Psychological Definition Of Wrath: Understanding Anger and Its Extreme Form

Psychological Definition Of Wrath
Definition of Wrath: Although anger is biologically innate, wrath is an extreme form of this emotional response. It is the chronic tendency for
aggressive behaviour characterized by the inability to control an emotional reaction to a stimulus which is perceived as a threat or source of frustration.
Wrath is irrational, excessive, and impulsive behaviour often accompanied by the incapacity to foresee consequences and hazards associated with one's
actions.
Molecular Entities
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine: neurotransmitters/hormones associated with anger–related behaviour that support the body during aggression by
increasing anxiety/tension.
GABA: Excitatory responses such as aggression can be modulated through Gamma–Aminobutyric acid (GABA), ... Show more content on
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The blockade of D2 receptors has been used as a treatment for aggression (Haloperidol), however D2 receptors also regulate other emotions, motivation,
executive function, motor planning and reproductivity.
Serotonin: is an inhibitory neurotransmitter found throughout the brain. Several studies have demonstrated that low levels of serotonin have been
correlated with aggressive behaviour, specifically in the limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and amygdala. There exist seven families of
serotonin 5–HT receptors, (5–HT1 – 5–HT7) and a few families have several subpopulations, however a preliminary literature review indicates that are
three main Serotonin receptors implicated in aggression and anger in the OFC: 5–HT1A, 5–HT2A, 5–HT1B .
Strategy: Literature has indicated that the agonism of 5–HT1A, 5–HT1B and 5–HT2A receptors is responsible for the reduction of aggressive
behaviours. However, the hyperactivity of these various receptors is associated with varying side effects. For instance: Although agonism of the
5–HT1A receptor has been shown to decrease aggression, it has also been shown to interfere with body temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate
regulation . Similarly, targeting the 5–HT2A receptor has been shown to cause uncontrolled motor behaviour and hallucinations. Thus, our primary
strategy for reducing aggression involves the agonism of one of various of the 5HT receptors, however,
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Schizophreni A Long Term Mental Illness
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a long term mental illness that will affect the way your mind works, changing your behavioural patterns. It affects usually people who
are in there late teens to young adults. This is due to the natural changes in teen behaviour that happens to a teen when growing up such as sleep wake
cycle, emotions and motivation. These are a normal phase that happens normally to a teen but if the get one more change which is symptoms of
psychosis (hallucinations and delusions) then you will have pass the diagnosis for schizophrenia. With a natural phase in teenage/young adult life
sharing so many similarities with the diagnosis of schizophrenia it is only certain that they are would be more susceptible. "There are many types of
schizophrenia the three main types of schizophrenia are; the catatonic type, disorganised (hebephrenic) type and Paranoid type (Rethink,2014)."
Catatonic schizophrenia is the rarest type; this usually is involved sharp movements (over activity to stillness), disorganised schizophrenia is more
communication based, distorted behaviour makes it hard to communicate with other. Behaviour could also be seen as unwell or poor mannerism.
Paranoid schizophrenia is the most common of all the schizophrenia type, these symptoms are usually just hallucinations with little to no effect on
anything else.
There is no clear cut understanding what is the actual cause of schizophrenia however we know that it is a mixture of both genetics and

A Research Done By Morelli, Rameson, And Lieberman About...
Various articles and literature works coupled with the ongoing happenings clearly indicate that happiness has no price tag. Since the beginning of
human evolution, there has been a saying that "money cannot buy anyone happiness." Happiness refers to emotions, and it is dependent on people's
choices (Landau, 2008). Finding oneself in a place where material properties and social status are crucial, many people's happiness in such cases would
be dependent on these things. For the purpose of understanding this issue, this paper critically analyses a research done by Morelli, Rameson, and
Lieberman about happiness.
Question 1: The Research methods
First, there is the observational method. The researchers used the observational method to identifying how certain characters tend to be influenced by
environmental changes. For instance, the researchers review the study conducted by Morelli and Lieberman, where the volunteers were instructed to
look at pictures at their free time and memorize the eight digits assigned to them by the researchers. Some individuals showed reduced empathy, while
others were able to feel things deeply (Kluger, 2013). This kind of research methodology is mainly concerned with psychological or behavioral traits of
the study population.
Generally, observations are cheap, and the researcher uses few resources in conducting the research. Conversely, observations consume a lot of time
since researchers have to wait for the observational traits of the

Antipsychotics and Yoga Therapy as an Adjunct Treatment...
Antipsychotic Medications and Yoga Therapy as an Adjunct Treatment for Schizophrenia
Sarah Garrabrant
University of South Florida
Introduction
Schizophrenia is a severe form of mental illness classified in the DSM IV–TR as a Psychotic disorder. It is characterize by broad impairments in
cognition that place limitations on recovery (Eack, 2012, p. 235). Antipsychotic drugs are the first line of treatment for Schizophrenic patients, but come
with adverse side–effects and many patients are treatment–resistant (Tandon, Nasrallahb, & Keshavanc, 2010). Adjunct treatments that focus on
cognition and coping with stress, along with the antipsychotics have shown to be more effective (Sungur, Soyguur, Guuner, Uustuun, Cetin, &...
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Typical antipsychotic drugs occupy around 70–90% of D2 receptors at a common dosage (Kleinman, Casanova, & Jaskiw, 1988).
Due to side effects and the nature of the illness, some patients do not keep continuous use of anti psychotic treatment. It has been found that patients
with light use of antipsychotics were more likely to be hospitalized than continuous users. The average duration of anti–psychotic use was six months in
any single year and compared to individuals with a continuous pattern of anti psychotic treatment, individuals with moderate or light use had odds for
hospitalization, 52 or 72% greater (DosReis, Johnson, Steinwachs, Rohde, Skinner, Fahey, & Lehman, 2008). First generation and
Second–generation antipsychotics
Researchers wanted to know who was more effective, first generation antipsychotics or second–generation antipsychotics (Kane, 1999). The CATIE
trial compares first and second generation antipsychotics, comparing first generation perphenazine with second generation drugs, olanzapine,
quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprazidone. Overall, olanzapine did better than other treatments,. What surprised researchers most is that first generation
antipsychotic, perphenazine, was similar in effectiveness to three of the four second–generation antipsychotics (Liberman & Stroup, 2010). It has
been found that 30% of patients fail to

Nature vs Nurture Essay
Nature vs Nurture
Most of us have an intuition that, although our genes provide advantages and constraints, we retain great control over our lives. However, we are
developing a second, competing intuition that, like it or not, our genes determine our abilities, our preferences, and our emotions. We would like to
think we are much more than the sum of our genes, but scientists have apparently demonstrated that our genes determine some of our most complex
behavioral and cognitive characteristics.
The focus on genes as the primary mode of biological explanation has been especially clear in the marketing of the Human Genome Project. In support
of this project, Robert L. Sinsheimer, biologist and former chancellor at the University of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1987), and alcoholism (Gelernter et al. 1991). Authors of two studies claiming to have found a gene for manic–depression (in two different places), have
both published retractions of their conclusions (Barron et al. 1993, Kelsoe et al. 1989), unusual and embarrassing events among scientists. Research in
linking genes to complex human mental and behavioral characteristics has been tremendously successful in molding public opinion, in he absence of
much lasting scientific evidence.
The relationship between a gene and a human behaviour is rarely, if ever, a one–to–one correspondence, even though disruption of a single gene
occasionally has a dramatic effect on behaviour. Nor can one quantify the contribution of genes as a whole to any particular behavior or cognitive
ability. Instead, each gene is a single player in an intricate story, involving non–additive interactions of genes, proteins, hormones, food and life
experiences, thus leading to effects one variety of cognitive and behavioural functions. Our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors certainly have biological
mechanisms, but this does not mean we can separate and quantify the genetic contributions to these processes.
References:
Baron, M., N. Risch, R. Hamburger, B. Mandel, S. Kushner, M.Newman, D. Drumer, and R.H. Belmaker. 1987. Genetic Linkage Between
X–Chromosome Markers and Bipolar

Dopamine In Hypsychology
Dopamine is one of the main hypothesized physiological causes of schizophrenia (Brisch et. al., 2014). It is involved in movement, pleasure, and
cognition: all of which are impacted in schizophrenia. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter or a chemical messenger. It is in the neurotransmitter class of
catecholamine and has both inhibitory and excitatory effects (Carlson, 2013). These effects are seen on the postsynaptic neuron, depending on the
neuron dopamine can either be inhibitory or excitatory. Within thebrain, there are three main systems that use dopamine as their neurotransmitter.
These three systems are the nigrostriatal system, mesolimbic system, and the mesocortical system (Carlson, 2013).
The nigrostriatal system runs through the basal ganglia which is the part of the brain that controls movement (Carlson, 2013). The mesolimbic system
runs through the nucleus accumbens which plays a role in rewarding stimuli (Carlson, 2013). The nucleus accumbens reinforces behavior such as drug
addictions. The mesocortical system has neurons in the ventral tegmental area and the prefrontal cortex (Carlson, 2013). The parts of the brain
impacted by the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Receptor sites are where molecules such as neurotransmitters react to other molecules. These D2 receptor sites are specialized for dopamine based
on its molecular shape and composition. For dopamine to have an impact on a cell such as a neuron in the brain, it has to bind to these receptor sites.
There is a higher level of dopamine seen in schizophrenia (Seeman & Kapur, 2000). It is not just the excess of dopamine that can lead to
schizophrenia, it is the excess of dopamine receptors. The increased number of receptors makes the body more sensitive to the presence of dopamine.
The more receptors allows for the dopamine to go to more place "leading to a high release of dopamine" (Seeman & Kapur, 2000, para.

Hormones And Behavior Times : Together Forever
Hormones & Behavior Professor Jon–Cavanaugh Amber Park Nov. 11th 2016 Hormones and Behavior Times: Together Forever...Or Not A study was
conducted on monogamous prairie voles to examine the neural pathway that promotes the development of pair–bonding or close relationships between
different species. Researchers used monogamous prairie voles for the experiment because they have established partners. Partner preference is a
prerequisite for pair bonding but it does not define a pair bond. Only established when unfamiliar yet potential mates are aggressively rejected. Previous
studies have shown that conduction of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens mediates both investigative and avoidance behaviors. Previous studies
have demonstrated that partner preferences emerge after 24 hours of mating but not after 6 hours of cohabitation without mating. The neural pathway
occurs within a specific region of the brain called the nucleus accumbens. Within this brain region, there were two receptor activations that were
identified; they were labeled D1 and D2. The blockade of D2–like receptors prevented partner preferences after mating; D2–like receptor activation
induced this behavior in the absence of mating. It is shown in Figure 1 that the activation of D2–like receptors within the nucleus accumbens is
essential for pair bonding. Doses of quinpirole, a psychoactive drug that acts as a D2 agonist, were administered within the rostral shell of the nucleus
accumbens. This

Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder Case Study
Attention–deficit/hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral disorder with a complex etiology. Demonstrating a high genetic basis of ADHD
symptomatology, several studies have shown an association between this conditions and dopamine–related genes including the dopamine transporter
gene DAT1 and thedopamine receptor 4 gene DRD4. Additionally, various environmental factors have been implicated, ranging from pre– and
perinatal conditions such as maternal stress and smoking during pregnancy, to many psychosocial environments including family instability. Although
most of the research has overcome the nature versus nurture debate, shifting their focus towards the extent of contribution of each of the genetic and
environmental components, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Different studies have investigated the etiology of ADHD, collectively reflecting the complexity and multitude of dimensions and factors implicated in
this disorder. In fact, Faraone and colleagues (2005) have conducted studies showing that ADHD is related to significant genetic contributions, with an
estimated heritability of 76%. Most of the genes implicated are mainly associated with the dopaminergic, serotonergic and glutamatergic pathways
among others. Specific genes have been determined to be major candidates of ADHD, with the dopamine receptor DRD4 on top of the list.
In addition to exploring biological influences on the etiology of any condition, it is equally important to investigate the effects of environmental factors
and how they might be involved in the onset, development and progression of the pathology. When it comes to studying ADHD, different
environmental factors have been considered by researchers including birth and pregnancy conditions, maternal smoking and alcohol consumption,
along with psychosocial adversity among many others (Langley, Holmans, van den Bree, & Thapar, 2007). That being said, it is important today to
consider both factors in the study of any psychosocial

Understanding Schizophrenia and Psychosis
Schizophrenia and Psychotherapy Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder differentiated by degeneration of thought processes and of emotional
reaction. It is characterized by auditory hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech and thought process along with considerable social or
occupational dysfunction. Onset of symptoms is usually during early adulthood. Diagnosis is based on DSM–IV criteria for diagnosis of Schizophrenia
(PubMed, 2010). It mainly affects the cognition but behavior and emotion can also be involved. Schizophrenics can have certain coexisting
conditions such as major depression and anxiety disorders. These cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems can lead to secondary problems like
unemployment, academic difficulties and social issues. Schizophrenics have higher tendency to suicide than general population which makes their life
expectancy 15 years less than the general population. The average life expectancy of people with the disorder is 12 to 15 years less than those
without, the result of increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate (about 5%). Following are the classification of Schizophrenia
according to DSM–IV Manual Paranoid type: delusions, hallucinations without affecting the thought behavior, and cognition. (DSM code 295.3/ICD
code F20.0) Disorganized type: Though disorder and flat affect (DSM code 295.1/ICD code F20.1) Catatonic type: Agitated, purposeless movements,
occasional immobility, catatonic stupor

Neurotransmitters Function
A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that is released in the nervous system at the end of the nerve fibers. Its release results in the transfer of
impulses and information across fibers or other structure of the body. Dopamine is one of the neurotransmitters that are present in the nervous system.
It is the neurotransmitter that is responsible for controlling the centers of reward and pleasure in brains of animals and humans. It is also responsible
for making us acknowledge the presence of areas that could lead to a pleasurable award and how to emotionally respond to this stimulus. The brain is
the site for the production of dopamine. The brain uses the dopaminergic neurons that are present in the midbrain to manufacture dopamine. It ... Show
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These include cocaine, fluoxetine, norepinephrine and GBR 12909. An experiment was carried out that aimed to determine the effects of these
substances on the performance of dopamine. First, a control group was tested without the substances and it showed a high uptake of dopamine in the
olfactory tubercle, striatum and medial prefrontal cortex. . Then cocaine and GBR 12909 were added, the uptake of dopamine in the presence of
cocaine was completely inhibited in all parts that had high affinity for it in the control group. The same occurred for GBR 12909 which was more than
fifty times more potent than cocaine even though half of the amount was applied. These inhibitors block the dopamine transporter which is necessary
for taking up dopamine. The dopamine system that is most susceptible is the mesolimbic system. This is the pathway through which dopamine is
transferred from one part of the brain to another (S. Izenwesser et al,

Four Theories Of Schizophrenia
There are many theories for schizophrenia that need to be considered. However, all these ideas are strongly questioned.
The first theory being, the Genetic Theory. This theory proposes that schizophrenia is inherited and passed through genes. As stated in the
Epidemiology in Neurobiological Research by Tsung, Stone and Faraone, "greater risks are associated with higher levels of shared genes. For
example, third–degree relatives share about 12.5% of their genes, and show a risk of 2% for developing schizophrenia. Second–degree relatives share
about 25% of their genes and show a risk of 6%. Most first–degree relatives siblings, dizygotic (DZ) twins share about 50% of their genes and show a
risk of about 9%. Monozygotic (MZ) twins share 100%

Methamphetamine (Or Ice): A Stimulant Analysis
Ice use in Australia, which is considerably higher than that of any other country, is at dangerously high levels and is ever increasing. It is a national
and worldwide problem that is causing its users physical and psychological harm, as well as societal disconnection and misbehaviour (Commonwealth
of Australia, 2015). Methamphetamine, or "Ice", is a psychostimulant which produces rewarding or pleasurable effects and behavioural alterations. It is
known as a psychostimulant because of it's classification as an amphetamine; which are classed as psychostimulant drugs that abnormally speed up the
functions of the users brain and body (McCormack & Buckley, 2006).
The core activity of methamphetamine is to undertake endocytosis or monoamine reuptake within the brain. Simply put, the reversal of ... Show more
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This reversal process is responsible for the return of a neurotransmitter to the synaptic cleft, which would otherwise be metabolised. This increases the
chemical messages found at receptors. The psychostimulant action of methamphetamine occurs through its ability to reverse the dopamine transporter.
This action can increase locomotor activity in its users (Swanson, Heath, Stratford, & Kelley, 1997). Based on this, it would be expected that a
dopamine receptor antagonist would reduce the motor effect of methamphetamine administration. The aim of this report is to identify if the
administration of methamphetamine and it's stimulant effect play a role in locomotor activity, the possible increase of motor behaviour, and whether
or not this effect occurs

Essay On Dopamine
Taking a look inside of the basal ganglia specifically within the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental space, the production of dopamine occurs.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that effects provide both excitatory and inhibitory responses with axon networks. Within the substantia nigra amino
acids known as tyrosine reacts with tyrosine hydroxylase in order to produce L–Dopa which is then reacted with L–Dopa decarboxylase in order to
finally produce dopamine. Once produced dopamine has been found responsible for initiating movement, helpful in attention and learning. Therefore,
the synthesis of dopamine occurs within the substantia nigra, but this is only where the cell bodies are located. The neurons project onto the ventral
tegmental area ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Unfortunately, when this hyperactivity occurs and Dopamine continuously binds to D2 receptors thendopamine acts to cause schizophrenic type
behaviors. It has been thought that such a hyperactivity, which can cause hallucination are the primary reason for schizophrenia but in recent studies
there may be other factors that cause schizophrenia. These factors are still unclear. However, for now tyrosine an amino acid is converted into L–Dopa
which then is converted into dopamine. Dopamine is then released into a synapse which can influence an individuals thought processes specifically it
can cause one to experience severe hallucinations a and delusions of people and objects that do not exist ultimately linking dopamine and
schizophrenia. However it should be known that the "Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia" is currently being disputed but for now the scientific
community believes that schizophrenia may be caused by hyperactivity of dopamine likely due to the inability to inactivate and reuptake dopamine in
the synapse and repeated binding to D2

Is Schizophrenia A Class Of Mental Disorders?
Schizophrenia is a class of mental disorders often symptomatic of a broad spectrum of behaviours which ultimately fail to determine what is real. Some
of the symptoms that make up the spectrum of schizophrenia include hallucinations, invalid or illogical beliefs or thought processes, and abnormal
social expression. It is worth noting that schizophrenia does not mean multiple personality disorder but rather a separating of mental function and is
also rarely diagnosed separately but along with other conditions, such as depression, mania, and anxiety disorders. As to the causes of schizophrenia,
both genetic [1] and environmental factors [2] have been found to influence the progress of schizophrenia, but there is still much which is unknown ...
counselling) and antipsychotics. Antipsychotics do not cure the subject of their psychosis but merely treat the positive symptoms by mainly blocking
the dopamine receptors in the brain. Hence, new drugs and treatments are continuously in the pipeline to find a drug that manages the symptoms of
schizophrenia with relatively few (preferably none) side–effects.
Antipsychotic drugs are classified as either typical or atypical, based on their relative potency and side–effects. This classification is usually substituted
with referring to typical as first generation and atypical as second generation, due to atypicals comparatively safer side–effects. However, it has been
argued that due to the severe side–effects of both, the amount individual variation between psychotic patients, the patient's tolerance to individual
drugs, and the fact that antipsychotics treat symptoms rather than the psychosis, it might be better to class the drugs in regards to their mechanisms
rather than their relative potencies [6][7]. Typical antipsychotics antagonise the D2 receptors and atypical antipsychotics target the D2 receptors among
others (e.g. D3 and 5HT2 receptors).
Currently, the main drugs used to treat schizophrenia include clozapine, risperidone and haloperidol. It is still debatable which class, as stated above,
whether typical or atypical antipsychotics are better and produce relatively safer side–effects among

Dopamine Hypothesis
The Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a chronic, psychotic disorder in which the affected individual feels a disconnection from
reality, chaotic thought patterns, delusions, hallucinations and various disturbances in behavioural, emotional and intellectual perception.
Schizophrenia is often linked to an irregular balance of dopamine in the brain and defects of the frontal lobe (The American Heritage medical dictionary,
2007). The symptoms of schizophrenia can be broken down into two categories: negative symptoms and positive symptoms. The negative symptoms
include an absence of normal function, including: alogia, anhedonia, depressed appearance and apathy (Ayd, 1995), however this essay will focus
primarily on the positive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To treat these psychoses, anti–psychotic medication is prescribed. Anti–psychotic medication works by binding to a specific receptor in the brain,
known as dopamine receptor D2 (Kapur, 2000). By blocking this receptor, symptoms of psychosis are controlled. As symptoms of stimulant psychosis
are very similar to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, anti–psychotic medication is the preferred medication to treat affected individuals. Two
types of anti–psychotic medications have been developed, typical and atypical. Typical anti–psychotics have a high–potency and high affinity to D2
receptors, however this can cause extrapyramidal effects and Parkinsonism (Golan & Tashjian, 2012). Atypical anti–psychotics have a lower–potency
and low affinity to D2 receptors and less side–effects. Therefore, anti–psychotic medication must block an appropriate amount of D2 receptors as a
deficiency of dopamine can cause extrapyramidal effects and even worsen the negative symptoms whereas an excess results in psychosis. A
cross–sectional neuroimaging study reveals that the link between D2 receptors and extrapyramidal side effects occurs only after 78% of D2 receptor
occupancy (Kapur,

Essay on Caffeine Effects In The Brain
Caffeine Effects In The Brain
Caffeine acts in a multitude of ways in the brain. The most recent studies explore the cooperative effects of adenosine and dopamine, as well as the
increase in calcium in the interstitial fluid and possible accumulation of cyclic adenosine monophospate. The most popular discussions of earlier studies
of caffeine demonstrate its antagonistic effects on adenosine receptors. While it has been reported that adenosine receptors are located throughout the
brain, the various subtypes can be found in very specific areas.
Studies have also shown that caffeine reactions in the brain are based on the localization of adenosine receptors, dopamine receptors, and the amount of
caffeine. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Garrett, 1997; Myers, 1999) According to the
Pacific Nueropsychiatric Institute "caffeine inhibits phosphodiesterase breakdown of cyclie 3',–5'–adenosine monophosphate. (Pharmacology, caffeine,
2) Again, this occurs only in large quantities that have yet to be naturally found in vivo. (Myers, 1999) Keep in mind that if cyclic AMP had a greater
than normal concentration in the synaptic cleft, it would continue to breakdown adenosine which has a depressant effect on functions in the brain. For
example, adenosine in the central nervous system inhibits neurotransmitter release and depresses locomotor activity, however with higher
concentrations of cyclic AMP there is less adenosine so, the effects on the biology of the brain are an enhanced neurotransmitter release, and stimulated
locomotor activity (Garrett, 1997). Another way caffeine acts on the brain is indirectly through the dopamine receptors. As stated by Garrett and
Griffiths (1997), "Although caffeine does not bind directly to dopamine receptors a number of conflicting reports suggest that caffeine can either
decrease or increase dopamine release" (p.535). For example, "Caffeine significantly decreases dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels in the
striatum, hypothalamus, and frontal cortex, but increases DOPAC levels in the nucleus accumbens"
(p.535).
Caffeine also is responsible for significant

Alcohol Reward System
Alcohol Dependence as a Product of the Reward System
To demonstrate an understanding of alcohol dependence, the reward system, a proponent of addiction, is briefly discussed in the news article.
Although the article outlines the basic mechanisms underlying the reward pathway, it fails to encompass the complexities associated with neural
reward, consequently highlighting the fallacies that exist within the article. Alcohol addiction possesses the capacity to induce changes in the reward
and motivational systems, introducing deficiencies in inhibitory control (Koob and Volkow, 2010). Alcohol dependence may be characterized as a
reward deficit disorder, highlighted by both impulsive and compulsive substance intake. Essentially, alcohol induces a state of... Show more content on
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Research has demonstrated that an increase in the concentration of dopamine in the VTA enhances the desire of reward–related stimuli (Lee, 2013). The
effect of alcohol intake is not directly correlated to dopamine receptors; but involves the indirect increase of dopamine in the reward pathway, or MDS
(Boileau, Assaad, Pihl, Benkelfat et al., 2003). The increase in dopamine is attributed to alcohol directly affecting the GABA system– inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the brain, and the endorphin system – peptide hormones that bind to opioid receptors and affect sensation of pain. Neurons from
both the GABA and endorphin systems extend into the MDS. When directly stimulated by alcohol, both the GABA and endorphin pathways release
dopamine into the reward pathway, ultimately accounting for alcohol's capacity to indirectly induce an increase of dopamine (Boileau et al., 2003;
Ramchandani, 2005) (Appendix B). Subsequently the increase of dopamine in the MDS enhances the attractiveness of reward–related

The Synthesis Of Apomorphine Was Historically Accomplished...
Introduction: Apomorphine has been used as far back as 2000 BC. In 2000 BC the Mayan's noticed that the bulb and root of water lilies gave a
narcotic feeling, as well as acted as an aphrodisiac and partial hallucinogen.1 Apomorphine belongs to a class of molecules called aporphines which
are present in water lilies, more specifically in Nymphaea caerulea and Nymphaea ampla.1 While mild effects were shown in parts of water lilies,
scientists wanted to know what exactly caused these effects. The compounds were isolated and tested to determine that apomorphine was the most
active ingredient. The concentration of apomorphine was so low in the plants that isolation was impractical so a synthesis was designed to investigate
the properties of apomorphine further; leading to apomorphine being used for Parkinson's disease, erectile dysfunction, and most recently Alzheimer
disease.
Synthesis2: The synthesis of apomorphine was historically accomplished by an acid–catalyzed rearrangement of morphine. This method typically had
low and varying yields: anywhere from 0.6% to 46% yield. In 2008, a new synthesis was patented that shown yields as high as 55% to 70% yield.
This new synthesis, scheme 1, uses phosphoric acid as the catalyst and phosphorus pentoxide as a water scavenger–water is the by–product of the
reaction and the phosphorus pentoxide irreversibly binds to the water. The solution would then be heated to 90–100в„ѓ in an inert atmosphere for two
hours.

Dopamine And Norepinephrine Essay
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overall specific aims
Dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) are the major catecholamines in the mammalian brain and play a critical role in the regulation of
physiological and behavioral processes (Wise and Rompre 1989; Berridge and Waterhouse 2003; Aston
–Jones and Cohen 2005; Aragona et al. 2008;
Weinshenker and Schroeder 2007; Owesson–White et al. 2008). The primary source of NE in the brain, the locus coeruleus (LC), sends projections to
both the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which terminates in the vicinity of DA cell bodies (Jones and Moore 1977; Mejias–Aponte et al. 2009; Simon
et al. 1979; Weinshenker and Schroeder 2007). These noradrenergic afferents make synaptic contact with VTA
–DA neurons, which harbor several ...
1993) whereas О±2–receptor agonist, clonidine, regularized the firing pattern of the midbrain DA neuron (Grenhoff and Svensson 1989). Additionally,
idazoxan have been reported to either increase or show no change in extracellular concentration of DA in the brain (Matsumoto et al. 1998; Devoto et
al. 2001). Thus, the effect of О±2–receptor on DA neuronal activity and DA transmission is clearly complex. Conversely, the role of desipramine
(NET inhibitor) on DA transmission is also complex since past studies have shown a conflicting role (Westerink et al. 1998; Linner et al.

How to Control HuntingtonвЂ™s Disease
Currently, there is no cure for Huntington's disease (HD) and only limited numbers of treatments are effective in controlling HD symptoms. HD a
progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor disturbances, psychiatric dysfunctions, and cognitive disabilities. HD is inherited in an
autosomal dominant manner, means that the inheritance of a single copy of the mutant huntingtin allele containing an expanded CAG repeat region in
exon 1 (>36 CAG repeat) causes the disease. Translation of the mutant allele mRNA yields the mutant huntingtin protein (mHtt) containing an
expanded polyglutamine region near the amino terminus, which favor protein cleavage and accumulation of the N–terminus in the nucleus. N–terminal
huntingtin affects transcription of subsets of genes. Early in HD progression, levels of the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and dopamine receptor
type 2 (D2) are reduced in the medium spiny neurons of the striatum. CB1 receptor is able to activate several signaling pathways through the activation
of different G proteins as well as arrestin–2. Furthermore, compelling anatomical and physiological evidence suggests a strong interaction between the
CB1 and D2 receptors. Given this interaction between CB1 and D2 receptors, drugs that block or activate either receptor will influence convergent
signaling pathways. Typical and atypical antipsychotics, including haloperidol and olanzapine, respectively, are commonly prescribed to HD patients to
control chorea and

Schizophrenia: Types, Symptoms, Medications, Treatment Essay
Schizophrenia is a neurological disorder that affects the cognitive functions of an individual. The cause of this illness is unknown, but there are several
theories of how an individual may acquire schizophrenia. Because there are many symptoms of the disease and because the symptoms can vary quite
dramatically among several individuals and even within the same individual over time, the diagnosis of schizophrenia can be quite difficult.
In the United States and Europe, schizophrenia occurs in about 3 to 6 of every 10,000 individuals. Schizophrenia occurs equally in males and
females; however, the age of onset of the disease is different between the sexes. The primary age of onset in males occurs roughly between the ages of
15 and 25, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since the social causation hypothesis is more narrow and only accounts for the assumption that schizophrenia results from stress (one hypothesis for the
development of schizophrenia), the downward drift hypothesis seems to better explain the disproportionate numbers of schizophrenics in the lower
socioeconomic classes. Moreover, a number of estimations have claimed that between one–third and two–thirds of homeless individuals have
schizophrenia (1).
However, the theory that social factors may produce the stressors that lead to schizophrenia does correlate with several key points. Epidemiological
studies have shown that a higher proportion of schizophrenics are found in large cities, particularly in those cities with populations of over one
million people, whereas smaller cities have virtually no incidence of schizophrenia. Also, the development of schizophrenia in children of a
schizophrenic parent or parents appears to be twice as likely in those residing in large cities as compared to those in smaller communities. Moreover,
schizophrenia occurs in a higher percentage of immigrants that move from a less industrialized area or nation to a more industrialized area or nation
(1). However, other factors may be present that contribute to the disproportionate localization of schizophrenia in relation to geography which will be
discussed later.
The symptoms of schizophrenia are quite variable in type and

A Brief Description of Schizophrenia
According to schizophrenia.com schizophrenia is a complex, debilitating mental disorder that 1–2% of the world population experience. It is a disorder
of the brain that affects how people think, feel, and perceive. The purpose of this paper is to explore schizophrenia, in particular its signs, symptoms,
etiology and pathophysiology, and then examine drug treatment and their mechanism of action. This will be followed by the prognosis for people with
schizophrenia.
Signs and Symptoms
Early signs of schizophrenia include personality changes that involve abnormal emotional responses, mood disturbance, or depression, as well as
cognitive changes (Schizophrenia Society of Canada, 2012). Symptoms of schizophrenia can be classified as positive ... Show more content on
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Dopamine Hypothesis
The current dopamine hypothesis suggests that schizophrenia is a result of dysregulation of dopaminergic activity – there is an increase in dopamine
D2 binding sites and there are prefrontal D1 deficits (Moncrieff, 2009;). This means that there is over activity of dopamine in certain areas of the brain
– possibly leading to positive symptoms – and there is also under activity of dopamine in other areas of the brain – possibly leading to negative
symptoms. The original dopamine hypothesis claimed that, rather than dysregulation, there was simply too much dopaminergic activity (Moncrieff,
2009). The dopamine hypothesis came from identification of antipsychotics as dopamine D2 receptor blockers (Nord, Farde, 2011; Miyake, Thompson,
Skinbjerg, Dargham, 2011). Schizophrenia has been associated with the dysregulation of additional neurotransmitter systems such as serotonin and
glutamate (Moncrieff, 2009).
Drug Treatments
Antipsychotics have long been the primary drug treatment for schizophrenia (Lehne, 2010). Antipsychotics are split into two main groups: 1) first
generation antipsychotics (older, conventional); and 2) second generation antipsychotics (newer, atypical).
First generation antipsychotics (FGAs), such as haloperidol are dopamine D2 antagonists. The most common side effects include increased prolactin
levels and extrapyramidal effects. Second generation antipsychotics (SGAs), such as clozapine, are

Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder
Neurodevelopmental Disorders Specifically Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Abby Hull Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Neurodevelopmental Disorders Specifically Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder "ADHD: we think more things before breakfast than most people
think all day" ("We Think..., 2012). "Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders in which the development of the central nervous system is
disturbed. These disruptions can include developmental brain dysfunction, which can manifest as impaired motor function, impaired learning, impaired
language or non–verbal communication" ("Neurodevelopmental disorders," 2015). A specific type of neurodevelopmental disorder,... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
These children often have trouble concentrating on the task at hand and if the symptoms are severe and persistent enough and if it begins to interfere
with functioning or development, the child would meet the criteria for diagnosis of ADHD (Kring, Johnson, Davison, Neale, 2014). Children with
ADHD also may have difficulty building friendships and relationships with others due to their aggressive and intrusive behavior although they seem
friendly and talkative. Problems usually occur in two or more areas of a person's life: home, work, school, and social relationships (Psych Central,
2015). The prevalence rates of attention–deficit hyperactive disorder vary between age groups. The textbook states that the consensus on prevalence
estimates is that about three to seven percent of school–aged children worldwide currently have ADHD along with two to five percent of adults (Kring
et al., 2014). This is also consistent with the findings by the Center for Disease Control where 4.4 million youth between the ages of four to seventeen
have been diagnosed with ADHD; using these prevalence rates, it can be estimated that in a classroom of twenty–five to thirty children, at least one of
those children will have ADHD (Austin, Staata Reiss, & Burgdorf, 2007). The age of onset of attention–deficit hyperactive disorder has research
supporting the theory that it is a physiological condition and is present at birth. With this being said, most patients do not

Dopamine Hypothesis Of Schizophreni The Psychotic Syndrome
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia The psychotic syndrome at the core of schizophrenia appear to be invariable across cultures (What is
schizophrenia?, 1988). The term schizophrenia refers to schizein to "split" and phren "mind" was introduced by Eugen bleuler in 1857–1939
(Breedlove & V. Waston, 2013). This psychotic syndrome is neurodevelopmental disorder involving the breakdown in the relation between thought and
a major impairment of logical structure of dissociative thinking (Bencherif, Stachowiak, Kucinski & Lippiello, 2012). Consequently, the disorder is
characterised by many behavioural, anatomical and neurochemical abnormalities (Bencherif, Stachowiak, Kucinski & Lippiello, 2012). The
behavioural states... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
( HГ¤fner & An der Heiden,1997). The evidence of dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia can be supported by the experiments on the availability of D2
receptors and amphetamine studies. Furthermore, studies related to antipsychotic drug treatment can demonstrate the improvement of positive
symptoms of schizophrenia. The current essay will support the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia by using empirical research.
The classic dopamine hypothesis state that the excess of dopamine is subcortically related with the positive symptoms (Abi–Dargham, 1999). In an
experiment, firstly brain scans were done to achieve baseline D2 receptor availability (Abi–Dargham, 1999). The fluctuations in the synaptic dopamine
levels were measured using in vivo binding techniques, the competition between endogenous levels of the neurotransmitter and the radiotracer for
binding to the D2 dopamine receptors (Abi–Dargham, 1999). Injection of amphetamine, cause dopamine to be released into the synapse
(Abi–Dargham, 1999). Resulting high levels of concentration of the endogenous dopamine in contrast, decreasing the amount of radiotracer available
to bind to the dopamine receptor (Abi–Dargham, 1999). The amount of dopamine released after amphetamine can be observed through the difference
between the two brain scans (Abi–Dargham, 1999). As a result transmission of dopamine was increased in schizophrenic subjects compared

Symptoms And Treatment Of Huntington 's Disease
Huntington 's Disease Huntington 's disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disease that is caused by a mutation on the HTT gene. It typically
effects persons in their third to fifth decade of life and can be passed onto their children. Neurons in the brain waste away or degenerate in different
areas causing the characterizing symptoms, such as dance–like movements and mental decline. Diagnosis and prognosis can be devastating to both
individual and family. However, there are genetic tests that can help to predict the probability of developing symptoms of the disease. There is no cure
for this debilitating disease; only symptom control and maximization of comfort can be prescribed until future research finds a cure. This paper will
review origins and symptoms, in addition to treatments and future treatments.
Origins
GeneticsThe gene HTT is located on the short arm of chromosome 4 and is present in everyone; however, it is the mutation of that gene that causes
Huntington's disease. The mutation presents as an error in the CAG repeat equal to additional repeats more than is normal. Normal genotypes have
less than 36 CAG repeats, anything above 36 results in an unstable gene (Scott, 2011). If a person has 36 to 39 repeats, he or she is genetically
considered to have Huntington 's, but may not develop the symptoms of Huntington 's; however, his or her offspring will definitely have a great
probability of developing symptoms (Scott, 2011). A person with 40 or more repeats

Atypical Antipsychotics.A Brief Overview. Dr. Vipin
ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTICS A BRIEF OVERVIEW Dr. VIPIN KUMAR, MBBS, DTCD, MD (PSYCHIATRY); CONSULTANT
PSYCHIATRIST, AURANGABAD, BIHAR
The atypical antipsychotics or second generation antipsychotics (SGA) are a group of antipsychotics that were introduced in the clinical practice
during the early 1990. All over world these agents are most commonly prescribed for Schizophrenia and other illnesses with psychotic symptoms. This
article will focus on brief overview of the atypical antipsychotics as a class and brief description of selected atypical antipsychotics.
The main feature that distinguishes SGAs from first generation antipsychotics (FGAs) is that they tend to cause less ... Show more content on
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There was no significant difference between patients treated with FGA and patients treated with SGA in scores on the quality of life scale.
Molecules available in the Indian market: Olanzapine, Quetiapine, Clozapine, Aripiprazole, Amisulpiride, Risperidone, Iloperdone, Ziprasidone,
Paliperidone, Asenapine.
They share the common property of blocking D2 and 5HT2A receptors. However no two molecules are the same. The degrees to which they block
D2 and 5HT2A receptors as well as activity at myriad of other receptors make them very much different from one another within the class. And this
difference is reflected more in side effects profile than efficacy. Majority of times it is in fact the side effect profile of the drug that guides clinicians
while choosing among many drugs.
Indications
Schizophrenia: Acute exacerbations and maintenance
Acute mania and maintenance of bipolar mood disorder
Bipolar depression
Treatment resistant depression
Delirium
Behavioral disturbance in dementia
Behavioral disturbance in children
Borderline personality disorder
Common side effects
Sedation, headache, hypotension, postural dizziness, dry mouth, constipation
Troublesome side effects

Extrapyramidal symptoms (akathisia etc), weight gain, impaired glucose tolerance, dyslipidemia, hyperprolactinemia and galactorrhoea
Before prescribing atypical
It is advisable that before prescribing

The Pros And Cons Of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a complex, chronic, severe and disabling brain disorder that affects approximately 1% of all adults worldwide. It affects males and
females equally (University of Maryland Medical Centre). Signs and symptoms of Schizophrenia usually become apparent earlier in men that is
between the ages of 15 to 25 among men, and later in women, that is about 25 to 35 in women. The symptoms of Schizophrenia are classified into:
positive, negative and cognitive symptoms. The positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, thought disorders, and movement disorders (U.S.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, National institute of Mental health). Negative symptoms include lack of pleasure in
everyday life, lack of ability to begin and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For ethical reasons all our results and conclusions will be based on statistics without revealing who among those we tested is affected or not
affected to the public. From the adoption study we expect Schizophrenia to be more in biological relatives of schizophrenic adoptees than in those
of control adoptees. It will also be of great interest to us to observe if the risk of the adopted away children to develop Schizophrenia increases if
both genetic parents are schizophrenics compared to if only one of the genetic parents is schizophrenic. Some of the genes may appear to be
associated with the disorder in some ethnic groups and not in others, which would make it difficult to for us to say that a specific gene is associated
with Schizophrenia in general population. This may be because predisposition for Schizophrenia is created by different combination and/or of genes in
different populations interacting with certain environmental factors. As association studies always follow linkage studies which identify possible
genomic regions or even specific candidate genes which contribute to the development of a genetically influenced disorder. Results from linkage
studies depend on a variety of factors, including the presumption of the mode of inheritance, the involvement of genes whose effects are large enough
to detect and the extent to which family members are diagnosed accurately as either affected or unaffected with a disorder in the schizophrenia
spectrum. Since all of these factors are problematic, it is will not be suprising that results from linkage studies are less conclusive and have yet to
identify genes that major effects to the development of

Diagnosis And Treatment Of Adhd
Another developing concern in regard to the prevalence of ADHD is that there is a growing shifts in the onset span and in the population currently
diagnosed with ADHD. A clinical practice guideline published by the American Academy of Pediatrics (2011) reported the expansion of the age
range in regard to diagnosis and treatment of ADHD from 6 through 12 years of age to 4 through 18 years of age. More recent studies substantiated
that a majority of ADHD cases persists well into adulthood in spite of the widespread recognition of this neurodevelopmental disorder's onset for
which it only occurs in childhood and adolescent years (Simon, Czobor, Balint, Meszaros, & Bitter, 2009). Furthermore, some adults are diagnosed
with ADHD without having been diagnosed previously (National Resource Center on ADHD, 2013). Moreover, Asherson et al. (2012) raised a crucial
argument in their research that adults with ADHD likely underestimate or ignore the influence brought by the disorder and attempt to compensate for
or rationalize the deficiencies by adapting lifestyle that works for them. Thus, it is likely that the current prevalence of ADHD in adults is
underreported. Essentially, it indicates that ADHD is a life–long neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder attributed to a sophisticated combination of
genetic and environment components. As ADHD is categorized in neurodevelopmental disorders in the DSM–5, this psychiatric disorder involves
selective impairment in relation to neurological

Essay about The Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
The Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease that has plagued societies around the world for centuries, although it was not given its formal name until 1911. It is
characterized by the presence of positive and negative symptoms. Positive symptoms are so named because of the presence of altered behaviors, such
as delusions, hallucinations (usually auditory), extreme emotions, excited motor activity, and incoherent thoughts and speech. (1,2) In contrast,
negative symptoms are described as a lack of behaviors, such as emotion, speech, social interaction, and action. (1,2) These symptoms are by no means
concrete. Not all schizophrenic patients will exhibit all or even a majority of these symptoms, and there is some ... Show more content on
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(2) However, there are some problems with this evidense. Amphetamines only mimic the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. They do not produce any
of the negative symptoms. Likewise, anti–psychotic drugs are only affective on the positive symptoms of the disease. There is still some evidense that
schizophrenics do posess higher levels of dopamine, however, these increases are only found in the striatum of the brain (7). The striatum is a region of
the brain that receives its inputs from and outputs to the cortex. Injury to the striatum results in problems with intiation and control of motor behavior.
(9) Also, there is evidence that the prefrontal cortex produces lower levels of dopamine. (4) The prefrontal cortex is involved in the organization and
coordination of information to and from the cortex. (7)
The major support and refutation of the dopamine hypothesis has come from the examination of dopamine receptors in these regions of the brain.
There are two main types of dopamine receptors, D1 and D2. However, within the category of D2 receptors, there are three subtypes, D2, D3, and D4.
(5) Through PET scan analysis of dopamine usage in the brain and post–mordum molecular analysis of brain tissue, researcher were able to determine
relative levels of dopamine receptors in patients with schizophrenia compared to non–schizophrenics. Overall analysis of dopamine

Glutamate Theory Of Schizophrenia Essay
Schizophrenia is a chronic neurological disease that results in a combination of positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Positive symptoms of
Schizophrenia include hallucinations and delusions. Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia most commonly consist of avolition, anhedonia, and alogia.
Cognitive symptoms affect the person's cognition. Patients with the disorder have disorganized speech and behavior, deficits in learning and memory,
as well as deficiencies in abstract thinking and problem solving. Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia are commonly attributed to the abnormally high
levels of dopamine (Konradsson–Geuken, slide 25). While there is no current cure for Schizophrenia there are different treatments that prove to help
certain aspects of the disorder. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Levels of glutamate in affected patients are lower than normal. Therefore drugs agonizing NMDA receptors would be a beneficial treatment. The
glutamate hypothesis of Schizophrenia states that PCP and other NMDA receptor antagonists lead to the positive and negative symptoms as well as
cognitive impairment of Schizophrenia in normal and schizophrenic patients. However those symptoms are heightened in schizophrenics. These
individuals have altered expressions of NMDA receptor subtypes in the prefrontal cortex, which leads to less glutamate output. D–aspartate is an
endogenous agonist of NMDARs. Increased levels of D–aspartate is shown to "improve brain connectivity... and protect against abnormal circuit
activation induced by psychotomimetic drugs" (Errico et al, pg 7, 2015). Postmortem studies of Schizophrenic brains display decreased levels of
D–aspartate in the prefrontal cortex and striatum. Furthermore, the dopamine and glutamate systems appear to be linked. NMDA hypo–function in the
prefrontal may cause DA dysregulation, which further hinders NMDA plasticity. The interconnected systems cause a patient to deteriorate in one full

Primary Theories Of Schizophrenia Essay
There are three primary theories for schizophrenia that need to be considered:
The first theory being, the Genetic Theory. This theory proposes that schizophrenia is inherited and passed through genes. An initial study shows, one
in eight children of a schizophrenic parental background develop this disorder, similarly another study concludes 75% of children will be mentally
healthy. Research also states, the illness occurs in 10% of persons with a first degree relation to a family member with schizophrenia. Statistics are even
high for an identical twin of a person with schizophrenia, with a probability of 40–65% of developing the disorder.
Next is the Environmental/ Interpersonal Theory. This theory proposes that schizophrenia and emotional disorders are directly correlated to a person's
young upbringing in the home and parental figures. It also proposes the idea that stress is a pivotal cause. A strong... Show more content on
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The initial indication of schizophrenia being a factor of dopamine was amphetamine consumers. Amphetamine causes several symptoms of
schizophrenia including: delusions and hallucinations. In schizophrenics there is an unsteady, high amount of dopamine in the brain. Antipsychotic
drugs work to lower the presence of dopamine on the brain by impeding dopamine receptors. There are two primary dopamine receptors, D1 and D2. In
schizophrenic patients the latter is split into D2, D3 and D4 subtypes. Dopamine activators are found in the striatum, prefrontal cortex and limbic
system of the brain. Clinical research has observed an increase of dopamine in the emotion controlling striatum through PET and SPECT brain scans.
Unfortunately there is no one pinpointed cause of high dopamine levels. Many of these causes are: Agitation, anxiety, cognitive acuity, feeling of
pleasure, hedonism, high energy, high libido, insomnia, paranoia and

Pharmacology Report On Halooperidol
Pharmacology Report – Haloperidol http://psychrights.org/states/alaska/Matsutani/Exhibits2Motion4PrelimInj/78–24–100324ExE13.pdf http:/
/onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/sj.bjp.0700989/full https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3298219/ deffo this http:/
/bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471–244X–13–240 shove it in somewhere (tox)
Discovery, structure, class and associated physiochemical properties
Haloperidol is an butyrophenone class antipsychotic drug discovered in the 1950s by a Belgian company 'Janssen Pharmaceutica.' It was found through
research conducted on 'painkilling' analgesic molecule derivatives from methadone and pethidine. This lead to the creation of phenoperidine, after
further study of its analogues ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
and Alamo, C. (2009). The consolidation of neuroleptic therapy: Janssen, the discovery of haloperidol and its introduction into clinical practice. Brain
Research Bulletin, [online] 79(2), pp.130–141. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036192300900032X [Accessed 9 Nov.
2016].
Maddison, J., Page, S. and Church, D. (2008). Small animal clinical pharmacology. 1st ed. Elsevier Health Sciences, p.131.
Puri, B. (2012). Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience 3E. 3rd ed. Taylor & Francis, p.63.
SASIKIRAN GOUD, E. and KRISHNA REDDY, V. (2013). DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A REVERSE
–PHASE LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHOD FOR ASSAY AND RELATED SUBSTANCES OF HALOPERIDOL FOR 50MG/ML AND 100MG/ML.
International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, [online] 5. Available at: http://www.ijppsjournal.com/Vol5Suppl2/6839.pdf [Accessed
9 Nov. 2016].
Seeman, P. (2002). Atypical antipsychotics: mechanism of action. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, [online] pp.27
–38. Available at: https:/
/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11873706 [Accessed 11 Nov. 2016].
Seeman, P. (2010). Dopamine D2 Receptors as Treatment Targets inSchizophrenia. Clinical Schizophrenia & Related Psychoses, [online] 4(1),
pp.56–73. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20643630 [Accessed 9 Nov.

Schizophrenia Is A Severe Mental Disorder Affecting More...
In this assignment, schizophrenia is going to be discussed and antipsychotics are going to be critically analysed, from the World Health Organization
they have stated that "Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder affecting more than 21 million people worldwide" (WHO, 2016). Schizophrenia is
characterized by changes in thinking, perception, emotions, language, sense of self and behaviour. The main things that people have occur with this
mental health issue are Hallucinations where a person is hearing, seeing or feeling things that are not there in the first place. They also get Delusions
that are fixed false beliefs or suspicions that are firmly believed even when there is evidence to suggest that they are not taking place, a person can
also have abnormal Behaviour they can be seen to have a strange appearance, they can start to self–neglect, have incoherent speech, wandering
aimlessly without a cause and sometimes be mumbling or laughing to self.
The studies and issues
There are many problems with follow up studies of patients schizophrenia due to patients who are labelled as having the condition varies from country
to country, time to time and which psychiatrist is dealing with the case. The patients chosen could be either sex, be of different age ranges, they could
be experiencing their first psychotic breakdown or could be more chronically ill. Any of the factors could affect the course of the psychosis. A patient
could be followed at certain times of their life this

Dopamine Receptors
INTRODUCTION
In neural signaling, axons transmit trains of action potentials from soma to dendrites, where synaptic transmission takes place. Until a decade ago it
was thought that axonal trunk doesn't play any important role in neural communication except conducting spikes faithfully. However, it has become
clear that because of the existence of many voltage– and ligand–gated ion channels in the non–synaptic areas of axons, different neuromodulators,
especially monoamines, may have some effects on the excitability of axonal membrane via activating or deactivating these channels, and therefore,
change the shape or conduction velocity of spikes. Consequently, spikes arriving at the pre–synaptic terminals may not be exactly the same as those ...
For example, there is an axonal serotonin–sensitive region in the lateral gastric neurons of the crab, which spikes could be initiated there, propagate to
axonal terminals, and change the output of the neuron. (Meyrand, Weimann, & Marder, 1992) Also, it seems that serotonin via 5–HT1A receptors could
modulate Na+ current, and then inhibit the spike initiation at the axon initial segment. (Cotel, Exley, Cragg, & Perrier, 2013) In addition, like
dopamine, the axonal membrane excitability could be increased by serotonin in the unmyelinated nerve fibers. (Lang, Moalem–Taylor, Tracey, Bostock,
& Grafe,

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( Adhd )
Attention–Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), according to the textbook, is a lifelong neurological development disturbance that causes inattention
and hyperactivity problems (Wicks–Nelson & Israel, 2015, p. 217). Many of those who have ADHD also suffer from one or more type of learning
disability, because their attention issues that inhibit their ability to focus on the materials being taught at the moment (McNamara, J. [October 19,
2016], Lecture #6, Brock University). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the fifth edition (DSM–5), there are
three categories for ADHD, the inattentive type, hyperactivity type, and the combined type (Wicks–Nelson & Israel, 2015, p. 223–225). In this
scenario, there are various aspects of Kate's diagnosis that could affect the understanding of ADHD for those around her. From a biological
perspective, the composition of a child's chromosomes is arbitrarily taken from both parents which they each contribute a random fifty percent
(McNamara, J. [September 28, 2016], Lecture #4, Brock University; Wicks–Nelson & Israel, 2015, p. 41–42). Each gene carries precise information
and particular function through transmission (McNamara, J. [September 28, 2016], Lecture #4, Brock University). Family members who are
intimately related are also more vulnerable to any physical or psychological disorders due to the greater probability of passing on the gene
(Wicks–Nelson & Israel, 2015, p. 43–44). Studies have shown

Understanding the Clinical Management of Pain in Fibromyalgia
Understanding the Clinical Management of Pain in Fibromyalgia
Classical pain presentation in fibromyalgia is often manifested in the muscle on various tender spots all over the four (4) quadrants of the body.
Generally, patients complain of joint pain when in fact only the surrounding muscles sore. Pain may be accompanied by fatigue, skin sensitivity, tingling
sensations, diarrhea, constipation and sleep disorder. Although, these symptoms are also linked to otherchronic pain syndromes, the health experts came
up of a unique tool to discretely differentiate fibromyalgia from other disease conditions.
Clinicians are very particular to rule out other disorders before diagnosing a patient with fibromyalgia. As mentioned earlier, signs and symptoms may
be similar to other conditions thus presence of pain alone is not enough to assume that the patient has fibromyalgia for a fact that some disorders may
co–exist with it.
The clinical symptoms of fibromyalgia are quite complex thus focusing on single aspect on pain care may not efficiently work. Experts categorized
treatment and management of fibromyalgia into three (3)
1. Pain management which focuses to Fibromyalgia.
2. Management of symptoms that may directly or indirectly trigger pain.
3. Management of predisposing conditions caused by fibromyalgia.
Various aspects need must be considered in the management and care of fibromyalgia. For instance, there are no significant evidences to show that
anti–inflammatory drugs diminish

Stress In The PVT
Stress in the PVT The PVT has shown to have implications in stress processing due to its diverse population of neurons, holding a variety of
functions. People are still discovering more about the PVT and its roles, but it is important to be able to categorize the neurons directly involved in
stress. To discover more, I worked with c–fos, a protein which is a promoter for previous neuronal activity for the two restraint–stress experiments. For
the first experiment, I used immunohistochemistry to label neurons expressing c–fos in both control and restraint mice. The raw data shows that with
restraint there is an increase of c–fos expression in the PVT. In addition, the stainings show that there are two groups of neurons activated during times
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
D2 receptors play a role in psychological functioning, such as: reward, locomotion, and emotion. It is important to know if these receptors become
activated because, D2 receptors are shown to have implications in stress processing as well, due to their ability to modify the way synapses release
and synthesize dopamine. Moreover, knowing the function of this receptor can give us insight as to how stress is regulated in the PVT. We began the
second restrain–stress experiment with D2–GFP mice and repeated the same type of restraint–stress behavior as before. The brains were harvested,
stained for c–fos, and confocal images were taken of each animal. After that, I quantified the data and used imageJ to select c–fos expressing neurons in
an unbiased way. After that, I counted the c–fos positive cells, GFP positive cells, and co–localized cells which expressed both. Once everything was
counted, I calculated the average number of c–fos positive neurons and GFP positive neurons. Next, I averaged the values and found that the GFP and
c–fos expressing cells have a high percentage of co–localization. For the control mice, there was a 99% co–localization between c–fos and GFP
expressing cells, while there was a 90% co–localization between the c–fos and GFP expressing cells in restraint mice. The co–localization

The Dopamine System Plays A Critical Role Of...
The mesolimbic dopamine system plays a critical role in psychostimulant–induced locomotor activity (Hall, Powers & Gulley, 2009). Dopamine (DA)
is a monoamine that has been long associated with the brain's reward systems, and more recently, its effects on animal behaviour have been
investigated (Barron, Sovik & Cornish, 2010). While becoming the most broadly used illicit drug world wide, Methamphetamine (MA) is an addictive
psychostimulant which causes the brain to release excessive amounts of the chemical neurotransmitter DA, controlling pleasure (Carati & Schenk,
2011). It has been used to suppress food intake and most commonly, increase mental alertness and physical endurance (Seiden, 2004). When linking
MA to the brain, its primary action is to elevate the levels of extracellular monoamine neurotransmitters, including dopamine, by promoting their release
from the nerve endings (Xie & Miller, 2009). Evidence has shown that these drug–induced neuropathological changes might underlie deficits in
cognitive behaviours in chronic MA abusers. MA preferentially increases synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic dopaminergic system
and initiates stimulating behavior (Di Chiara & Imperato, 1988). These ideas are further strengthened by data from animal studies showing that MA
neurotoxicity is associated with impairments in motor learning (Daberkow, Kesner & Keefe, 2005) in rodents.
Considerable evidence suggests that the locomotor activating effects of MA are mediated

Evaluate The Dopamine Hypothesis
The key function of antipsychotic drugs as recognised by various researchers, is the significant interference with brain dopamine function. This is
underpinned by the hypothesis that symptoms of schizophrenia are produced from increased activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine. This essay,
therefore discusses and examines the function and mode of action of these antipsychotics drugs with a view to critically identifying whether
schizophrenia is a disorder of dopamine function.
Dopamine Hypothesis
The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia as highlighted by Stone et al 2007 is seen as the principal explanatory model of antipsychotic drug action.
The formulation of dopamine hypothesis was partly based on neuro pharmacological research that centred ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, as highlighted by Videbeck et al (2014), the therapeutic mechanism of action is only partially understood. Typical antipsychotic drugs such as
chlorpromazine, haloperidol, act as antagonist at dopamine receptors (D2, D3, D4), which are situated in central pathways of the brain. Brennan &
Gamble (2006), highlighted reports supporting the clinical potency of typical antipsychotics which is determined by the extent to which they block
dopamine receptors. This action of blocking D2 receptors lead to effective treatment of target symptoms of schizophrenia but induces many
extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS) such as Parkinson, acute dystonic reactions, akathisia, tardive dyskinesia and worsen negative symptoms in some
patients. In as much as blocking the dopamine receptor is acknowledged explanation of the EPS of typical antipsychotic drugs, some controversy exists
in relation to extension of the mechanism to explain the antipsychotic effect. The core controversy is based on the inability to link the relationship
between EPS and therapeutic effects. Some typical antipsychotic drugs have shown fewer parkinsonian effects than would have been expected from
their clinical efficacy and explanation to this is that such drugs have in built antiparkinsonian as they have high anticholinergic potency. According to
Crow (1980), considering this explanation makes the relationship between dopamine antagonism and the therapeutic effectiveness more compelling.
Brennan & Gamble (2006), cited Gournay & Gray (1998), highlighting that about 30% of clients with schizophrenia do not respond to typical
antipsychotics or experience severe EPS, this means that the rest 70% respond to typical antipsychotic drugs and may experience

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