
combination of open spaces, water, constructed structures, and gardens, signify this palace.
The palaces were built perpendicular to each other and they are centered around a courtyard with cortices on either side. The Alcazaba (citadel), which
is the oldest part, is included in the Moorish portion of the Alhambra. What remained from the citadel until this day are its enormous outer walls,
ramparts, and towers. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"It's a rounded court enclosed by a low gallery supported by 124 white marble columns". A pavilion aims into the court at each frontier, where the
walls are elegantly ornamented, and the arched roof is illuminated. The colonnade is covered with white marble, and the square with colored tiles,
while the walls are board up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below of enameled blue and gold. The columns
sustaining the roof and gallery are placed
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35. History of the Mosque-Cathedral of CГіrdoba
Beautiful, magnificent, fascinating, breathtaking, and incredible are some of the words that describe the Great Mosque of CГіrdoba. The Mosque is
also known as the Mezquita, the Mosque–Cathedral of CГіrdoba, or the Cathedral of the Assumption of Our Lady. The mosque is considered one of
the monumental jewels of Islamic civilization. In addition, it is one of the largest mosques in the entire world measuring about 24,000 square meters.
The mosque was not all built at once, its construction lasted from 784 AD to 987 AD. First, Emir Abd ar–RahmanI began the construction of the
mosque in the year 784, on a site that was originally home to Roman temple of Janus and Visigothic church of St Vincent. In the years 822 AD to 852
AD, Abd ar–Rahman II added an arm bone of Prophet Mohammed, an original copy of Quran, and increased the size of the Mosque. Then, Abd
ar–Rahman III added a new minaret in the beginning of 9th century. Following Abd ar–Rahman III, Al–Hakam II magnified the mosque and enhanced
the mihrab in the year 961. Finally, Al–Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir enlarged it further through the addition of the orange tree courtyard and the outer aisles
in the year 987. As a result, this mosque turned Cordoba into a kind of paradise on earth where the Mosque symbolizes heaven. At its zenith, this
mosque was the center of western Islam. The Great Mosque is a forest of stone columns that seem to go on forever. The effect is disorientating like a
vast hall of mirrors where the worshiper
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36. Al Andalus: The Jews In Islamic Spain
The Jews in Islamic Spain: Al Andalus
by S. Alfassa Marks
One of the characteristic features of the early history of Spain is the successive waves of different people who spread across the Iberian Peninsula.
Phoenicians, Greeks, Vandals, Visigoths, Muslims, Jews, and Christians all occupiedSpain at one point or another. History records communities of
Jews living on the Iberian Peninsula from as early as the destruction of the first temple in Jerusalem (Diaz–Mas 1). But it was during the realm of the
Moors in Al–Andalus (land of the vandals) which the Jews thrived the greatest. Though this was a time of artistic, educational, and cultural
enlightenment, it was not completely serene or without persecution for the Jewish people.
As historians ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A translating program was established in Toledo, using Jews as interpreters. There they translated the Arabic books into romance languages, as well as
Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. This included many major works of Greek science and philosophy. Jews studied and contributed to mathematics,
medicine, botany, geography, poetry, and philosophy. It was at this time that the study of Medicine expanded to produce a large number of exceptional
Jewish physicians. Islam had its sway over Jewish cultural life too. In literature, and the arts, the Muslim influence on the Jews is enormous. Though
written in non–Islamic language and script, medieval Hebrew poetry, and much of the prose literature, belong to the same cultural world as Arabic and
other literatures of Islam (Lewis 81). In the Caliphate of Cordoba [the geographical zenith of Islamic life in Al–Andalus], the Jewish element became
increasingly important, reaching its peak in the tenth century (Diaz–Mas 3). Jews lived among themselves in a walled area known as the aljama
(Jewish quarter). There they lived among their own administration, and managed their own communal affairs (Epstein 1). There the Jewish community
had their own legal court known as the Beit Din. This court, with Rabbis as Judges, would render both religious and civil legal opinions pertaining to
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37. Muslim Influences In Spain
When you think of Spain you usually associate it with Catholicism, grand churches and architecture along with Ferdinand & Isabella. Rarely do most
people know of the Jewish and Muslim influences. However, the history of Spain encompasses all three religions, interacting with one another for
centuries, more so than most other geographical locations. I myself was able to experience this first hand during my time in southern Spain, witnessing
forgotten Jewish communities and Islamic buildings repurposed for Christianity. It is an insight that is essential. In fact, understanding the intricate
relationship these three had during this period could help today's society realize how vital it is that we embrace each other's differences and learn from
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Under this Christian rule, the three religions experienced a period similar to what was seen in Al–Andalus. When Christian forces took Toledo, they
found immense libraries full of text from Muslim and Jewish authors and instead of burning the, they keep them and use them to learn (Cities of
Light, 58:32). In fact, Toledo became the center of translation, with people of all religions working together. These translations were sent into
Europe for all to learn, one in particular is Paris, which was able to have these translations of works such as Aristotle (Menocal, 155). After the
Christian armies had taken Cordoba, positive relationships were still apparent as Muslim and Jewish craftsman, such as ceramics and tanning, were
allowed to stay and practice in the conquered cities (Cities of Light, 1:24:44). The Jews specifically lived in the Urban centers with limited issues due
to their superior skills in business needs (Cities of Light, 1:25:41 – 1:26:20). The Christians realized the tools and skills that the people of Al–Andalus
possessed and realized that regardless of religious views, they were needed so that they could not only benefit from them, but also learn. However,
it was not a perfect relationship amongst all. Under Alphonso X, a master code of laws was enacted. These laws allowed Jewish property to be
confiscated, Jewish officials to be jailed if deemed necessary, and even enacted public lashings to Jews not wearing identifying clothing. Some laws
were even more appalling, such as death to anyone who converted to Judaism or Islam. Be that as it may, Alphonso X epitomized the time in Spain, as
his laws also gave some privileges to the Mudejars, Muslims living under Christian rule (Cities of Light, 1:28:30 –
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38. Culture In The Middle Ages Essay
Have you ever imagined what it would have been like in the Middle Ages? If you imagined the Middle Ages, then you'd have to imagine that there
were a few different cultures with a few different religions. This is true. There were three main cultures in the Middle Ages consisting of Muslims,
Jews, and Christians. But each culture made different decisions, and each decision lead to a different outcome. Overall, the Muslims gained the most
because they made the wisest decisions. Jews had hardly any decisions to make because they were always a minority, which means that they were
always being controlled, so they suffered the most. Christians were always deciding to try and take control over everything, they wanted to be at the
top, so they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The culture that gained the most in the Middle Ages were the Muslims because when they took over all of Spain, they gained all of its benefits,
including land, control over the people living in there (Jews and Christians), and bathhouses with warm water to soak in. The culture that suffered the
most in the Middle Ages were the Jews because they were always at the bottom of the social class, they never had a choice in what they wanted to do
because they were always being controlled by either the Christians or the Muslims. The culture that caused the most Cultural Division were the
Christians because they were ones who began all of the war and fighting. They did this by first, persecuting the Jews and forcing them to convert to
Christianity, be enslaved, or die. After that, the Christians wanted to purify all of Spain of Cultural Diffusion. Lastly, because of their intolerance for
Muslims, the Christians decided to start a Crusade. A Holy War against all Muslims. Overall, one could conclude that the Muslims gained the most,
besides the fact that all of their history books were burned, the Jews suffered the most, even though the Muslims offered them weaponry and protection,
and the Christians caused the most Division, in spite of the fact that they developed an integrated culture in Al
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39. Aztec Architecture Description
The history of AndalucГa ranges from shifts in landownership over a span of many years. Located in the southwestern part of Spain, AndalucГa is
comprises of the Iberian Peninsula. Land was being conquered and re–conquered over the years. With the change in control of the land, palaces were
being constructed for the royalty. The Alhambra was constructed during the time of the Nasrid dynasty. Located in what is nowGranada, the Alhambra
stretches across one full mile. It is one of the most primary examples of Islamic architecture in the world, forming a fortress and a palace at the same
time.
Before construction of the Alhambra, land control shifted. In 550 BC the Carthaginians conquered the area and named Elybirge. Early Iberian
settlements inhabited the waterfront area by the Darro River and expanded. In the 6th century the Visigoths took control until theMoors took control in
the 8th century. The area would continue to change ownership within coming centuries, from the Carthaginians to the Romans to the Visigoths, until
Moorish civilizations would found the city we now know as Granada. By the year 711 BC, the Muslim Empire began to overtake most of Spain. The
city of Granada was under control of the Moors. The city was the center of the expanding Moorish Empire in southern ... Show more content on
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In terms of dimension the room is a perfect square, about 40ft by 40ft. There is a central dome ceiling that is about 70 feet high. This was the grand
reception room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance. The royalty would welcome their guests in this area. The space served
as a waiting room for the guests. The grand hall projects from the walls of the palace, providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was a
"mirador" from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape of the
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