Pre-Emptive Force According To Michael Walzer Essay

Pre-Emptive Force According to Michael Walzer Essay
Pre–emptive force is commonly recognised as a preventative use of force. Michael Walzer identifies
that pre–emptive force is when both states defend themselves against violence that is imminent but
not actual; the state can fire shots if it knows it is about to be attacked (2006: 74). " ...there must be
shown a necessity of self defence... instant, overwhelming, leaving no choice of means, and no
moment for deliberation." (Berkley, 1968). This would allow a state to respond to an attack once the
targeted state had seen it coming but before it felt its impact. Pre–emption is then like a reflex "a
throwing up of ones arms at the very last minute" (Walzer, 2006: 75). Putting aside the definitions of
pre–emptive war, the question of whether or not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Misunderstandings arise looking at Article 51 in international law that gives the right to self–
defence. It is debatable as to whether this is an explicit right, only exercisable in response to armed
attack or whether it allows force in response to potential attacks. Article 2(4) of the UN charter
states that the use of force by states is banned however this has not stopped over one hundred large
conflicts since 1945. States generally use international law as an excuse and form of justification for
their actions (Evans, 2006: 589). Article 2(4) declares "all members shall abstain in their
international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political
independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the UN." Yet
the main exception is self– defence (Evans, 2006: 598). The article does not make clear what
constitutes self– defence. How is a state to distinguish self–defense from hegemonic desires? The
International Court of Justice (ICJ) was confronted with questions about the meaning of 'threat of
force', it concluded that a threat of force is illegal when the actual use of force threatened would
itself be unlawful; the ICJ rejected to identify that the mere possession of nuclear weapons was an
unlawful threat of force. This suggests that the mere possession of nuclear weapons, despite their
extremely threatening appearance, cannot be an actual pending threat, in the case of Iran,
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

U.S. Drone Attacks and Pakistan State Sovereignty
U.S. Drone Attacks and Pakistan State Sovereignty According to Sean D. Murphy, U.S. anti–
terrorist operations in Pakistan so far have taken the forms of drone strikes, "hot pursuits" into
Pakistani territory in immediate response to raids from within Pakistan, and secret missions by
special operations forces, such as the CIA, against militant targets located deeper in Pakistan . The
numbers of incidents involving "hot pursuits" of the militant hideouts inside the Pakistani territory
have been very few, so they have not attracted as much attention as other operations. There has only
been one real recognized covert mission in Pakistan, which took place on September 3, 2008 in
South Waziristan , an area under the control of the Taliban. This was the US' first ground–based
battle against the Taliban within Pakistani borders. This caused the death of many civilians and no
"high–value" terrorist target. The Pakistani government strongly criticized this act and passed a
resolution demanding American cooperation on covert operations, so the US did refrain from
repeating such a mission; however, the American strikes using Unmanned Areal Vehicles, known as
drones, have been going on since 2004 and have only increased since then under the Obama
Administration. The cross–border attacks, especially the drone attacks, by the Afghanistan–based
American forces in the Federally Administered Tribal Area (FATA) of the northwestern Pakistan are
meant to destroy or weaken the harbors of the

Argument Against President Donald Trump : Following The...
In this paper I will argue against President Donald Trump not following the rule of law. First, the
rule of law should be followed by everyone, not just by civilians; but by those that are superior, such
as President Donald Trump. Furthermore no one deserves special treatment for laws that were
placed for everyone to obey. Anytime Trump breaks the law America acknowledges the wrong
doings but immediately turn the other cheek. Finally the rule of law is set to keep everyone safe and
civilized. President Donald Trump not following the rule of law jeopardizes our safety.
Trump rule of law advocates disagree. They believe that everyone follows the law including Donald
Trump. Just because he's a president doesn't mean he's on a higher peddle–stone. Also Donald
Trump doesn't get special treatment. The media has a way of twisting and turning the truth. Always
after giving the majority what they really want to see. Nonetheless Trump has no intentions on
jeopardizing our safety. He's trying to make America great again. He wants to make sure that
everyone in America are supporters, lovers of the country and won't put harm in anyone's way.
According to rule of law critics, everyone including President Donald Trump must follow the rule of
law. President Donald Trump actions has shown us that he does not care about the country. The
country which he took an oath to preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States.
In the constitution of the United States Article II

The Us Should Withdraw From The Un
Sierra Susko
Professor Cheney
ENC 1101 – Essay #5
November 30, 2015
The US Should Withdraw From the UN Final Outline
I. Background
A. History
B. Current situation
II. Unfulfilled charter
A. World peace 1. Bosnian massacre 2. Somalia 3. Rwanda
B. Human rights 1. Membership nations 2. Abuses
III. Overburdensome cost
A. Percentage paid by US
B. Financial stewardship
C. Membership corruption
IV Sovereign rights
A. Membership requirements
B. Treaties
1. US Constitution
2. UN Charter
3. Washington's farewell
C. Competing interests
V. Global community
A. Decreased influence
B. Fallacious argument
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE: To prove that the United States should withdraw from the United
Nations
The time has come to recognize the U.N. for the anti–American, anti–freedom organization that it

has become. The time has come for us to cut off all financial help, withdraw as a member, and ask
the U.N. to find a headquarters location outside the United States that is more in keeping with the
philosophy of the majority of voting members, someplace like Moscow or Peking (Rousos, par. 30).
Those are the words of Barry Goldwater, the late 1964 presidential candidate and Republican
Senator from Arizona, calling for US withdrawal from the United Nations, and these concerns are as
valid today as they were almost four decades ago, if not more so. Since its inception, the United
Nation's purpose and benefits have been

Humanitarian Intervention, NATO and International Law Essay
Much recent discourse surrounding humanitarian intervention has focused on the responsibility to
protect (R2P). Prevention is a key component for good international relations and few would say it
is not important, but as evidence to date would show prevention is very ineffective, the legality of
military intervention still needs to be debated, as to date there is no consensus. For any intervention
to be legitimate, whether unilateral or multilateral, it must comply with international law. So as not
to cause any confusion, any situation in which an "intervention" is done with the permission or by
request of the state being intervened, should be considered humanitarian assistance as state
sovereignty is not breached. This paper will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This section was further accepted in the Vienna Convention as an unalterable norm. Article 2 (7)
goes on to state that the UN will not intervene in matters considered domestic jurisdiction. Article 2
emphasizes the rudimentary importance of sovereignty in international law as almost absolute. This
belief has been further demonstrated in General Assembly Resolutions. Resolution 2625, accepts the
Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co–operation
among States. Amongst other considerations, it confirms the importance of the Charter and
sovereign equality. General Assembly Resolution 3314, defines aggression and calls upon members
to refrain from aggression as well as other uses of force that would not be in compliance with the
Charter. It also reinforces the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly
Relations and Co–operation among States. Declaration 42/22, the approval of the Declaration on the
Enhancement of the Effectiveness of the Principle of Refraining from the Threat or Use of Force in
International Relations, once again reaffirms the importance of non–intervention, the importance of
peaceful relations and the necessity for peaceful means to be used in conflict resolution because a)
the risks and concerns associated with conflict and more importantly in this

Drone Strikes: Why Do Military Use Drones?
How do you feel about the military using drones? Does it make you uncomfortable? Or does it make
you feel safe? Drone use isn't the best. Why you may ask. Because drone usage causes additional
terrorists than killing. If a drone was utilized in a strike attack against a group of terrorist. I believe
and it has been shown that this act makes them enraged and to strike back at the United States. I do
not need our military to use drones, I feel sheltered that they don't. When the military uses drones
not only does it make the terrorists mad, but also kills innocent people who had nothing to do with
it. According to a meta – study about drones "eight to seventeen percent of all people are killed in
drone strikes are civilians" (Singh 5). Plus, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Yes, it's significant how the military is saving money by buying drones. But, scan at the negatives
that the use of drones have brought. Innocent people are being killed, by the actions of their fellow
citizens. Babies, children of all ages are being killed by this act. Think about this. Our military, the
United States military is killing innocents. What if that was your child? Let that sink in. If you were
in the poor innocent people's situation, what would you do? Again, let that sink in. I believe there is
a better solution. I have hope, that the use of drones will not be needed. Even though, yes the
soldiers feel safe using these devices, me and so many other people do not feel safe with them using
drones to attack. Not only are drones killing people, but also creating an army of people who
despise us, the United States of America. When people are irritated and desire to revenge their
family member, friend, etc. they move after the person or people who killed them. Putting not only
the murder in danger, but his or her family in danger too. And, our military is using drones. Killing
people, who despise us, so they create an army so they can kill us. Meaning, not only are the
soldiers and their family in danger, but the entire United States. People have been held hostage for
the crimes that our military has committed. So again, how do you feel about the usage of

Non Proliferation Treaty And The Universal Declaration Of...
The functioning of an international order refers to the "rules of the game" that delineate how states
act toward each other. These rules or governing arrangements are intentionally constructed by states
to promote their goals and interests (Bull 1977: 8) These rules may be formal, operating through
mechanisms like international law, international treaties and alliances, and international
organizations, or they may be informal, based on more nebulous concepts like norms, principles,
and values regarding acceptable or legitimate behavior. These rules of the game identify the rights
and obligations of states, and they provide mechanisms for regulating conflict among states. The
post–1945 international order comprises a large number of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Thus, there is no central political authority that can establish rules, force states to obey them, punish
states that break the rules, or otherwise arbitrate among states (Jervis 1985). However, the major
theoretical paradigms draw different implications from anarchy.
Realism is a dominant theory of international relations focuses on state 's security and power
primarily. Besides, states are considered the only unitary rational actors where its survival and
interests is the cornerstone of interstates relation highly based on might rather than on right. Hence,
realists believe that people are by nature sinful and instinctively seeking power to dominant others.
Power will be everlasting in the human 's nature and the possibility to be eradicated is a utopian
aspiration (Kegley, 1993). On the other hand, Liberalism as a dominant theory of international
relations emphasizes peaceful interstates relations where the preference of states goes beyond
politics to economic and social interaction to achieve a harmonious environment and reducing war
conflicts. Basically, the liberals underline that states are not unitary actors and non–states actors are
significant to take a part in the realm since states are not rational and all actors will function better
together. Additionally, power and security dilemma is a secondary objective.
For realists, power and the distribution of power are the only important factors in IR. It is

The Charter Of The United Nations
"Chapter I | United Nations." UN News Center. UN, n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2016. This article was a
posting of the first chapter of the Charter of the United Nations. In it, it details the purposes and
principles of the United Nations thus allowing me to have a better understanding of why the United
nations was created. It was created for the purpose of maintaining "international peace and security,
and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the
peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring
about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law,
adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the
peace." Overall, the organization is meant to maintain peaceful relations and create peaceful
resolutions to conflicts. The source is reliable as it was written by the United Nations, the
organization it is describing, and their was no extra writing added to it, it was just the charter itself.
"The Formation of the United Nations, 1945 – 1937–1945 – Milestones – Office of the Historian."
The Formation of the United Nations, 1945 – 1937–1945 – Milestones – Office of the Historian.
U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian, n.d. Web. 20 Mar. 2016.
This article was influential in me learning about the development of the United Nations during 1942
through 1945. In 1942, representatives

The Constitutional Law Is Not The World Constitution
Writing in 1758, Emer de Vattel explained: "The fundamental law which determines the manner in
which the public authority is to be exercised is what forms the constitution of the state."
Extrapolating this concept to the international political process, the bulk of the most important
norms which regulate political activity and relationships in the global polity could be called an
international constitution.
However, an international or global constitution cannot be gained by simply scaling up a typical
state constitution. The term 'constitutional law' is preferred over 'constitution' to highlight that this
body of law is not codified in one single document, but is dispersed in various treaties, soft law
texts, and customary law. The U.N. Charter is not the World Constitution. Global constitutional law
is a subset of international rules and principles which are so important that they deserve the label
'constitutional'.
Following the destruction and devastation caused by the Second World War, there appeared to have
dawned on the international plane a clearer realization of the importance of the fundamental rights
of all human beings and of the role of the international organizations in upholding and enforcing
them. It is interesting how the emergence and growth of India as a new state and as member of the
comity of free nations of the world coincided with the building of the United Nations and its
agencies and organs. Also, the drafting of the fundamental rights in the Indian

Awakening Study Guide
Section 1: Due Wednesday, March 8 Chapter I 1. What does the parrot say? What does it mean?
How might these comments foreshadow what will occur in the novel? 2. Describe Leonce
Pontellier. Specifically describe his reaction to the parrot, how he speaks to his wife, and his
reaction to Mrs. Pontellier's question about dinner. 3. Describe the Pontellier children. 4. What is the
role of the "quadroon"? 5. Who is Robert Lebrun? What is his part in this story? Chapter II 1.
Describe Edna Pontellier. What does she look like? Where is she from? Where does she live now? 2.
What is Robert Lebrun like? What are his plans for the future? Do you think he will ever follow
through with his plans? Why, why not? 3. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
4. What new information did you learn about Mlle Reisz? Chapter XVII 1. The setting has changed.
Where does the story take place now? 2. Leonce is angered when Edna tells him she went out. Why
is he angry? 3. What does Leonce think Edna should do about the cook? 4. Why does Edna try to
destroy her wedding ring? What change is taking place in her? Chapter XVIII 1. How does Edna
feel about the house and her domestic chores? 2. How does Adele feel about her domestic chores? 3.
Reflect upon the difference between the two women. 4. Compare and contrast the Pontellier
marriage with the Ratignolle marriage. Chapter XIX 1. After her visit with Adele, what does Edna
do about her domestic obligations? Does this surprise you? Give evidence as to why you think
Edna's reaction is expected or not. 2. How does Leonce react to Edna's actions? 3. Of what does
Chopin say Leonce is not aware? 4. What does Edna spend her time doing? Chapter XX 1. What
does the neighborhood grocer think of Mlle Reisz? Why do you think he feels this way? 2. Describe
the altercation between Victor Lebrun and the black woman. 3. The Lebruns comment that Edna
looks better. Why do you think Edna looks healthier? Chapter XXI 1. Describe Mlle Reisz's
apartment. 2. How does Mlle Reisz react to Edna's arrival? 3. Mlle Reisz says to Edna, "To be an
artist includes much; one must possess many gifts – absolute gifts – which have not

Anthem 's Society Is A Dystopian World
a) Anthem's society is a dystopian world because... Anthem's society uses propaganda to control the
citizens. A form of propaganda is when one man was executed on the pyre in front of everyone
which teaches the citizens not to break the law and use pronouns. Information, independent thought,
and freedom are restricted in this society. Equality must think about "the will of all men together"
and how they are all supposed to be "one in all and all in one". No one may think of or for
themselves and everyone decision is made by the grace of every brother. The society worships and
abides by the concept that all men are alike and equal, that all live for the existence of mankind.
Every citizen is under constant surveillance. Everything they do is tracked and monitored by various
types of Councils and Judges. The citizens appear to have some sort of fear of the outside world
known as the Uncharted Forest. In the Uncharted Forest there is thought to be scarce food, wild
beasts, and ruined cities it has grown over. The citizens conform to uniform expectations that
include wearing iron bracelets on their left wrists and work garments. Individuality and dissent are
frowned upon. An example is the Saint of the pyre and how the transgressor of the Unspeakable
word was burnt alive. This society is meant to be an illusion of a perfect utopian world where
everyone is equal and everything is managed. b)

Argument Against President Donald Trump Does Not The Rule...
In this paper, I will argue against President Donald Trump does not the rule of law. First, the rule of
law should be followed by everyone, not just by civilians; but by those that are in powerful
positions, such as President Donald Trump. No one deserves special treatment for laws that were
placed for everyone to obey. Anytime Trump breaks the law America acknowledges the
wrongdoings but immediately turn the other cheek. Finally, the rule of law is set to keep everyone
safe and civilized. President Donald Trump not following the rule of law jeopardizes our safety.
Trump rule of law advocates disagree. They believe that everyone follows the law including Donald
Trump. Just because he's a president doesn't mean he's on a higher pedestal. They argue that Donald
Trump doesn't get special treatment. The media has a way of twisting and turning the truth. Always
giving the majority what they really want to see. Nonetheless, Trump has no intentions of
jeopardizing our safety. He's trying to make America great again. He wants to make sure that
everyone in America are supporters, lovers of the country and won't put harm in anyone's way.
According to rule of law critics, everyone including President Donald Trump must follow the rule of
law. However President Donald Trump action's have shown that he does not care about the country.
The country where he took an oath to preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United
States. In the constitution of the United States, Article

Annotated Bibliography On Human Trafficking
Prospectus on Human Trafficking in the United States For my research paper, I will be explaining
the issue of human trafficking in the United States and propose a course of action we can take to
help combat the growth of this problem. Article 3, paragraph (a) of the United Nation 's Protocol to
Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons essentially defines trafficking as the harboring
or transportation of a person through any means, including force, threats, fraud, and coercion (42).
The Trafficked Victims Protection Act is our nation 's protocol on dealing with cases of human
trafficking. Although it is a good place to start, the TVPA is in need of development because many
victims are treated unfairly, criminalized, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This source will help me clarify the immensity of the issue and the need for immediate change. I
will also include the true story of two women 's experiences being trafficked from the article
"Understanding Human Trafficking in the United States" by T.K. Logan, Robert Walker, and
Gretchen Hunt. The two women were brought to America on false promises of good work and fair
pay as domestic workers in a home. However, their documents were confiscated upon arrival and
the women were heavily abused and taken advantage of for five years in this home. Including this
account in my essay will provide readers with a real example of the horrible reality of human
trafficking. In the second section of my essay, I will propose mandatory training of law enforcement
officials in order to identify victims and ensure that they are not labeled as criminals. I will also
emphasize the importance of increasing awareness about the issue of human trafficking among the
general public to help rescue victims and prevent trafficking situations. I will explain how victims
come into contact with people other than their traffickers but are often unable to directly ask for
help. Frequently, women trapped in trafficking have a crippling fear of their trafficker and would not
dare to brave the unknown of calling for help, even if

International Law Threatens Western Countries
In recent years, with the increasing attention to varieties of international crime, comparative
criminology becomes a major field in criminology and criminal justice (Bennett, 2004:2).
Comparative criminology is important for the designation and implementation of international
policies and preventive measures on international crime; hence there are a rising amount of studies
regarding crime and control on a cross–national level. Therefore, in this essay, how do violations of
international laws present a direct threat to Western countries will be discussed in the first part, then
the understanding of such threats and justice perpetrators of international crime will be examined in
relation to comparative criminology in the second and the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Held et al also argue that with the spread of interconnection of crime across national boarders, it
creates new opportunities and forms of global crime such as transnational organized crime, IP crime
and human smuggling and trafficking (Held, et al., 1999:162). For instance, Castells points out that
the Western societies acts as the demand side in a global criminal economy, they are in a high
demand of drugs and prostitutes, which can be supplied and produced in a third world drug
producing countries such as Columbia (Castells, 1998, cited in Puniskis, 2010:239). Furthermore,
apart from the reasons that these crimes are prevalent in the Western nations, it becomes a
controversial issue as it violates the international laws regarding humanity. For example, human
smuggling and trafficking is an illegal sale of human beings that contains exploitation and coercion.
According to Leman and Janssens, it is apparent that human trafficking is a violation of human
rights in the way that it requires exploitation of human such as prostitution, non–voluntary form of
sexual behavior, forced labor or services as well as slavery or slavery–like conditions (Leman and
Janssens, 2012:175). Therefore, the coercive nature of such crime presents a violation

The Recent State Sanctioned Chinese Cyber Attacks Against...
In this paper I will take an in depth look at the recent state sanctioned Chinese cyber–attacks against
United States organizations and agencies. These attacks have had profound effects, ultimately
altering structures and processes. Government officials are calling for millions of dollars in training
and defense measures, while many are now becoming aware of a new type of threat. The inter–
organizational relationships, external environment, and ecosystem have also been denaturised. I will
also take a look at scholarly definitions of war and how they may be applied to the issue at hand.
Finally, I will examine the United Nation's doctrine and deem whether these attacks should be
considered aggressive acts made by China, and what may ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
We are a Nation on the fringe of another war. We have military personnel engaged in advise and
assist roles in places like Iraq and Afghanistan, attacks occurring on our home soil, and cyber–
warfare issues still unresolved. These issues are prevalent across various organizations, as seen in
the weekly updates that I receive from the U.S. Naval Academy Information Technology department
in which employee personal information was compromised, describing how our home network has
been affected and security measures that have been implemented to protect us from further attack.
The United States code and the United Nations charter provide a great framework for the
determination of the cyber–attacks, with each organization implementing their own written doctrine
and instructions. The U.S. code defines an "act of war" and the United Nations charter provides the
foundation to determine what is deemed an "act of aggression" (U.N. Code, 1992, U.N Charter,
1945).
While actively engaged in conflict, we are members of a very complex, unstable, and ever–changing
environment. Scholars like Sun–Tzu and Clausewitz have both studied warfare extensively, and
approach it from two very different angles. These approaches provide two main schools of thought
when considering warfare and should be understood so that a place may be found for cyber–warfare.
Sun Tzu's (2013) main theme contends that weapons

Ralph Bunche : An American Odyssey 1998
Book Review: Ralph Bunche: An American Odyssey 1998
Brian Urquhart author of Ralph Bunche: An American Odyssey 1998 brings Ralph Bunche back to
life. Looking into Bunche's research, books and life as a colleague of Bunche Brian Urquhart writes
a bibliography depicting Bunche's career. In his biography Bunche appears here as one of the major
American diplomatic figures of this century and one of the towering leaders in African American
history. Brian Urquhart allows readers to have an imaginary idea of living through Ralph Bunche's
shoes. His book gives the reader an idea of Bunche's up bring, lifestyle, marriage, setbacks and
accomplishments and his historic journey of an African American man living the American dream
holding one of highest positions under the United Nations.
Ralph Johnson Bunche was born on August 7, 1903 and died on December 9, 1971. He was an
American political scientist, educator, and diplomat who received the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize for
his late 1940s mediation in Israel. He was the first African American to be awarded and honored in
the history of the Nobel Peace Prize. He was also Involved in the formation and administration of
the United Nations. With all of his hard work he was in 1963, he was awarded the Medal of
Freedom by President John F. Kennedy. Ralph Bunche knows as the tool of the west, but to other he
was the undercover agent of the Soviet Union. He was like the international Uncle Tom however
others considered him to be a role model for

The Pros And Cons Of Erga Omnes
In the international law, believed that as cooperation between state–like entities most probably
started with simple trade agreements. These agreements were usually concluded on a bilateral level
and defined the relationship between two states. The idea of an international community only
appeared much later and its first indications can be traced back to the 17th century with the famous
peace treaties of Westphalia, when states stroke for a balance of power. However, only in the 19th
century states began to develop international treaties in which general rules were laid out such as the
Declaration of Paris regarding the freedom of the sea (1856) or the General Act of the Brussels
Conference in 1890 that established an International Maritime ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
These obligations protect a collective interest of the parties. Although not every party might be
injured in case of their violation all parties – due to the fact that the obligation protects the collective
interest and not only individual interest – have an interest that the obligations are adhered to and in
case of violation can be enforced. It has been identified as a problem that 'omnes' – apart from it
being a Latin phrase and thus by its very nature not clear at first sight – may "either refer to all
others collectively, or to each of the others individually".
Erga omnes and erga omnes partes norms were very precisely defined by the Institute de Droit
International as
"(a) An obligation under general international law that a State owes in any given case to the
international community, in view of its common values and its concern for compliance, so that a
breach of that obligation enables all States to take action; or
(b) An obligation under a multilateral treaty that a State party to the treaty owes in any given case to
all the other States parties to the same treaty, in view of their common values and concern for
compliance, so that a breach of that obligation enables all these States to take

The United Nations Charter Of Human Rights
The International Community argues that the Sentencia 168–14 is in violation of international law.
Upon analyzing the situation, it becomes clear that the DR is in violation of a number of
international laws. I will outline a number of Articles of the United Nations Charter of Human
Rights and attempt to show how the DR are or could be considered in violation of these laws.
Article 9 of the Charter states that: "no one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile".
Reports by Amnesty International have claimed that this has been the case. Many migrants,
particularly those of Haitians decent are arbitrarily deported. They are sent to a country that they
have never visit. AS presented by the IACHR: "phenotypical characteristics and a darker skin color
were decisive factors when individuals were selected for detention and subsequent expulsion." This
act by the authorities indicates a clear pattern of discrimination. Amnesty International has also
made reports of authorities destroying documents of Haitians, which would be able to prove their
legal status in the DR. Article 15 of the Charter states that: (1) "Everyone has the right to a
nationality" and (2) "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to
change his nationality." This violation is at the center of the Haiti–Dominican situation. The new
ruling has left thousands stateless. As aforementioned, many reasons were given for not granting
birth certificates and ID cards to

Why Is It The Interest Of United Law?
Why is it in the interest of states to obey International Law? ABSTRACT A growing discussion
amongst IR scholars and International legal scholars alike has been the debate on if International
law (IL) is really law especially since it lacks the basic characteristics of domestic law. Is
international law a law just in name or in action also? If it is a law, do states obey this Law? And
why will it be in the interest of a state to obey such law (if it does exist). This essay is an attempt to
explain what IL is and to point out likely reasons why it is in a state interest to obey IL. This essay is
drawn largely from work written by various scholars at different times to draw my conclusion
INTRODUCTION: All states in the contemporary international system, both great and small, are
compelled to justify their behaviour according to an international legal framework. Although
Goldsmith & Posner (2005:4) contended that due to the fact that most academic work on
International Law has been written by Law Professors, they explained that these scholars have all
shared an assumption which is not empirical enough, these assumptions drawn from the
international rules of opinion juris (the "sense of legal obligation" that makes customary
international law binding) and pacta sunt servanda (the rule that all treaties must be obeyed) They
however opined that Contemporary international law scholarship does not deny that states have
interests and they try to pursue them. This essay seeks to

Comparing The United Nations and the North Atlantic...
The United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are two different groups, but they
affect the world in the same way. They both want to make a difference in today's world, they strive
for peace and prosperity, and they work hard to accomplish their goals. The UN and NATO are
similar in the way they are organized. They are each structured into several groups. They both have
councils, a Secretary General, and Secretariat. The UN is made up of six organs. They are the
council, Secretariat, and International Court of Justice. NATO is made up of the Defense Planning
Committee, Nuclear Atlantic Cooperation Council.
UN and NATO were both formed after major crises in the world. UN was being formed during and
after WWII. In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They have different purposes, but they basically strive for the same goals. UN's purpose is to
preserve world peace and security, encourage nations to be just in their actions toward each other,
help nations cooperate in trying to solve their problems, and serve as an agency through which
nations can work toward these goals. NATO's purpose is to enhance the stability, well–being, and
freedom of its members by means of collective security. UN and NATO are involved in many of the
problems in the world today. Both the UN and NATO have been actively involved in Kosovo. In
recent years, the UN has been trying to keep peace in Central African Republic. The UN sent
peacekeepers to Central African
Republic because they had suffered three separate army mutinies in 1996. The UN operation is
helping to maintain security in the capital of Bangui. They also helped to provide a secure place for
the elections and they trained the country's police. In Siberia Leone, there have been revenge attacks
by the former military group called Junta. Hundreds of villagers had been killed and thousands more
mutilated by former Junta troops hiding in the country. The Security Counsel voted to establish a
70–member team that worked with peacekeepers to reduce Junta. They also support to restore the
new government. The UN pledged 55 million dollars in humanitarian aid for refugees there and in
neighboring countries. In June of 1998, the Security Council lifted an arms

Dualist Vs Monist
The chapter begins with explaining the two ways to view the relationship between domestic and
international law – the monist view and the dualist view. Monists believe that, "international law is
automatically part of a state's domestic legal system... the executive is obliged to follow
international law, even in the face of contrary domestic law..." (DRW, 209). On the other hand,
dualists believe that, "international and domestic law govern different actors and issues. Each state
determines for itself, whether, when and how international law is incorporated into domestic law..."
(210). The case of Missouri v. Holland (1920), and Reid v. Covert (1957) discuss the limits to the
U.S Government's power to make and implement international agreements since Article VI of the
U.S Constitution claims that, "all treaties made, or which shall be made under the authority of the
United States shall be the supreme law of the land, and they shall prevail over inconsistent state
laws" (216). According to Mr. Justice Holmes' delivery of the opinion of the court in the Missouri v.
Holland (1920) case, a different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Covert case, Mrs. Clarice Covert murdered her husband in England, who happens to be a sergeant in
the U.S Air Force. She was not given a trial, and was "found guilty and sentenced to life
imprisonment" (218). However, the United States and Great Britain had an agreement which
"permitted U.S' military courts to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over offenses committed in Great
Britain..." (220). Under Article 2(11) of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), Mrs. Covert
is "accompanying the armed forces without the continental limits of the United States..." (219).
Therefore, according to the international agreement, "even though a court–martial does not give an
accused trial by jury...can be sustained as legislation which is necessary and proper to carry out
United States' obligations under international agreements made with those countries"

A Report On The State Of Agnostica Essay
Statement of Facts 2. In the eighteenth century a European power conquered the Thanatosian plains
and included the region as two separately–administered colonies, Reverentia and Agnostica.
Reverentia was located in the eastern half of the plain and functioned as the manufacturing and
urban trading center of the Thanatosian region. Agnostica was located in the western half of the
plains and enjoyed fertile land and abundant mineral resources. Agnostica often exported its raw
materials into Reverentia for refining, processing, and sale. In 1919, approximately 30 percent of the
population in Agnostica was ethnic Reverentian. 3. The ruling European power granted
independence to Agnostica and Reverentia in 1925. Consequentially, the Federal Republic of
Agnostica and the State of Reverentia were established on 1 August 1925. Reverentians remaining
in Agnostica were called Agnorevs. 4. The territory of Agnostica is the only area in the world that
contains deposits of Marthite, a natural mineral salt which is known to possess restorative
properties. On 14 April 1938, Agnostica and Reverentia agreed on a bilateral treaty called the
Marthite Convention. The convention outlined the process of Reverentia refining, processing, and
then selling the mineral for the purpose of traditional practice for Reverentians and Agnosticans. 5.
In February 2012, the Agnostican Prime Minister contacted the President of Reverentia, proposing
to terminate the Marthite Convention. The Prime Minster

Anticipatory (Pre-emptive) Self-defence: The Need for a...
Anticipatory (Pre–emptive) Self–defence: The Need for a Modern Approach
The use of military force is a valid customary international law norm and it is enshrined in the
United Nations Charter. Nevertheless, the use of force is only authorised if it falls under one of two
categories: self–defence (article 41 of the United Nations Charter), or Security Council
authorisation. To justify a resort to pre–emptive war, a state must give reasonable proof that the
action is necessary to the vital national security interests of the state, and that the act of aggression
in self–defence is proportional, according to Charter principles. The threat imposed by an aggressor
must be proven to be clear and imminent, direct, critical to the state ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The term "War on Terrorism" itself refers to the policy made by President Bush immediately
following the September 11 terrorist attacks, declaring that the U.S. would "make no distinction
between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbour them".[1] The immediate
application of this policy was the invasion of Afghanistan in early October 2001, when the Taliban
controlled government of Afghanistan refused to hand over the well–known al–Qaida terrorist
leader Osama bin Laden. This new United States policy inferred that any nation refusing to
cooperate with American efforts to attack terrorists would be considered an enemy state. On
September 20, in a televised address, Bush summed up this policy with the words, "Every nation, in
every region, now has a decision to make. Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists."[2]
This doctrine is argued to be contrary to the classical concept of a just war which requires, among
other stipulations, that war must only be conducted in self–defence. Supporters of the doctrine
counter that the state–sponsorship of terrorism is in itself a first act of war, and that the US is acting
justly when it answers with military actions.
The question is whether or not the existence of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) at the hands of
terrorists and non–state actors changes the act

Environmental Pollution And Natural Resource Management
Our existence depends on how well we plans and implement policy through international
cooperation. As our population continue to increase in the twenty–first, it will provide us with the
clue about how we make sustainable plans about our future generation. Our present generation
continue to consume more resources than what is presently in production, thus increasing
consumption level which have created water shortages, forest depletion for urbanization, more
energy consumption, and food crisis, diseases and many more environmental problems. As the result
of this, a evolving of transboundary effects of environmental pollution and natural resource
management, soil erosion environmental problem and degradation continues to happen as the ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This examples strengthens international environmental laws and brought new developments to
managing pollution across national borders. It is important to write that the establishment of an
international tribunal environmental by the both countries was a unique decision. The tribunal
allows both countries to settle the Trail Smelter dispute in a peaceful manner. However, it is vital to
understand that International agreements and bilateral arrangements play a leading role in global
efforts to protect the environment and promote a safer environmental for its residents. While these
agreements promote international environmental laws and binding obligations they demonstrate
efforts that strengthen international relations and cooperation between countries as well as built
consensus on environmental issues globally. Although there are evidence that some countries do not
sign international

How Does the UN Charter Try to Limit the Incidence and the...
During World War I and World War II countries lost enough human and economical resources that
they decided to establish principles embodied in the form of the United Nations to
"practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our
strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles
and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest,
and..." According to the Charter of the United Nations, maintaining international peace and security
is the main purpose of the United Nations. To ensure that this goal can be meet, the Security Council
has been set up as the UN organ that decides about the security ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Article 51 of the chapter recognises the right of self–defence for the members of the United Nations
until the Council determines and proceeds to maintain peace.
The UN Charter also encourages the regional arrangements to be active in the scene and prevent any
threat to international security. Chapter VIII highlights the importance of cooperation of the regional
agencies with the Security Council in preventing and resolving the security problems.
Interpretations and applications of the UN Charter to limit war incidents and their severity
There are different interpretations of what might be a threat to international peace and security and
when is the case for a country to self–defence. However, there are issues that are unanimously
considered as threats by the Security Council and other UN members. These are the incidents that
may result to a war including disputes over the geographical possession of a territory and resources
(i.e. Kashmir dispute) and ethnicity or ideological conflicts (Balkan). War may also be fuelled by the
economical interests of a group or a country as it was the case with rebels funded by conflict
diamond in Angola and Sierra Leone.
It has been argued that there are some levels of inconsistency between the international law and the
UN Charter in defining what might be a threat and when a threat should be confronted. Should a

The Battle Of The War On The State, And Post Cold War
Introduction: Ever since the Napoleonic Wars, war was a concept that was considered to be under
the purview of the State, however this belief is inherently wrong. In all of history, warfare has been
engaged by private actors as opposed to the State. In fact, the State as the dominant actor in warfare
should be understood as the exception, rather than the norm. Even though the State has not been the
dominant actor in warfare, there were certainly multiple attempts by the State to control, or have
governance over warfare as a whole. For the purposes of understanding governance over privatized
warfare, there are three major time periods that should be reviewed: The Middle Ages, the Rise of
the State, and Post–Cold–War society. In an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Even though there has not been global governance over the Private Military Corporation, there were
some attempts at global governance over privatized violence as a whole. Two major international
documents which contribute to the discussion on global governance over privatized war happen to
be: The United Nation's International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and
Training of Mercenaries and the International Committee of the Red Cross's Montreux Document.
The creation of these documents have also been impacted by non–state actors such as committees or
regional groups.
Governance of the Mercenary Mercenaries have existed for years before the Middle Ages, and have
continued well into the 20th century. During the Middle Ages, the political system of feudalism, and
the economies contributed greatly to the prominence and strength of Mercenaries. It is also worth
noting that because of the strength and prominence of Mercenaries, it was hard to have governance
over these entities. The rise of the State fundamentally shifted the way privatized war was looked at.
With the rise of the State, warfare shifted from the private sector into the hands

International Dispute Settlement : An Inevitable Element...
Disputes between states are an inevitable element of international relations, especially in an
increasingly globalized and interconnected world. International dispute settlement methods not only
mitigate the consequences of a dispute, but given that the parties are acting in good faith, it can
resolve a dispute entirely. The first chapter begins by offering a definition of a dispute;
distinguishing it from a conflict and general tension or animosity. Also crucial to the understanding
of international disputes is the distinction of a political dispute versus a legal dispute, and those
which are justiciable or not. Solving international disputes by peaceful means as opposed to the use
of force can be traced back to ancient times. In the last century, however, there has been a trend that
has seen these methods become increasingly favoured and institutionalized. This commitment of
using peaceful settlement rather than resorting to violence is present in many bilateral and
multilateral treaties as well as a part of customary law. The United Nation's Charter backed by its
193 signatory states, is perhaps the most prominent source that imposes this obligation on states. It
prohibits the use of force in Article 2(4): 'All Members shall refrain in their international relations
from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state,
or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.'
As well as imposes

World Order: The Charter Of The United Nations
The United Nations has been effective to a certain extent in providing resolutions to threats of world
order. Its structure and functioning was designed to curtail the negative effects of globalisation, such
as the spread of transnational threats, and to grant peace and security. The Charter of the United
Nations with a purpose to strive for peace and security and act in a manner that reduces threats
established the UN in 1945. Specifically through the establishment of the UN refugee agency it has
been effective in responding to the threat of increasing refugees in Syria by providing humanitarian
assistance. Additionally, it is the strongest, wide reaching and well respected global peace initiative
as it retains support and commitment from

Humanitarian Intervention : Humanitarian Interventions
Bernard Corpus International Politics Humanitarian Intervention Humanitarian Intervention What is
humanitarian intervention? Well there is no standardized definition that has been made official, but
general consensus typically refers it, as using military force to intervene in another states affairs. A
blogger from Ljubljana, Slovenia defines humanitarian intervention as; a state 's use of "military
force against another state when the chief publicly declared aim of that military action is ending
human–rights violations being perpetrated by the state against which it is directed." (Marjanovic).
With that said, this paper will examine the article "Is Humanitarian Intervention Legal? The Rule of
Law in an Incoherent World", written by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I appreciated how the UN article was cited within the research, because it effectively clarified the
plain language, especially when treaties conflicted with select articles contained within the charter.
Hurd, eloquently displayed his argument in such a manner, that the plain language argument came
across as; strong, clear, and concise. However, there were some disagreements I had while reading
the argument, they were promptly addressed during his argument for legality. In the case for legality
Hurd presents three cases that utilize compelling arguments "about the changes in the law as a result
of state behavior in the Charter era, and so is useful for examining the dynamic relationship between
international law and state practice" (Hurd). All three cases essentially dive into the interpretation of
the language of international law and its ambiguity, more so entering the realm of justifiable war.
His argument of the legality issue was strong, as well. The argument, also shows historical practices
of humanitarian intervention, a "norms–into–law" approach, and a contingent sovereignty approach
(the idea of contingent sovereignty suggests that if a

Facebook : A Social Media Company Essay
Introduction Facebook Incorporated is a social media company based in the United States that
founded Facebook in 2004 and later purchased Instagram and WhatsApp. These social media
platforms are accessible in multiple countries through the internet and apps on cell phones and
tablets. As of November 2016 Instagram has over 200 million users, Facebook has over 1.79 billion
users, and WhatsApp has 500 million users (zephoria). None of the platforms charge a membership
fee and are completely free to use. Facebook Incorporated makes a profit by charging third party
companies for advertising to their users. In fiscal year 2015 the company had a revenue of 17,928
million (NASDAQ). Through these platforms a user is able to upload photos, videos, and message
other users. Information including photos and videos from Instagram and WhatsApp are connected
to an individual's Facebook account. Facebook differentiates itself from the other two platforms by
allowing a user to add information to their profile. This information includes: name, gender, birth
date, email address, hometown, education, hobbies, interests, relationship status, sexual orientation,
and current address. Facebook also utilizes a facial recognition system that can assist a user in
tagging someone in a photo. All of the aforementioned user information is supposed to be protected
and user controlled through a privacy agreement that one agrees to when signing up for a new
account or when an updated agreement is released.

The Rights And Power Of Nato
NATO is currently violating the sovereignty of many states, which is considered the greatest breach
of international law. Humanitarian interventions led by NATO are becoming big controversies as
many individuals and states are wary of the fact that they do not support world peace. Many unruly
interventions have taken place such as the war in Kosovo in 1998. The motives behind the war as
well as the means used to conduct it will be focused on in this research paper. NATO–fought wars
often tend to leave a large number of casualties, leaving the world horrified and one step further
from world peace. In addition, it is important to study the rights and power of NATO to understand
the implications of international law in politics and the worldwide realist paradigm we live in. This
paper will help to further our understanding of the issue at hand, which is the overbearing
intervention happening in the world and NATO's role in controlling the power it holds. The use of
NATO's power will be critiqued and explained to finally show that it should not have the right to
violate another state since it is violating international law, it is known for its atrocious acts during
wars, such as unsolicited bombings, throughout history like in Afghanistan in 2001, and since its
original purpose of creation is no longer valid, it is not a legitimate organization. This research
paper will demonstrate that NATO has no legitimacy to intervene in worldwide cases because of the
legal constraints in

A Brief Note On The United Nations Charter
Concerning Paragraph 139 from the Responsibility to Protect, the United Nations Charter presents a
possible solution that lies in Chapter VII. The United Nations has the authority to establish an
international trusteeship which would place Syria under a provisional control of another nation. A
trusteeship would assist the Syrian government in creating a peaceful order, foster social and
economic growth, and pressure them to respect human rights. Powerful nations like Russia or the
United States or another state mutually agreed upon could be shortlisted to help the Syrian
government, moderate rebels, and the international community halt the vicious and ruthless threat
that the Islamic State poses to the security of Syria.
An international ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Resolution 1970, which was adopted on February 26th, 2011, and expressed grave and immediate
concern by condemning the horrific violence inflicted on the people under the authority of the
Libyan government led by Muammar Gaddafi. The resolution welcomed many of the regions within
international community in expressing concern against the systematic attacks. The resolution urged
for the creation of an independent internal commission to investigate the severity of the
International Human Rights violations that were being inflicted on the Libyan civilians by the
Gaddafi government. The resolution also demanded immediate action to determine those
responsible, as the systematic attacks inflicted on the Libyan civilian populations by the Gaddafi
government were widely considered to be crimes against humanity. Resolution 1970 urged for
Libyan authorities to obey and maintain its responsibility to protect its civilians while holding those
responsible for the attacks accountable. The resolution emphasizes that while it is important to hold
the Libyan authorities responsible for these attacks to account, it must also be done while respecting
the sovereignty, independence and national unity of Libya.
There are many notable courses of action that Resolution 1970 demanded of. It set requirement for
Libyan authorities to meet the needs of the

The Pros And Cons Of The Global Information Age
The Global Information Age has inevitably transformed the world into a global village with an
elastic and wide range of digital connectivity. The digital era, specifically the cyberspace, has
become an infrastructure for various forms of development may such as in political, business,
economic and military aspects. Despite the advantages, the Global Information Age may be a crucial
avenue which may threaten national and international security and sovereignty. In an international
level, The United Nations has been adamant in combating this issue with the adoption of A/69/112
or the Developments in the field of information and telecommunications in the context of
international security, and, A/68/98 or most commonly known as the Group of Governmental
Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of
International Security. The United Nations Office for Disarmament Affair (UNODA), ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Through various resolutions such as A/RES/47/135 or the Declaration on the Rights of Persons
Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities states the purpose of the UN is
to achieve international cooperation by respecting human rights in aspects of race, religion, sex and
language as proclaimed in the UN Charter. A significant cornerstone of the UN to combat the issue
at hand is the United Nations Independent Expert on minority issues, which was established 2005
and promoted the implementation of the United Nations Minority Declaration to create a
mechanism to have dialogues between various governments and their ethnic minorities. To ensure
that the various rights contained in international human rights conventions are recognized, various
committees were established such as the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
and the Human Rights

The Republic of Crimea: A Brief Analysis
The Republic of Crimea is situated on a peninsula extending from the south of Ukraine between the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. It is separated from Russia by the Kerch Strait. After the Cold War
protests broke out against the pro–Moscow government led by Viktor Yanukovych. He stepped
down and was replaced by Olexander Turchynov as the interim Prime Minister. A referendum was
held and the great majority of the Russian–speaking Crimean people wished Crimea to become a
part of the Russian Federation. Since Crimea was a part of Russia until 1954 there is a basis for this
accession. The referendum was considered illegal and sanctions were imposed on Russia by the
United States of America and certain European countries. In 1996 the Ukrainian constitution
declared that Crimea would have independent republic status. Crimea has its own official parliament
as well; however, as an unofficial parliament called the Mejlis, whose resolve is to endorse the
rights and interests of the Crimean Tatars.
The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States was signed in Uruguay on the 26th
of December 1933 and sets out the requirements for statehood as a permanent population, a defined
territory, a government and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. Crimea is divided
into 14 districts. Its population is 2 018 400 people, including 1 265 900 people who live in cities
and 752 500 people in rural towns. It is roughly is 26,1 thousand square km and borders the

Importance Of World Order
World Order refers to the creation of global relationships and maintenance of world peace. The
process governs affiliations between nation–states and other global participants, including
transnational corporations, regional federations, intergovernmental and non–government
organisations. World order and nation–state interactions form the backbone of economic
interdependence and globalisation.
The maintenance of world order is conducted via the watchful eye of the United Nations (UN). The
UN is the most important body in maintaining world order and was established after World War II.
It enforces treaties by imposing sanctions, has a judicial arm in the International Court of Justice
(ICJ), creates declarations and customary law, registers treaties, makes decisions on world order
issues and fosters economic and social cooperation between nation–states.
Without world order, and the bodies and laws that govern relationships between nations and other
global participants, there would be international anarchy; this could potentially lead to world
conflict and global destruction. World order and nation–state interactions form the backbone of
economic interdependence and globalisation.
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is the principle organ of the UN and is responsible to
maintain international peace and security and resolve international problems of economic, social or
humanitarian nature. The role often involves responding to crisis' around the world by establishing

An Essay About Immigration Immigrants
Vo: What made them leave their homes? .... What made them choose this country? .... What new
lives are they building in the United States?
Insert title: Immigrant's Stories
Vo: I came to the United States wanting to find out what is the perspective of immigrants about the
American Dream?... A very popular subject among us, people from other countries around the
world.
So, I decided to document this experience to check some myths and facts about immigration and the
American dream, through the life of eight immigrants.
IRIS RIOS: I'm from Mexico and I was 3 years old when I came to the United States....
My dad says that he was tired of having things given to him, he wanted to work everything for
himself, so one day he just told my mom hey, you know, we need a better life for ourselves, we need
to move out of my mom's house, and we need to struggle on our own and built ourselves up. And he
couldn't do that in Mexico because if he struggled my grandma will be like, oh, do you want
money? I can give you money, here you go, or do you need this? I can give you this, you know, he
was kind of tied down to her, and he didn't want that anymore, so he came up here and he wanted to
know the real struggle.
SUDESHNA ROY: I'm originally from Kolkata which is called "Kulgata" in East part of India, and
I came to the U.S. in 2004.
There was a consulting ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But I think that was the persona that was given, that you go to America you get an opportunity and
there is a lot of opportunities in America, is just not the way, it's not the whole

International Organizational Feuds : Acts Of Aggression
International organizational feuds: acts of aggression?
In this paper I will take an in depth look at recent state sanctioned Chinese cyber–attacks against
United States organizations and agencies. These attacks have had profound effects, ultimately
altering structures and processes. Government officials are calling for millions of dollars in training
and defense measures, while many are now becoming aware of a new type of threat. The inter–
organizational relationships, external environment, and ecosystem have also been denaturized. I will
also take a look at scholarly definitions of war and how they may be applied to the issue at hand.
Finally, I will examine the United Nation's doctrine and deem whether these attacks should be
considered aggressive acts made by China, and what may result.
Before state sanctioned cyber–attacks against U.S. organizations, infrastructure, and government
can be analyzed, the concepts and environment surrounding the issue must be explored. These
concepts include the traditional theoretical views of war and armed conflict, the current definitions
of cyber–warfare, and the relationship of armed conflict and law in the changing landscape of the
twenty–first century. Many of these concepts are still actively debated today due to building and
breaking of relationships, evolving nature of cyber warfare, and the dynamism phenomenon or state
of the environment, which Daft (2016) defines as "stable or unstable, simple or complex" (p.146). In

The Importance Of International Law
International law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in relations between
states, to the maintenance of international peace and security. Although, some of the country may
agree to definition of international norms, there are some countries that does not agree with the
United Nation international laws that generally accepted as international norms. Even though, some
country does not agree with UN international laws, because of the powerful nation that are the
member of the nation, the Security Council can enforce their international law via various ways
toward a state or individual; and the International court of Justice (ICJ) also give advisory opinion to
get settle between state to state conflict, in accordance with international law.
Security Council is key decision making UN principle organ that create and apply international law.
Security Council mandate is to maintain international peace and security; to develop friendly
relations among nations; to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for
human rights; and to be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations according UN Charter.
According to the Chapter VI: Pacific Settlement of disputes, Article 33 (1) state that "the parties to
any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace
and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation,
arbitration, judicial

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