Annotated Bibliography For Kidney Disease

Annotated Bibliography For Kidney Disease
Annotated Bibliography
"End–Stage Renal Disease and Hemodialysis." Films Media Group, 2005,
fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=107953&xtid=43852. Accessed 25 Feb. 2018.
The body contains two kidneys. Each kidney has millions of tiny filters called nephrons. The
nephrons, known as the functional unit of the kidneys, are needed to perform the main functions of
the kidney which are: the removal of excess fluid, removal of excess waste and maintaining an acid
base balance. The two main causes of ESRD or End Stage Renal Failure are hypertension, which is
high blood pressure, and diabetes. There are five stages of renal failure, moreover, you are typically
not considered to be in ESRD until stage five.
National Kidney Foundation. Dietary ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I specifically researched the kidney diet. Patients on hemodialysis are only allowed to have 32
ounces of fluid per day. This would not only include the things they drink, but also foods that melt at
room temperature. Therefore, ice cream, soup, ice, and jello would all be considered fluid.
Consuming high protein is also a recommendation. Avoiding high sodium, high potassium and high
phosphorus foods are imperative. Consequently, If the patients ate too much potassium it could lead
to a heart attack.
Akho, J. A., and Hakim, N.S. Dialysis Access: Current Practice. Imperial College Press, 2014.
An Aterio–Venous Fistula or AVF is a surgical connection of an artery and a vein. This is considered
the standard preferred access because the AVF has the greatest longevity and lowest risk of
infection. The only downfall is that it takes at least 6–8 weeks to heal before it can be used. An
Arterio–Venous Graft (AVG) is created by using a synthetic gortex tubing to connect an artery and
vein. These are typically used as a second choice. One of the most positive features is that the AVG
can be used in 2–4 weeks after placement. Central Venous Catheter (CVC) is an external access
usually placed in the neck or upper chest. The positive feature of the CVC is that it can be used
immediately for hemodialysis and does not require cannulation. The downside is, there is a higher
chance of infection and the
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Adh Lab
Effect of salt intake on ADH production measured by volume and specific gravity of urine.
Hypothesis The kidney is the organ involved in the filtration of blood and excretion of toxins. An
increased ingestion of solutes creates a concentration gradient in the kidneys that causes an increase
in the production of ADH by the hypothalamus. This causes an increase in the permeability of the
distal and collecting tubes in their kidneys and an increased uptake of water (Reese et al 2011). The
purpose of this lab is to examine the effect of sodium chloride on the production of ADH by
observing the volume and density (measured as specific gravity) over a total period of 120 minutes.
Based on the given information, it can be predicted that the subjects ... Show more content on
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Since the subjects had consumed more water, there was more water that would need to be excreted.
Therefore, the membranes of the distal and collecting tubes would need to be less permeable in
order to not allow too much water to pass through. The salt group generally produced a smaller
average volume of more concentrated urine due to the fact that the increased solute concentration
promoted the production of ADH, which increased the permeability of the distal and collecting tube
membranes. More water was reabsorbed, so that left less water to be added to the urea and excreted.
The resulting urine was a smaller volume than the control and generally more concentrated due to
the lack of water being excreted. These results support previous work done in regards to
consumption of higher levels of solute resulting in an increased production of ADH and smaller
volumes of higher concentration urine (Hillyard

Two Kidneys And How They Work
Most people have two kidneys, both of which are located on the right and left sides in the upper
abdominal, near the back (National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP), 2012). The
kidneys play a major role of homeostasis within the body. A brief overview of the kidney include:
the cortex which is the outer most layer and the medulla which is the inner most layer of the kidney.
Inside of the medulla are renal pyramids, which consist of a network of millions of nephrons, sub–
units that filter blood and form urine (Stanfield, 2013, p.506–507). The nephrons consist of two
parts: the glomerulus, which is a cluster of blood vessels that help to filter waste products and fluid
from the blood; once the blood is filtered through the glomerulus it then travels to the renal tubules
where the filtered material is filtered even more and then turned into urine (Canadian Cancer
Society, 2015). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
sodium, phosphate, potassium, calcium, etc.. More specifically the hormones made in the kidneys
help to control the production of red blood cells, regulate blood pressure, and keep bones strong and
healthy (The Kidneys and How They Work, 2014). Every day, the kidneys filter through about 120–
150quarts of blood each day in order to produce 1–2quarts of urine (National Institute of Health,

Glomerular Function
The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It consists of a renal corpuscle where fluid can be
filtered and a renal tubule where the filtered fluid flows through. Nephrons perform three basic
functions, Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Glomerular filtration
occurs as pressure (glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure) forces water and dissolved blood
components through the endothelial pores of the capillaries, basement membrane, and on through
the filtration slits of the adjoining visceral wall of the glomerular capsule. The resulting fluid is
called the filtrate. Most substances in blood plasma are filtered by the renal corpuscle. However,
blood cells and most proteins are not filtered. Filtration of blood depends on the force of glomerular
blood hydrostatic pressure. Filtration fraction is the percentage of ... Show more content on
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In a normal adult is about 125 ml/minute. Glomerular blood flow depends on renal auto regulation,
hormonal, and neural regulation. Tubular reabsorption is the movement of certain components of the
filtrate back into the blood. It retains substances needed by the body, including water, glucose,
amino acids, and ions, such as sodium potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phostphate.
Reabsorption of Na+ is especially important because more of them pass the glomerular filter than
any other substance except water. Sodium ions are reabsorbed in each portion of the renal tubule by
several transport systems. Active transport of Na+ promotes reabsorption of water by osmosis. The
loss of water from the filtrate creates a concentration gradient for some substances, such as K+, Cl–,
HC03–, and urea, that promotes their

Philosophy
Josie Bechler and Emilie Konen
Part 1
1. Are any of the lab values in Table 1 out of normal range? Do you see some that are too high or
too low? The serum creatine levels, the BUN, the urinary potassium, the serum pH and sodium
clacium are high.
The sodium levels were low.
2. Which of the lab values gives you information about how Mrs. Burroughs' kidneys are
functioning?
The BUN and creatine levels
3. Does Mrs. Burroughs have acidosis or alkalosis? Why do you think this?
She has alkalosis based on her high pH level.
4. Why is the physician interested in Mrs. Burroughs' kidney function?
All the symptoms that were described were based on the kidney functions, so more and further
examination on the kidneys is needed
5. What else ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
5. What are normal levels for PTH?
150–300 pg/ml
Part 31. What enzyme catalyzes the formation of H2 CO3 from CO2 and H2O? (This enzyme also
catalyzes the formation of H2 O and CO2 from H2 CO3 .)
It is carbonic anhydrase.
2. The diagram above (Figure 1) outlines the mechanism by which H+ is actively secreted into the
PCT of the kidney nephron. What other substances must be transported from the tubular fluid into
the PCT cell
(across the apical or luminal membrane) or from the PCT cell into the interstitial fluid (across the
basolateral membrane) as part of the transport of the H+?
Potassium ions, Hydrogen ions, Ammonium ions, creatinine, urea, and hormones.
3. What would happen to the amount of H+ secreted into the renal tubule if the activity of the Na+
/K+
ATPase were increased? Are there diseases or other conditions that might enhance the activity of
this sodium pump?
If there is more NA it the ATPase will have trouble pumping correctly causing problems in the
kidneys and urination.
Part 41. Is there a problem with Mrs. Burroughs' breathing? What kind of change (if any) do you
expect to see in the respirations of a person with metabolic alkalosis?

There is no problem in her breathing at this time, but eventually there may be shortness in breath
which can cause apnea and cyanosis.
2. Can you draw a diagram that shows how the respiratory system, under the control of the central
nervous system, responds to

Artriovenous Anastomosis
Arteriovenous anastomosis (AVA) is a condition where direct connections form between an arteriole
and a venule. A circuit is created between the two and shunts blood straight through without passing
the capillary beds (Stedman, 2012). The kidneys and liver are greately affected as they are highly
vascular. When blood flow through these capillaries are compromised, it may lead to serious issues
in the organ and further the whole body.
Up to 1200ml of blood is filtered through the kidneys every minute in average adults (Jenkins,
Kemnitz and Tortora, 2010). Blood from the aorta flows into renal arteries of the kidney then
through vessels that become progressively smaller towards the nephron. Nephrons are functional
units of the kidney which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP): hydrostatic pressure exerted by fluid within the capsular space
of the glomerular capsule, and blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP): osmotic pressure resulting
from plasma proteins, oppose the GBHP and create the net filtration pressure (NFP) of 10mmHg
under normal conditions. This pressure promotes filtration of water and solutes (Jenkins, Kemnitz
and Tortora, 2010). However with the drop of GBHP, the NFP will drop and even the small supply
of blood that had not bypassed and entered the capillaries will not be filtered. Change in pressure
and levels of solutes will affect other levels such as concentration gradients of solutes and osmotic
pressure within the peritubular capillaries, interstitial fluid and renal tubules, which are vital during
tubular reabsorption and secretion. As a result, nephron function will

Histological Study : Light Microscope Examination
Histological study Light microscope examination Specimens from the left kidney from each animal
were fixed in 10% saline formalin and processed to prepare 5–μm–thick paraffin sections for
Haematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) stain (Bancroft and Gamble, 2008). Immunohistochemical study
Immunohistochemical staining for localization of nuclear factor–erythroid–2–related factor 2 (Nrf2)
was carried out by means of the avidin biotin complex (ABC) method (Dako ARK™, Peroxidase,
Code No. K3954, Dako, Glostrup, Denmark) following the manufacturer 's instructions. Paraffin
sections (4μm) were de–waxed, hydrated and microwaved in citrate buffer, pH 6, for antigen
retrieval. Endogenous peroxidase was eliminated by incubation in 10% H2O2 in phosphate–
buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.4. Nonspecific binding was blocked in a normal mouse serum at room
temperature. Then, the sections were incubated with the specific primary antibody overnight (4 °C):
anti Nrf2 antibody (rabbit polyclonal antibody; No. GTX103322; dilution 1:100–1:1000; Gene Tex,
Irvine, CA, USA). The sections were incubated with biotinylated secondary antibodies followed by
labeled horseradish peroxidase. 3, 3'–diaminobenzidine (DAB) was used as chromogen that resulted
in a brown–colored precipitate at the antigen site. Sections were counterstained with haematoxylin.
Negative control sections were incubated with PBS instead of the primary antibody. Stained slides
were analyzed by light microscopy (Ramos–Vara et al., 2008).

Proximal Convoluted Tubule Structure
Describe the structure and location of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal
convoluted tubule, collecting duct, and papillary duct. The proximal convoluted tubule measures
approximately 14 mm long and 60 μm in diameter. Simple cuboidal epithelium makes up its wall.
The cells rest on a basement membrane, which forms the outer surface of the tubule. The loops of
Henle are continuations of the proximal convoluted tubules. Each loop has two limbs: the
descending limb and the ascending limb. The first part of the descending limb is similar in structure
to the proximal convoluted tubules. The loops of Henle that extend into the medulla become very
thin near the end of the loop. The lumen in the thin part narrows, and an abrupt transition

Henle: A Case Study
The loop of Henle is a part of the kidney tubule that forms a lengthened loop within the medulla of
the kidney, this is where water and salts are resorbed into the blood. The osmolarity which is the
concentration of a solution that is to assert the total number of solute particles in each litre.
Osmolarity within the interstitium (interstitial space within a tissue or organ) continues to rise
constantly from the cortex further to the medulla and also the papilla through repeating of the single
effect by counter current flow that occurs in the branches of the loop. The ascending and descending
counter current exchanges of solutes through the renal medullary capillaries helps to reduce solute
washout from within the medullary interstitium. Counter current system also authorises the forming
of concentrated urine by the existence of ADH, this helps to increase water permeability,
hyposmotic fluid travels from the thick ascending limb then enters the distal tubule. Although, it
effects the urine concentration by losing majority of its water through osmotic equilibration, also it
affects urine concentration due to the continual loss of NaCI through the reabsorbtive along the
Distal tubule, CNT and the CCD. Counter current also authorises the forming of dilute urine which
has no ADH present. Hyposmotic fluid also ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
several types of Diuretics are chemicals that increase urinary output. Loop diuretics are dominant
due to them inhibiting the formation of the medullary gradient this helps by acting at the ascending
limb within the Henle's loop. They exert their effect by the removal of excess fluid this further
causes the Individuals kidneys to produce more urine. Because of this it results in the removal of
salts and water within the individual. The Loop Diuretics comprise of four different substances such
as Furosemide, Bumeranide, Torsemide, and also Ethacrynic acid (Marieb ; Hoehn;,

Answers Lab13 UrinarySystem Essay
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S H E E T
NAME ____________________________________
EXERCISE
LAB TIME/DATE _______________________
Anatomy of the
Urinary System
Gross Anatomy of the Human Urinary System
1. Complete the following statements.
The kidney is referred to as an excretory organ because it excretes 1 wastes. It is also a major
homeostatic organ because it maintains the electrolyte, 2 , and 3 balance of the blood.
Urine is continuously formed by the 4 and is routed down the 5 by the mechanism of 6 to a storage
organ called the 7 . Eventually, the urine is conducted to the body 8 by the urethra. In the male, the
urethra is 9 centimeters long and transports both urine and 10 . The
female ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
blood supply that directly receives substances from the tubular cells
glomerular capsule (o)
6.

its inner (visceral) membrane forms part of the filtration membrane
9. Explain why the glomerulus is such a high–pressure capillary bed. It is both fed and drained by
arterioles (which are highpressure vessels compared to venules), and the afferent arteriole has a
larger diameter than the efferent arteriole.
How does its high–pressure condition aid its function of filtrate formation? The higher the capillary
pressure, the more filtrate will be formed.
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10. What structural modification of certain tubule cells enhances their ability to reabsorb substances
from the filtrate?
Their possession of dense microvilli (especially the PCT cells).
11. Explain the mechanism of tubular secretion, and explain its importance in the urine formation
process. Tubular secretion is the process of moving substances from the tubule cells or from the
peritubular capillary blood into the tubule filtrate. It is important for adjusting pH and eliminating
substances not already in the filtrate.
12. Compare and contrast the composition of blood plasma and glomerular filtrate. Glomerular
filtrate ϭ blood plasma without most of the blood proteins.
13. Trace a drop of blood from the time it enters the kidney via the renal artery until it leaves the
kidney

Kidneys Filter Our Blood
Kidneys work rapidly throughout the day filtering out the toxic wastes that go through the body. The
kidneys filter about 180 liters of blood per day. That is three liters getting filtered 60 times per day.
But my question is does having diabetes and hypertension affect the filtration rate in the kidneys?
In the body the kidneys perform the task of filtering out the toxic wastes from the bloodstream and
then returning the clean blood back into the body for reabsorption. According to the University of
Michigan "The kidneys perform the essential function of removing waste products from the blood
and regulating the water fluid levels." The kidneys will collect toxic blood from the renal artery, and
from there the blood enters through a passageway of nephrons where the toxins are cycled out
through a series of structures.
The blood will first enter into the Bowman's Capsule. The Bowman's Capsule is an expansion of a
closed end to a renal tubule found in the cortex. Kent M. Van De Graff studies showed that "In the
Bowman's Capsule the blood gets filtered through however; it only lets smaller particles through.
Particles as big as red blood cells or that have a molecular mass greater than 69,000 can not travel
through the Bowmans Capsule and get reabsorbed into the bloodstream. From there the toxins and
blood travel into the proximal tubule. In the proximal convoluted tubule that we reabsorb most of
the materials that we need to reabsorb from the filtrate. The reabsorption of

How Dangerous Is Salt Water for Our Kidneys
Our bodies, specifically the kidneys, have the amazing ability to conserve or get rid of water when
needed through two key mechanisms. These two important players are the the loop of Henle in the
nephron and the anti–diuretic hormone (ADH) that is secreted by the pituitary gland of our
endocrine system. Our renal and endocrine systems are always working together to maintain
homeostasis and keep the ions and other substances inside our body balanced, but coping with
extremely high amounts of sodium is challenging and hard on our bodies. Although consuming a
very small amount of saltwater will not kill you, drinking large quantities of saltwater is never to be
advised. The structure of the loop of Henle in the nephron has the ability to either filter out or keep
ions within the loop. First, the dilute filtrate goes through the glomerulus of the nephron where it is
losing water, glucose, hormones, and other ions in the proximal convoluted tubule. It travels down
the descending limb of the loop which is only permeable to water. Water is reabsorbed out passively
leaving the filtrate extremely concentrated with sodium and chloride ions. The filtrate then travels
back up the ascending limb which is permeable to ions and not to water. The sodium and chloride
ions are filtered out and absorbed actively at this stage. By the time the filtrate reaches the distal
convoluted tubule, it is dilute again. It then travels down the collecting duct. It concentrates the
sodium and chloride out

Homeostasis Essay
Homeostasis Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment. This is
very important for organisms because:
Â· Chemical reactions can take place at predictable rates.
Â· Mechanisms are more efficient as optimum conditions can be maintained for enzymes, etc.
Â· Organisms can acquire a degree of independence from the environment. They need not be
limited to one geological location where the conditions fit their needs, but can spread out. Their
activity is also not restricted to a certain time, season, etc.
Principles of Homeostasis:
All homeostasis mechanisms follow approximately the same steps. ... Show more content on
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Fat Metabolism:
* Lipids entering the liver may either be broken down or modified for transport to storage areas
elsewhere in the body.
* Excess cholesterol in the blood is excreted into the bile by the liver, which conversely can
synthesize cholesterol when that absorbed by the intestines is inadequate for the body's need.
Breakdown of Erythrocytes:
* The liver breaks down red blood cells at the end of their 120–day life span.
* The Kupffer cells lining the sinusoids carry out this breakdown, producing the bile pigment
bilirubin which is excreted in the bile.
* Iron from red blood cells is either stored in the liver or used in the formation of new blood cells by
the bone marrow.
Detoxification:

* The liver renders harmless or removes toxic materials absorbed by the intestines.
* Kupffer cells ingest foreign organisms or material, while toxic chemicals (e.g. alcohol, nicotine)
are made safe by chemical conversions within hepatocytes.
Deamination of Amino Acids:
Â· The liver breaks down any surplus amino acids because the body is unable to store them as such.
Â· The amino group (–NH2) is removed from the amino acid and converted to ammonia (NH3).
Â· The organic residue enters the Krebs cycle and

The Effects Of Water On The Body Weight
Water is about 60% of the adult human body weight. The relative importance of water is readily
apparent through the role it plays in various systems of the body. The popular notion, therefore,
exists that one must drink eight 8–oz glasses of water, which amounts to about 2 L, per day.
Currently, the Institute of Medicine states that the total beverage intake for men should be about 13
cups or 3 L and for women 9 cups or 2.2 L ("Water: How Much..."). The right amount of water one
should drink each day ultimately depends on a number of factors, such as where one lives, the
amount of activity, and personal health. My average daily water intake is less than the recommended
amount of 2–3 L, which affects the physiological functions of my cardiovascular and renal systems.
A low water intake affects the healthy functioning of the cardiovascular system. The decrease in
effective circulating volume, or the extracellular fluid in the blood vessels that perfuse the tissues,
decreases end diastolic volume that is not compensated for by the end systolic volume, which
exhibits a smaller decline. As a result, the stroke volume decreases because the left ventricle does
not fill up as much with blood. The large reduction in end diastolic volume and stroke volume is
mainly a result of the decrease in venous return due to the reduced amount of fluid circulating in the
body (Stohr et al. 894). This leads to a reduction in arterial and atrial pressure, which decreases the
stretch of the blood

Renal Regulation of Blood Osmolarity
Abstract: The experiment was done to demonstrate the effect of ADH on the volume and
concentration of urine in order to demonstrate the control of ADH over blood plasma osmolarity.
Since non–invasive methods were preferred the volume and concentration of urine was used in
place of drawing blood. The results that we our anticipating are that ADH levels in the group of
subjects that ingested the 6 gm. Of NaCl would increase over time in response to the increased
osmolarity of the blood from all of the salt. Urine output would decrease and eventually the body
would stabilize.
Purpose: In this experiment, renal regulation of osmolarity will be demonstrated through the use of
urinalysis.
Materials and Methods: In this experiment, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The purpose of executing this experiment was to essentially illustrate our body's compensatory
mechanisms via hormone regulation to maintain homeostasis. Osmolarity of bodily fluids need to be
in their appropriate "normal ranges" in order for the body as a whole to maintain "normal or
healthy" functions. A disruption of homeostasis will eventually lead to disease whether acute or
chronic if the compensatory mechanisms within our bodies are not working appropriately. Although
the kidneys are the focus of the action, renal regulation of osmolarity goes well beyond the kidneys.
The hormones involved in the process are ADH, aldosterone, and the few involved in the renin–
angiotensin system. Due to the fact that ADH was the target of our experiment, we will begin with
the anatomy and physiology involved with ADH. The cell bodies of the supra–optic nucleus of the
hypothalamus are the site of synthesis of ADH, and the site of the osmoreceptors that detect changes
in blood osmolarity. The posterior pituitary is the site of release for ADH. When the osmoreceptors
detect a change in osmolarity the number and intensity of the action potentials fired will change. An
increase will cause an increase in action potentials fired from the supra–optic nucleus to the
posterior pituitary via the infundibulum. Likewise, a decrease in osmolarity will decrease the action
potentials fired. The synaptic vesicles of the posterior pituitary will then secrete the appropriate

Water Homeostasis
Water Homeostasis To complete this worksheet, select: Module: Balancing Fluids Activity:
Animations Title: Water Homeostasis
Introduction
1. a. Water homeostasis is crucial to life. Define blood osmolarity. The osmotic pressure of
blood/Measurement of the amount of solute concentrate.
b. What is the nephron's role regarding osmolarity? Filtration, reabsorption & secretions c. What
two factors regulate body fluid osmolarity? – Formation of a medullary osmotic gradient – The
amount of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) present at the collecting ducts. d. Describe the collecting
duct role relative to urine concentration. Depending on the body fluid ... Show more content on
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Urea Recycling
a. Describe filtrate osmolarity as it enters the medullary portion of the collecting duct. Most of the
water has been reabsorbed leaving urea relatively concentrated. b. Explain the urea recycling
process. The constant transfer of urea between the renal tubule and interstitial fluid of the medulla.
5. Vasa recta Countercurrent Exchange
a. Explain why the shape of the vasa recta plays an important role as blood travels through these
capillaries. The shape

Bios256 Week 5
BIOS256 Week 5 Lab Exercise Renal Absorption and Secretion To complete this worksheet, select:
Module: Balancing Fluids Activity: Animations Title: Renal Absorption and Secretion
Introduction
1. Where does renal absorption and secretion occur? Renal Tubules 2. Define what happens during
these processes.
a. Absorption: Returns materials to the bloodstream thereby conserving those materials.
b. Secretion: Moves materials from the blood stream into the tubule for eventual disposal. 3.
Because of very high glomerular filtration rates, nearly the entire volume of the blood enters the
renal tubules every 30 minutes. Obviously, most of it must be reabsorbed to avoid ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The major role of primary active transport is to move sodium from the cytosol of the tubule cell into
the surrounding interstitial fluid surrounding the capillary.
b. Describe the role of primary active transport with regard to potassium (K+) and hydrogen (H+)
ion movement. As a secondary function it provides the driving force to move potassium and
hydrogen ions from the interstitial fluid to the filtrate.
c. Why is Na+ movement important with regard to movement across the membrane? The movement
of sodium ions via active transport is to generate an electrochemical gradient between the filtrate
and the interstitial fluid.
8. a. The energy stored in the sodium ion electrochemical gradient is used to transport other
molecules back toward the bloodstream (reabsorption). What nutrients are transported in this
fashion? Glucose, amino acids and other solutes being recovered from the filtrate. b. How does the
sodium gradient affect hydrogen ion movement? Active transport requires chemical energy because
it is the movement of biochemicals from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher
concentration.
9. Describe the role of transporter proteins with regard to nutrient movement.

It goes from high to low concentration, in order to maintain equilibrium in the cells. Does not
require cellular energy.
10. Describe ion movement through or between the cell membranes into the interstitial

Essay On Familial Hypomagnesaemia
Familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC) is a disease of renal
tubular disorder. The symptoms of FHHNC generally present in children or before adolescence.
Mutations of CLDN16 or CLDN19 is the main reason of this infrequent disease. Claudin–16 is
encoded by CLDN–16 and CLDN19 encode the claudin–19. (1) Michelis et al. was the first person
to find this disease, he reported that the feathers are excessive magnesium and calcium losses with
urinary, bilateral nephrocalcinosis and progressive chronic renal failure. (11) In this essay, I will
discuss the role of tight junction proteins in familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and
nephrocalcinosis (FHHNC).
Magnesium is the fourth most cation in the body, its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Felix Claverie–Martin, 2015, Familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis:
clinical and molecular characteristics, Clinical Kidney Journal.
2. R Swaminathan, 2003, Magnesium Metabolism and its Disorders, The Clinical Biochemist
Reviews
3. Rodríguez–Soriano J, Vallo A, García–Fuentes M. 1987. Hypomagnesaemia of hereditary renal
origin. Pediatr Nephrol.
4. Andrea Hartsock and W.James Nelson, 2008, Adherens and Tight junctions: Structure, Function
and Connections to the Actin Cytoskeleton, Biochim Biophys Acta.
5. Kiuchi–Saishin Y, Gotoh S, Furuse M, Takasuga A, Tano Y, Tsukita S. Differential expression
patterns of claudins, tight junction membrane proteins, in mouse nephron segments.
6. Konrad M, Schaller A, Seelow D, et al. Mutations in the Tight–Junction Gene Claudin 19
(CLDN19) Are Associated with Renal Magnesium Wasting, Renal Failure, and Severe Ocular
Involvement. American Journal of Human Genetics. 2006;79(5):949–957.
7. Hou J, Paul DL, Goodenough DA. 2005Paracellin–1 and the modulation of ion selectivity of tight
junctions. J Cell Sci.
8. Hou J, Renigunta A, Konrad M, et al. 2008. Claudin–16 and claudin–19 interact and form a
cation–selective tight junction complex. J Clin

Explain The Main Organs In The Urinary System
The main organs in the urinary system for mammals are the kidneys, which filter blood and produce
urine. The other organs such as the ureters, urinary bladder and the urethra are simply accessory
structures that help in the transport and storage of urine.
The kidneys of mammals are round, bean–shaped organs. These kidneys are located at the posterior
end of the abdomen and outside of the peritoneum, which is the membrane that encloses the organs
of the abdominal cavity. The indentation found on the bean–shaped part of the kidney is called the
hilum, this is where the renal artery enters the kidney and where both the renal vein and ureter exit.
The kidney is also divided into 2 regions, which is the outer cortex and the inner medulla. In the
cortex, this is where blood is filtered ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is also where more water and electrolytes are absorbed. From here, the filtrate is passed through
the distal convoluted tubule, where excess potassium ions, hydrogen ions and toxins are passed from
the blood into the filtrate. The end product is dumped into a large collecting duct, which then leads
to the papillae of pyramids, through the calyxes, and into the renal pelvis to be excreted through the
ureters. From the ureters, urine is passed down to the urinary bladder. The outer surface of the
urinary bladder is covered with fibrous connective tissue. Inside the connective tissue is a muscular
layer called the detrusor muscle. This smooth muscle contracts to expel urine from the bladder. The
next tissue layer, the submucosa, is an elastic fibrous membrane that supports the mucosa, which
lines the inside of the bladder. The opening of the urethra is surrounded by a band of detrusor
muscle, forming an internal urethral sphincter. This sphincter is relaxed by involuntary muscle
control, and is innervated in a way that when the bladder is approximately half full, the animal will
recognize the urge to urinate. The last passageway for urine is through the

Kidney Injury And Hormonal Failure
The kidneys play host to a variety of different important functions in our bodies. The kidney's
primary function is the removal of toxins, which is excreted in the form of urine. The second
extremely important role of the kidneys is maintaining the body's acid–base balance. This is balance
is maintained by the excretion of fixed acids and the reabsorption of bicarbonate. The hormonal
functions of the kidneys include the regulation of blood pressure and the manufacturing of red blood
cells.
As critical care nurses, why should we be concerned about acute kidney injury (AKI)? How about a
few statistics to help you answer this question. Approximately 5 % of all hospitalized patients will
develop AKI during their hospital stay (Yaklin, 2011). For ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
There are a variety of options for anticoagulation in CRRT patients. Heparin is the least expensive
and drug with the shortest half life, which is why it is the preferred method of anticoagulation.
Heparin does require frequent PTT monitoring and dose adjustments. The disadvantages to heparin
use are increased bleeding risk and thrombocytopenia. For those patients who develop heparin
induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), the use of a direct thrombin inhibitor is recommended.
Argatroban and Lepirudin are the two direct thrombin inhibitors of choice. Deciding between the
two is based on patient history, current medical condition and method of CRRT used. Argatroban is
eliminated by the liver, whereas Lepirudin is eliminated by the kidneys and may not be used in
patients with AKI. For those patients with an allergy to Heparin, the use of citrate is an option.
Citrate binds to calcium in the patients blood within the CRRT circuit and will help prolong circuit
life. Citrate requires monitoring of labs, specifically ionized calcium, sodium and acid base status.
Citrate is contraindicated in patients with hepatic failure or with lactic acidosis. When the use of
anticoagulates are contraindicated, sodium chloride is used. Small boluses, approximately 100–200
milliliters, are used to flush the CRRT circuit. These fluid boluses are used to reduce the stagnation
of blood in the

Title: Diuretics, Adverse Effects, Contraindications And
Title: Diuretics, adverse effects, contraindications and precautions.
Jose R Tapanes
International Institute for Health Care Professionals
ABSTRACT
Diuretics act primarily by blocking reabsorption of sodium at four major sites in the nephron. The
diuretic known as water pills have specific indications to maintain and control the blood pressure
combined with beta–blocker, anti arrhythmic helping the cardiac and renal function in patient with
chronic hypertension, heart disease and kidney disease. Also there serious complication associated
with overdose and interaction of diuretic with others drugs in–patient with impaired kidney function
also increase the risk of side effect and nephron damage. In this study we talk about the ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(picture 1).
The diuretics have specific function depending where they act in the glomerular apparatus.
Depending of their mechanism of action and pharmacokinetics the diuretics can cause side effects
directly in the kidney, vascular system or systemic complications
Diuretic drugs increase urine output by the kidney ( diuresis). This is accomplished by altering how
the kidney handles sodium. If the kidney excretes more sodium, then water excretion will also
increase. Most diuretics produce diuresis by inhibiting or blocking the reabsorption of sodium at
different segments of the renal tubular system. Sometimes a combination of two diuretics is given
because this can be significantly more effective than either compound alone. There are different
types of diuretics
Loop diuretics: Polythiazide, Bumetanide,furosemide, Torsemide. The main side effects of loop
diuretic include hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, hypomagnesmia, hyperuricemia, dehydratacion,
and hypovolemia, tinnitus, vertigo, ototoxicity, deafness and shock.
Contraindication. Allergy to Sulfurs medication, hypotension, renal insuficiency
Thiazide diuretics: Chlorothiazide, chlortalidone, hydrochlorothiazide, hydroflurmethazyne,
indamapide, methylchlotiazyde, metolazone, polythiazide. The most important side effect of
thiazide is hypokalemia, also include metabolic alkalosis,hyponatremia, hypovolemia,
hyperglicemia in diabetics, increasing of LDL, azotemia and

How Does The Endocrine System Contribute To Homeostasis
In the human body the internal temperature is maintained at 37 degrees Celsius and this is
maintained as a result of homeostasis. Homeostasis is the process of balancing or keeping a stable
internal environment in the body. A majority of organ systems in the body contribute to homeostasis,
however there are two very important organ systems that play a massive role within this process,
and they are the endocrine and nervous system. Both are crucial as they permit communication in
the body and the integration of cells as well as tissue functions.
The body's internal environment is regulated by three components, they are known as the feedback
systems of homeostasis. The feedback system is made up of the receptor, a control center and
effector. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Once they have been secreted together they form an osmotic equivalent of water so by the time they
reach the end of the proximal tubule about two thirds of these fluid have been reabsorbed. The loop
of Henle is linked with maintaining that osmotic gradient in the renal medulla. This is achieved by
sodium chloride being transported from the tubular fluid ( the interstitium) without changing the
osmotic uptake of the water. The osmolality of the water leaving the tube of Henle is lower than the
plasma, whilst the interstitium is higher. According to the requirements of the body the distal tubule
adjusts the ionic balance of the body by changing the amount of sodium and other substances that
are reabsorbed back into the body. It is also responsible for the secretion of hydrogen ions, which
leads to the acidification of the urine, because of this, this urine that leaves the distal tubule is dilute.
If the osmolality of the urine is relatively high when it passes through the collecting ducts, water is
absorbed under the influence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and the urine that is concentrated is
excreted.
However, if the osmolality of the urine is low, little ADH is secreted.
To conclude, if the communication between the organs is adequate then

How Do You Explain The Steps Involved In The Urinary System
To explain how diabetes affects the different systems, we need to know how the act normally. The
urinary system normal function is to maintain the acid–base balance, conserve fluids, regulate the
amount of salts and water in the blood and eliminate liquid waste, known as urea. The urinary
system works together with the lungs, skin and intestines to maintain the balance of chemicals and
water in the body. The typical adult urinates approximately twenty–seven to sixty–eight fluid once a
day of urine. The urinary system includes 2 kidneys (the primary organs in the urinary system),
ureters, a bladder and urethra. The kidney is where the filtration occurs, it balances salts and waters.
The kidney's is where nephrons also known as filtering units. ... Show more content on
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Secretion is when ions pass from the capillaries into the renal tubule, this becomes urine. The urine
passes through the ureters, and drain into the bladder. The bladder is where urine is collected and
stored until an urge to release it. When emptying the bladder sphincter open and urine flows, which
travels down the urethra that passes outside the body. Glucose should not be filtered out of the body
by the kidneys; therefore, if glucose is found in the urine it is a symptom that the cells aren't
utilizing the glucose affectively. The high amount of glucose in the urine provide an increase
production of bacterial and fungal growth. Urinary tract infections and yeast infections are two of
the most common bacterial and fungal infections that can be cause by type II diabetes. The increase
urinary tract infections can also be due to having a dysfunctional bladder that contract poorly. The
poor contraction allows for urine to remain in static pools for long periods of time. This provides
luxurious ponds for bacteria to grow in. Bladder problems are another problem for diabetic. An
overactive bladder is common this is caused by damaged nerves that send signals to the bladder at
the wrong time, this causes the muscles to contract without

The Complex And Major Organ Of Our Body Perform Essay
Kidney
It is a complex and major organ of our body perform several important functions like formation of
urine, water and salt metabolism, acid–base balance, regulation of blood calcium level and secretion
of hormones (Padmalochana et al.2015). The kidney is composed of many tortuous, closely packed
uriniferous tubules, bounded by a delicate connective tissue in which run blood vessels, lymphatics
and nerves. Each tubule consists of two embryologically distinct parts, the nephron, which produces
urine, and the collecting duct, which completes the concentration of urine and through which urine
passes out into the calyces of the kidney, the renal pelvis, the ureter and urinary bladder. A renal, or
uriniferous, tubule consists of a glomerular capsule that leads into a proximal convoluted tubule,
connected to the capsule by a short neck and continuing into a sinuous or coiled convoluted part .
This straightens as it approaches the medulla, and becomes the descending thick limb of the loop of
Henle, and then the ascending limb by an abrupt U–turn. The limbs of the loop of Henle are
narrower and thin–walled within the deeper medullary tissue, where they become the descending
and ascending thin segments. The ascending thick limb continues into the distal tubule. The tubule
wall shows a focal thickening, the macula densa, where it comes close to the vascular pole of its
parent glomerulus at the start of the convoluted part of the distal tubule. The nephron finally
straightens once

Land Eva Unit 4 Assignment Essay
The Complexity of the Kidney
Land, E.
Kaplan University
SC235: General Biology 1: Human Perspectives
Prof Lisa Nelson
The Complexity of the Kidney
Kidneys are complex organs that are very important when it comes to the many functions to help
maintain the health of the body. This includes the maturation of the red blood cells, regulation of
blood pressure as well as secretion of hormones. The Secondary functions of the filtration effect the
controlling of the acid base balance in the body, and maintaining bone health (livingstrong.com).
Kidney structure include the renal corpuscle that filters the blood, passing of urine, and different
tubules (comprised of a dowman's capsule and glomerulus). The renal corpuscle are made of ...
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In addition the nephron is divided into several segments. The Henie cell includes a special
transporter called sodium–potassium–2, chloride contransporter (nkcc) that allows the kidney to
produce urine (biology.com). The distal tubule cell help contain thiazide–sensitive sodium filtered
by the kidney on a daily basis, and the collecting duct that have two cells responsible for acid base
hemostasis. The alpha intercalated cell controls the excess of secretion and reabsorbing base (form
of bicarbonates) and the beta intercalated cell which includes the same function (biology.com).
Every day the kidney's filter on an average of about 120 to 150 quarts of blood that produces 1 to 2
quarts of urine that has extra fluid and waste. The importance of the kidney is to keep the blood
stable so the body can function properly. The fluids that are removed from the body help prevent
blood cells and large molecules (proteins) from passing. Once filtered it can pass through the tubule
that sends minerals back into the blood stream to remove waste (niddk.nih.gov). If the kidney
functions properly it regulates the retention of fluids in the body. It balances the chemicals like
potassium for the heart and muscle function. It can also maintain acid balance and proteins.
Hormones in the kidney stimulate activity in the body, renin erythropoietin, and a form of vitamin
D. Renin helps to control blood pressure. The kidney also releases the erythropoietin to help

The Vertebrate Kidney
1.1 Introduction
The vertebrate kidney is an important organ that serves vital roles in waste excretion,
osmoregulation, metabolites reabsorption, maintenance of acid–base balance and even hormone
secretion. Nephron is the basic functional unit of a kidney which consists of a blood filter (the
glomerulus) and renal tubules that joins to a collecting duct. Nephron filters blood plasma and the
filtrate is further modified and refined in the tubules via selective solute reabsorption and secretion.
The consequential "unwanted" waste is drained into collecting ducts and excreted (Reilly 2000;
Jacobsen, 1981).
Through the course of mammalian development, a series of three kidney structures arises
sequentially from the intermediate mesoderm (IM). These include the pronephros, the mesonephros
and the metanephros. The pronephros is the first embryonic kidney. Degeneration of the pronephros
is accompanied by the formation of a second kidney, the mesonephros. The mesonephros functions
transiently until the development of the metanephros, after which it will rapidly degenerate leaving
the metanephros to serve as the adult kidney in higher vertebrates including birds, reptiles, and
mammals. Lower vertebrates like fish never form a metanephros and instead utilize the
mesonephros during adult life. Despite this difference, each kidney form is comprised of nephrons
that exhibit a similar composition (Wingert & Davidson, 2008; Dressler, 2006).
Extensive study in mammalian model has

Bio 169 Essay
Urinary System: Anatomy Review 1. Name the organs in the urinary system:
1. 2 kidneys
2. 2 ureters
3. bladder
4. uethra 2. The kidneys are retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum), lying against the dorsal body
wall in the upper abdomen. 3. The adrenal gland sits atop the kidneys. Blood vessels enter and leave
the kidney at the renal cortex. 4. The functional units of the kidney are the nephrons. They are called
renal pyramids if they are located mainly in the cortex. They are called renal pyramids if they are
located in both the cortex and the medulla. 5. Blood enters the kidney through the hilus artery. The
artery branches into smaller and smaller arteries and arterioles. Complete the sequence below:
______________ ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
High osmolarity (or high Na+ and Cl–) in the ascending loop of Henle will cause afferent arterioles
to (dilate or constrict) by releasing vasoconstrictor 11. In periods of extreme stress, the sympathetic
nervous system will override autoregulation. An increase in sympathetic flow to the kidney will
result in what two important effects that will aid maintenance of blood pressure?
1. vasocontriction
2.
Urinary System: Early Filtrate Processing 1. What are the two reabsorption pathways through the
tubular cell barrier?
1. transcellular
2. paracellular 2. How can we cause water to diffuse from the lumen into the interstitial space? An
increase in the osmolarity of the interstitium
3. Transport of what ion could cause the diffusion in question 2?
4. Summarize reabsorption in the proximal tubule. 85% of reabsorption of all useful substances
occur here
5. What percent of the filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule? 99% 6. The simple squamous
cells of the thin descending loop are permeable to __________________ but impermeable to
________________. 7. The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to Water but
impermeable to solutes. 8. What is the role of the loop of Henle? Facilitated diffusion
9. What is the role of the vasa recta? Blood capillary which collects the filtered blood capillary
which collects the filtered blood from afferent arterriole

10. From the Quiz section, what does furosemide do?

Homeostasis Lab Report
The body is constantly trying to maintain homeostasis, or balance of the internal environment of an
organism. The body does this by regulating many different substances in the body, a few includes
water, sodium volume and plasma pH. The kidney regulates these three things. The kidney regulates
water by producing urine which helps with excrete waste products, excess ions and excess water in
the body. Using hormones the kidney excretes water and at the same time keep enough of it to. The
kidneys also regulate the sodium volume in the body. This is especially important because sodium is
necessary to avoid modification of the body's sodium concentration causing disruption to normal
cell function. The kidney regulates the sodium with the help of ... Show more content on
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This means that 5 hours before the start of the experiment all subjects are not allowed to consume
food or any fluids. However, to "minimize any discomfort due to the restrictions of fluid intake" the
subjects were allowed to drink no more than 8 oz. of water 3 hours prior to the experiment. An hour
before the subjects are required to empty out their bladders and record the time of the void.
At the start of the experiment (T=0) the subjects had to empty out their bladders in one or both
sample cups that were provided. Information about this first void was then recorded in a chart in the
lab manual. These information includes the temperature, urine flow rate – the rate in which urine is
excreted from the body in a specific period of time and is calculated using the formula:
Urine Flow Rate=(Vol.voided (mL))/(Duration of time since last void

The Kidneys: Regulating The Body
The Kidneys are in charge of regulating the body's blood flow and keeping homeostasis maintaining
in the body. The kidneys are able to do this by circulation of blood and by the filtration of nephrons.
Nephrons actually produce urine as well as removing waste and excess substances that are not need
in the system. The Kidneys have millions of nephrons that all act as a filtration system for the blood.
The body has roughly 8 liters circulating the body however only 20% finds it ways to the kidneys.
Each of the nephrons contains both the renal corpuscles and Bowman's capsule. Inside the renal
tubules is proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted, and connect tubule to collecting duct.
The Proximal convoluted tubule walls are cuboidal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This function allows the body to try to rid itself of any undesirable substances or end products that
have already been reabsorbed. The Tubular secretion process also controls the blood pH. Sodium
moves diffuse into the renal tubule, which will exchange for hydrogen ions. The hydrogen will
attach with bicarbonents because bicarbionents cannot be reabsorbed. This will transition into water
and carbon dioxide that can be reabsorbed back into the cell and create carbonic anhydrase. The
Carbonic anhydrase will then dissociate into bicarbionets hydrogen ions from the renal tubule. This
process affects the hydrogen ions will affect then affect the blood's

The Effect Of Different Fluids On Urine Volume,...
Timothy Cirera
WED Lab
Physiology 12
Renal Lab
Effects of Different Fluids on Urine Volume, Concentration, and pH
Introduction
The examination of urine is called urinalysis, which is a diagnostic method for assessing renal
function and diagnosing various types of pathophysiology involving not on the kidneys but other
organs and tissues as well. We will be focusing on the kidneys for this experiment. The kidneys play
an essential role in regulating of extracellular concentrations of water, electrolytes, and certain end
product of metabolism; additionally they regulate pH and osmotic pressure. The primary functional
unit of the kidneys is the nephron. Each kidney contains approximately one million nephron. Urine
is formed in the nephron ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The nutrient glucose is entirely reabsorbed back into the blood from the proximal tubules. Sodium
ions and other ions are only partially reabsorbed from the renal tubules.
Secretion is the final process by which substances move into the distal and collecting tubules from
the blood in the capillaries around these tubules. Secretion moves substances out of the blood and
into the tubules where they mix with water and other wastes and then converted into urine. Kidney
tubule secretion plays an important role in maintaining the body's acid–base balance.
Hypothesis:
In this experiment subjects receiving water will produce higher volumes of urine than the people
receiving Gatorade. Also those consuming water will have a lower pH level and a lighter color.
People who drink just water without additives will produce more volume of urine because the water
will not be reabsorbed. Nutrients such as sugar and electrolytes from the Gatorade will be
reabsorbed therefore the volume released will be less.
Methods
For this lab every student had to participate. Before the experiment started every participant had to
fast for 4 hours. The time period for the experiment was from 12:00pm till 3:00pm. In the beginning
of the experiment every participant received a sterol cup for the urine sample. During this
experiment individual subjects had to empty their bladder every half an hour. To begin everyone
began the initial urine specimen and half an hour later

Kidney Dissection Paper
Introduction
In this lab report the main objective where to be able to
Method
Firstly the kidney parts such as the ureter, renal artery and renal vein were examined. Next kidney
got cut perpendicular to the long axis to be able to reveal the internal structure and parts. This
kidney was cut open by a medical grade scalpel and scissor.
Materials/ equipment used;
Medical scalpel
Medical scissors
Medical tweezers
Wooden board to put the kidney on and to be able to carry the work out
Lab coat
Safety glasses
Latex gloves
Discussion of dissection
There were many anatomical parts which were found when completing this dissection. Everything
that should have been expected to see was seen.
Kidney diagram showing different parts; (Chart Diagrams, 2015).
The renal capsule ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The medulla controls the amount of salt and water which is in the urine before excretion (Gondar
Design Biology, 2015). The medulla also works very hard at pumping sodium ions (Gondar Design
Biology, 2015).
The ureter helps collects filtrate and urine this is from the renal pelvis the next step for it will to be
taken into the bladder; the ureter works at all times in health animals/ people (Gondar Design
Biology, 2015). Urine usually flows by gravity but mainly the flow is caused by waves of
contractions in which normally happy several times per minute (InnerBody, 2015).
The renal artery is there to be able to supply blood to the kidneys this is done from the left hand side
of the heart; this blood has to have glucose and oxygen in it to be able to keep the kidneys going as
it is hard work to produce urine (Gondar Design Biology, 2015). The renal artery branches off from
the Aorta this serves a purpose by transporting the waste filled blood to the kidneys to then to be
able filter the blood (Gondar Design Biology,

Arginine Vasopressin And The Plasma Membranes
Water reabsorption is regulated by vasopressin since its release increases the water permeability of
distal tubule and collecting duct cells in the kidney. After stimulation by vasopressin, aquaporin–2
(AQP2) accumulates in the plasma membrane of these target cells on the apical side. Aquaporin–2 is
a water channel that allows water to be reabsorbed from the filtrate (urine), returned to the
bloodstream and consequently concentrating urine. To this day, the trafficking mechanisms that
recruit AQP2 to the apical plasma membrane are still not well understood. Recent studies have
shown that cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) may not be required for arginine vasopressin
(AVP)–mediated AQP2 membrane targeting, and that other signaling ... Show more content on
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Since it is the excessive expression followed by apical translocation of the Aquaporin–2 that leads to
congestive heart failure (CHF) and other water imbalance–disorders, studying the mechanism of the
pathway that leads to this translocation is important (Yui et al. 2017). Congestive heart failure in
rats, in two separate studies, was shown to be associated with the over accumulation of the
Aquaporin–2 channels in the apical membrane of the distal tubal and collective duct cells in kidneys
which causes the fluid from the filtrate (urine) to be reabsorbed into the bloodstream(Brond et al.,
2013)(Nielson et al. 1997). This results in water retention in tissues in different parts of the body
which leads to congestion in the body. If prolonged, the condition will lead to congestive heart
failure, abbreviated CHF. In a study of this phenomenon, they argued that vasopressin should
normalize water absorption in terms of increasing the permeability of the distal tubule and collecting
duct cells to water (Soren Nielson et al. 1997) and in doing such, would increase the concentration
of AQP2 along the apical membrane of distal tube and collecting ducts (Soren Nielson et al. 1997).
Such was the backbone of credence that let to their study that CHF may be a counter consequence of

A Study on the Urinary System and Preeclampsia
The Urinary System and Pre–eclampsia: The Urinary system comprises of tubes, organs, nerves,
and muscles that work together to develop, store, and transport urine. The system is basically made
up of two ureters, two kidneys, the urethra, two sphincter muscles, and the bladder. This system in
the human body is primarily concerned with the filtering of extra fluid and substances from the
bloodstream in the form of urine. While urine is used to extract extra blood corpuscles, vitamins, or
mineral from the human body, it's a liquid created by the kidneys, gathered in the bladder, and
filtered through the urethra. Notably, the urinary system is an important part of the human body
since it works with other systems to assist in maintenance of homeostasis.
Normal Physiology of the Urinary System: The basic function of the urinary system is to remove the
urea waste from the body, which is produced following the breaking down of foods containing
protein and some vegetables. The urea is transported in the bloodstreams to the kidneys, which are
bean–shaped organs. These kidneys in turn extract the urea from the blood through nephrons i.e.
tiny filtering units that consist of small blood capillaries and a small tube. In addition to other waste
substances and water, urea forms the urine as it passes through the tiny filtering units and down the
small tube ("The Urinary System", n.d.). This is followed by the travelling of the urine down the
two thin tubes known as ureters to the

How The Kidneys Serve The Primary Functions Of Plasma Volume
The kidneys serve the primary functions of regulating plasma volume, electrolyte balance,
producing hormones, acid and base balance, removing waste, and retaining water to produce urine.
These wastes come from the breakdown products of metabolically active muscle, and from food
consumed. Your body utilizes what it needs, and the waste is sent into the urine. The body will
regulate water volume within the body by helping the body retain water when plasma osmolarity
decreases, as well as excrete water when plasma osmolarity is high. Water and other materials are
reabsorbed or excreted as it passes through the tubules of the nephron in the kidney to help maintain
the composition of the blood. The Kidney consists of two layers, the outer ... Show more content on
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The Loop of Henle is the area of greater ion concentration due to higher amounts of ion absorption
(primarily on the ascending limb). Because the ascending limp of the loop of Henle is in the renal
medulla, it makes the renal medulla much more concentrated than the renal cortex. This then moves
into the distal convoluted tubule, which is responsible for more absorption, just not as extensive as
the proximal tubule. Following the distal tubule are the collecting ducts, which gives the kidney its
striped appearance. We also reabsorb urea and water in the collecting ducts. Urea is usually what is
mainly excreted in urine. The peritubular capillaries and vasa recta that branch across the nephron
itself will filter materials back into the efferent arterioles to be reabsorbed back into the blood
stream.
The three main responsibilities of the kidney include, filtration (movement of ¬¬¬¬¬–things out of
glomerulus to Bowman's space), absorption (movement of things from tubular lumen into the blood
via the peritubular capillaries), and secretion (movement of things into the tubular lumen from areas
other than the glomerulus).
The nephron, the functional unit of the kidney, is the site where filtering, absorption, and secretion
actually occur. There are around 1 million nephrons in each kidney. This filtration is carried out in
what is called the renal corpuscle (the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule). The filtration of fluid is
ideal at the

A Study On Diabetes Mellitus
Part A 1. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (previously described as non–insulin dependent diabetes) is a
condition due to hyperglycemia that accompanies a relative rather than an absolute insulin
deficiency. It appears as a consequence of the alteration (genetically inherited or acquired) of insulin
secretion, sometimes associated with peripheral insulin resistance.
Impaired ability to absorb certain macronutrients such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins can lead
to a large spectrum of chronic complications that involve more or less all tissues of the human body.
Globally, an estimated 422 million adults are living with diabetes mellitus, according to the latest
2016 data from the World Health Organization. "Diabetes Mellitus affects an estimated 29.1 million
people in the United States and is the 7th leading cause of death.
T2DM includes a heterogeneous group of diseases that associate in different degrees two major
metabolic defects: beta cell insulin secretion defect and insulin resistance of the peripheral tissues.
Obesity and insulin resistance are characteristic for the majority (80–90%) of T2DM cases (Obese
T2DM). The sine qua non condition for the progression from the preclinical phases (prediabetes) to
the overt hyperglycemia stages is represented by the presence of the insulin secretion beta cell
defect. A lack of compensation for insulin resistance will lead to evolution towards T2DM. The first
sign of

Bladder Research Paper
Bladder is one of the organ which is part of the urinary system of body. The major function of the
bladder is to store urine produced in the kidney prior to urination. The urinary system of the body
ensures the removal of wastes and excess fluid from the body in the form of urine. To ensure normal
urination to ensue, all the parts in the urinary system have to work in the right order. The process of
urine elimination begins in the kidney and ends in the urethra. Human body is composed of a pair of
kidneys which is bean–shaped and located right under the rib cage each on one side of the spine
(Keast et al., 2015) (where in this Kanai paper is this mentioned?). The kidneys work in pairs to
filter approximately 200 liters of blood per day so that any excess salt, water and urea, a ... Show
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A normal healthy bladder can hold up to 600 mL of urine (Elmissiry et al., 2014) (where in this
Kanai paper is this mentioned?). The smooth muscles which builds the bladder wall remain relaxed
when urine is occupying the bladder and contracts when it is filled to capacity. Signals are sent to
the brain to expel urine when the bladder reaches its capacity to hold urine and is emptied from
bladder via urethra, located at bottom of bladder (Kanai et al., 2014). (where in this Kanai paper is
this mentioned?)
2.1.1 Anatomy of human bladder
In both males and females, the urinary bladder is located in the pelvis, posterior to the abdomen
cavity. In males, the bladder is located above the seminal vesicles and prostate gland and inferior to
the peritoneum (Martini, 2007). Rectum is located posterior to the bladder (Figure 2.2). Meanwhile
in females bladder is located in front the uterus, fallopian tube and rectum and superior to the vagina
(Figure

Osmoregulation: The Hypothalamus In The Brain
There are important systems that are involved in the control for homeostatic of osmoregulation
which occurs in a negative feedback control cycle. To prevent the loss or gain of water from the cell
in the body, the water potential of the blood is regulated which is controlled by the hypothalamus.
The hypothalamus in the brain is able to notice changes in the water potential through a type of
neuron that is permanently present called osmoreceptors (– negative feedback 'receptor' for
osmoregulation) that are capable of detecting water concentration/ water potential of blood as it
passes through the hypothalamus through the osmoreceptors that they send out. The hypothalamus
(– negative feedback 'controller' for osmoregulation) receives the message ... Show more content on
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When a heathy individual doesn't consume ecstasy the endocrine system that is link with the
hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, and body temperature. The osmoreceptors detected the
osmotic pressure in the red blood cells and sends the osmotic pressure signal to the hypothalamus in
the brain and detects the change of water in red blood cells. In order to keep the internal
environment stable at an optimum water potential, the hypothalamus will decided whether to
produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or not into the pituitary glands that is transported to the kidney
tubles. ADH will only increase the permeability of the kidney tubles for water to be reabsorbed into
the blood if the red blood cells have a lower osmotic pressure than the cytoplasm in the red blood
cells. Whereas, on the other hand ADH can decrease/ inhibit when the solution outside of the red
blood cells has a higher osmotic pressure than the cytoplasm in the red blood cells. This is done to
maintain the osmoregulation internal environment at an optimum level for a heathy person in this
case leahs friend Sandy who did not experience a huge amount of thirst compared due to the
hypothalamus controlling the amount of ADH needed in

Human Cells And The Human Body
Kidneys are one of the most essential organs in a human body which are crucial for blood filtration,
toxins, and waste removal and maintaining and regulating the body's pH. The researchers created
kidney structures from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) called organoids which have the
function and structural organization of a human fetal kidney in the first trimester. This study used
the results of a previous study where human embryonic stem cells were differentiated towards a
renal lineage. As a result, the progenitors for both collecting ducts and nephrons were generated
from iPS. In that study, the researchers found out that although both nephrons and collecting ducts
originate from the intermediate mesoderm layer, they develop at a different specific time and area
from the mesoderm layer. The intermediate mesoderm layer is a germ layer arising from the
mesoderm, and it is important in the development of kidneys, reproductive system, and lower
urinary tract of the embryo. Thus, the scientists exploited this temporospatial origin difference, and
they identified the regulating mechanism behind what caused the induction of collecting duct versus
other kidney progenitors like the nephrons for instance. As a result of this finding, kidney organoids
were formed which were segmented into distal and proximal tubules, loops of Henle, glomeruli, and
podocytes which establish a vascularization network. This study is important in near future because
it can be used as a model for

Explain How The Proximal Convoluted Tubule
The proximal convoluted tubule is a small tubular structure contained within the nephron of the
kidney. It's involved in the reabsorption of water and solutes from the filtrate located within the
nephron. The lining of the proximal convoluted tubule contains numerous protein channels, which
use both active and passive transport are used to move substances such as glucose across the
tubule's lining and into the interstitial fluid for reabsorption. The epithelium of the proximal
convoluted tubule also prevents waste products from being reabsorbed into the bloodstream
safeguarding from diseases.
Loop of Henle:
The function of the loop of Henle is to recover water and sodium chloride from the urine. This
allows for a production of urine that

Annotated Bibliography For Kidney Disease

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Annotated Bibliography For Kidney Disease