Oceanography 100 Reading and Homework Assignments – Chapter 1(Se.docx

Oceanography 100 Reading and Homework Assignments –
Chapter 1
(See schedule for due dates)
Chapter 1:Read the entire chapter. Also read Appendix III.
Vocabulary (for studying purposes only):
Ocean
Sea
Sextant
Latitude
Longitude
http://blog.worldlabel.com/2009/clip-art-of-the-week-
papapishus-junk-ship-and-wikimedia-clips.html
Sir James Cook
The Scientific Method
Hypothesis vs. Theory
Nebular Hypothesis
Density
Density Stratification
Earth’s Chemical Layers
Crust (oceanic vs. continental)
Mantle
Outer Core
Inner Core
Earth’s Physical Layers
Lithosphere
http://www.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?url=http://w
ww.teachengineering.org/collection/cub_/activities/cub_navigati
on/cub_navigation_lesson10_activity1.xml
Asthenosphere
Lower Mantle
Isostatic Adjustment

Isostatic Rebound
Outgassing
Stanley Miller
Atmosphere
Photosynthesis vs. Respiration
Oxidation Event
Radiometric Dating
Half-life
Geologic Time Scale
Homework:
1) (Concept Check 1.2, #3) List some of the major achievements
of Captain James Cook.
2) T or F? The deepest place in the ocean, the Marianas Trench,
is not as deep as the highest place on land is tall. In other
words, if we put Mt. Everest in the Marianas Trench the top
would stick out above water to form an island.

3) On the diagram below, color/highlight the lines of latitude
with red or pink, the lines of longitude with blue. Then, answer
the following questions with either latitude, longitude, or both.
Note, the handout and Appendix III are the place to look for
these answers.
N
a) Form circles around the Earth. __________________
b) 0° is located at the Equator __________________
c) 1° can be divided into 60’ or 3600’’__________________
d) Measured in ° east or west of the prime meridian.
__________________
4) Which of the following locations is farthest north? A)
Newest Town 35° 45” N, 45° 35’ W b) Oldest Town 15° 55’ S,
15° 5’ W c) Youngstown 25° 58” N, 5° 35’ E
5) T or F? Our solar system formed about 45 Billion years ago.
6) Outline the steps believed to occur in the formation of a solar
system by the Nebular Hypothesis (also called the solar nebula
hypothesis). What is nuclear fusion and how does it relate to the
Nebular Hypothesis?

7) Density stratification refers to the formation of layers due to
differences in density. Complete the chart of the Earth’s
chemical layers and their composition (below).
Layer Name
Sub layer
Composition
Depth to Top
Depth to Bottom
Crust
Oceanic
Continental
Mantle
Core

Outer Core
Inner Core
8) Geoscientists also divide the Earth into layers based on
differences in the way these layers behave (physical properties).
Fill in the blanks below using the terms asthenosphere.
lithosphere, or lower mantle (mesosphere).
a. Top layer _________________
b. Oozy layer _________________
c. Layer below the asthenosphere _________________
d. Rigid / brittle layer _________________
9) T or F? According to the theory of isostasy, the lithosphere
floats buoyantly in the asthenosphere like a ship floats in the
ocean. According to this theory, when weight is added to the
lithosphere (a volcano, for example), the lithosphere will sink
deeper into the asthenosphere.
10) Which two processes are believed to have contributed water
to the Earth’s Oceans?
_______________ and _________________

Chapter 4 Marine Sediments
The Key to the Ocean’s History!
http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/2009/05/could_an_aster
oid_have_wiped_o.php
K-T Boundary
Sediment = solid particles of organic or inorganic matter that
accumulate in a loose, unconsolidated form.
Examples include sand, gravel, shell fragments, bones…
Sedimentary rock = the rock formed by consolidation
(lithification) of sediments.
Examples include sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone…
The type of sediment deposited in any area depends on the
geography of that area.
latitude,
climate,
environment…
For example, there will be different sediments near the coast
than at the bottom of the deep sea floor.
Particle NameGeneral Size
Size Range (mm)Energy of Environment of DepositionSettling
RateTime to sink 4 km (2.5 miles)ExampleBoulderArm sized
(Coarse)>256High EnergyRivers and beachesCobbleFist sized
64 - 256PebblePea sized
4 - 64GranuleRice sized
2 - 4SandJust visible w/o magnification1/16 - 22.5 cm/sec (1
in/sec)1.8 daysBeachesSiltFeels gritty
1/256 – 1/160.025 cm/sec (1/100 in/sec)6 monthsOuter

continental shelfClay
Feels smooth (Fine)1/4096 – 1/256Low Energy0.00025 cm/sec
( 1/1000 in/sec)50 yearsDeep sea floor
Marine snow = clumps or aggregates of fine grained sediments,
fish scales, fecal matter, and dead micro-organisms.
bigger/heavier = sinks faster – weeks instead of years.
This “rain” of organic matter is an efficient mechanism for
storing carbon on the deep sea floor (less global warming).
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Mi-Oc/Ocean-
Biogeochemistry.html
http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewImage.do?id=4950&aid=238
7
Sediments can also be categorized by origin or source:
Lithogenous (terrigenous) sediments originate from eroding
rocks on land and through volcanic eruption.
Biogenous sediments consist of the remains of once living
things.
Hydrogenous sediments form directly from seawater.
Cosmogenous sediments originate from space.
Lithogenous Sediments come from land
most abundant in the ocean by volume
covers the 2nd largest area of the seafloor!
Eroded by water, wind, ice, and waves.
transported to the ocean by rivers, glaciers, landslides, and
wind.
The thickest and most extensive deposits of lithogenous

sediments are found on the continental margin.
Ice - Lithogenous sediments traveling to the sea trapped in a
glacier
http://www.gettyimages.com/detail/200542371-001/Stone
Streams - Lithogenous sediments pour from the mouth of the
Mississippi River into the Gulf of Mexico Garrison, 2012,
Essentials of Oceanography
Gravity - Waves have undercut this cliff in Norfolk, England
causing a landslide that will quickly wash into the ocean.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coastal_Erosion_Hunst
anton_Cliffs.jpg
Storm - Barrier Island breached and eroded by Hurricane
Katrina http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect14/Sect14_10a.html
Waves - Erosion of Banda Aceh, Indonesia by the “Christmas”
Tsunami of 2004
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6776380/ns/technology_and_scie
nce-science/
Lithogenous sediments:
Are the primary sediment of the continental margin.
Sediment size shrinks with distance from land
Transported seaward in the ocean by turbidity flows
Deposited as many thin horizontal layers
Layers may be hundreds or thousands of feet thick

Example: How much sediment will be deposited on a portion of
the continental shelf after 1,000,000 years if the deposition rate
is 30 cm/1000 years?
30 cm/1000 yr x 1,000,000 yr = 30,000 cm
given there are 2.54 cm/in
30,000 cm ÷ 2.54 cm/in = 12,00 in = 1000 feet (almost 1/5 mile)
Sedimentation rates average 10 – 40 cm/1000 years on the
continental margin
Abyssal clay = Lithogenous sediments of the deep sea floor:
Mainly fine grained sediments deposited in thin layers
Accumulation rates average 0.5 – 1 cm/1000 yr
http://www.noc.soton.ac.uk/gg/SEDCORAL/SEDCoral_sedtrans
.html
Stream - Plume of suspended sediment makes its way far out to
sea before settling to the deep sea floor
http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/wetland/mississippi/miss
_delta.htm
Gravity - Turbidity currents suspend fine-grained sediments that
travel far out over the deep seafloor before being deposited.
Duxbury and Duxbury, 2002, Oceanography
Wind - False color image of a dust storm in the Sahara Desert

http://jwocky.gsfc.nasa.gov/aerosols/africa/canary.html
Ash and cinders released during volcanic eruptions. This is
transported to the ocean by the wind. Mt. Pinatubo, the
Philippines
Icebergs can carry fine sediments and very large rocks (erratics)
far out into the open ocean, where they are deposited as the ice
melts. http://meteorite-recovery.tripod.com/2006/mar06.htm
http://meteorite-recovery.tripod.com/2006/mar06.htm
Biogenous Sediments are primarily but not exlusively composed
of the remains of once-living things:
Biogenous Oozes contain >30% biological remains.
The 2nd most abundant by volume, and
Cover the greatest area of seafloor
Biogenous oozes are most plentiful under upwelling zones =
areas where nutrient rich water rise from the deep seafloor to
the surface, providing nutrients for life.
There are two classes of biogenous sediments
Calcareous oozes are composed of calcium carbonate-rich
remains (similar to limestone or marble)
Siliceous Oozes consists mainly of silica-rich remains (glass-
like)
Neritic Calcareous Biogenous Deposits:
Coral Reef Communities (e.g. Great Barrier Reef, Florida Keys)
warm, shallow water environments
Stromatolites
mats of single-celled algae trap fine calcareous sediments
and/or produce calcareous fibers

prefer warm, shallow, high salinity water
similar to the first, simplest fossils every found
Pelagic (and rarely neritic) Calcareous Biogenous Oozes:
Most common in low and mid-latitudes
Can contain species of two common microscopic organism
families
Coccolithophores
Foraminifera
Calcareous Biogenous Oozes:
Deposited at rates averaging 10-20 cm/1000 years below
upwelling zone, 1-6 cm/1000 year elsewhere
Deposition rates ≠ accumulation rates as the slightly acidic
waters near the deep seafloor dissolve the calcareous sediments.
CCD = the calcium carbonate compensation depth
= the depth at which the rate of calcareous sediment
deposition equals the rate of calcareous sediment dissolution.
=>Below this depth no new calcareous sediments will
accumulate.
=>The depth of the CCD varies from place to place depending
on sedimentation rate and water chemistry.
Note that the old carbonate sediments, deposited above the
CCD, do not dissolve once the seafloor sinks below the CCD!
Dating these sediments can give us information about when the
seafloor was shallower than the CCD.

Figure 4.16, p. 113
Modern distribution of calcareous sediments.
Siliceous Biogenous Oozes are primarily pelagic:
Most common at the equator and near the poles.
Can contain species of two common microscopic organism
families
Diatoms (cold water)
Radiolarians (warm water)
Garrison, 2007, Oceanography
Siliceous Biogenous Oozes:
Deposited at rates averaging 10-20 cm/1000 years below
upwelling zone, 1-6 cm/1000 year elsewhere
Deposition rates ≠ accumulation rates as these also dissolve
near the deep sea floor, but much more slowly
The thickest deposits of siliceous deposits are below areas of
high productivity of siliceous organisms
Hydrogenous Sediments form by precipitating (falling out of)
oversaturated seawater due to changes in temperature, pressure,
or seawater chemistry.
Deposited at all depths from continental shelves to the deep sea
floor
Rate of deposition is very slow, about 1 – 10 mm/1 my

Important components of the seafloor sediments only where
lithogenous and biogenous sediments are missing
Examples of hydrogenous sediments include:
Phosphate deposits on the continental shelves below areas with
lots of biological activity http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/marine-
minerals/2/2
Oolitic Sands – calcite “beads” formed in warm, shallow water
areas with high biological activity.
http://www3.ncc.edu/faculty/bio/fanellis/biosci119/SEDIMENT
S.htm
Hydrothermal deposits are also hydrogenous sediments.
Manganese Nodules scattered over wide areas of the deep sea
floor are also hydrogenous sediments
http://sgyq8pm.edu.glogster.com/http://www.whoi.edu/science/
B/people/sbeaulieu/H2O_new/H2O_images/mn_nodule.html
Salt deposits = evaporites formed naturally along arid (dry)
climate coasts are also hydrogenous sediments
Cosmogenous Sediments originate in outer space and plummet
through our atmosphere to fall into the ocean (some fall on land
too).

Up to 300,000 tons splash into the ocean every year
Most are metallic, and rapidly rust away in the ocean.
Accumulation rates are very, very slow
Tektites, micrometeorites, and cosmic dust are the main
examples.
http://blogs.nature.com/news/blog/2009/07/apolloplus40_-
_the_mystery_of.html
http://fuse.ithaca.edu/4003/
http://www.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section4/new22
.html
Of course, different types of sediment often get mixed together
as they sink to the sea floor.
Biogenous sediments often contain a mixture of calcareous
and siliceous sediments and almost always contain at least a
little clay (lithogenous sedimnets)
Lithogenous sediments usually contain a little bit of
biogenous material
Different types of hydrogenous sediments are found in
different regions of the seafloor
Pelagic deposits are dominated by biogenous oozes above the
ccd and below areas of high siliceous productivity, abyssal clay
dominate in areas with sparse biogenous oozes (the deepest part
of the seafloor).
Neritic deposits are dominated by lithogenous sediments (with
some biogenous and hydrogenous mixed in).

Resources from marine sediments:
Petroleum – oil and gas, form in sediments with high content of
biologic materials.
Gas hydrates – ices of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfate, and
methane hydrate.
These stay frozen at the cold depths of the seafloor, but
melt when brought to the surface.
Form through bacterial decomposition of organic matter in
sediments
Construction materials – sand and gravel used in concrete and
fill
Evaporites – salt and gypsum, deposited as water evaporates
nearshore
Phosphate – used for fertilizers, formed in warm, shallow areas
with lots of biological material
Manganese Nodules – precipitate directly out of water on the
deep sea floor
Rare-earth elements – from hydrothermal vents, deposited in
abyssal muds
Paleo-oceanography = the study of marine sediments to
determine the past history of that section of the ocean basin.
Scientists compare seafloor rock type, fossils present, and
sediment thickness to what we see happening today
They can then infer the changes in location, tectonic activity,
and seafloor depth experienced by that section of the seafloor
over time.
These studies can also tell us about regional and global climatic
variations, changes in ocean circulation patterns, and the
movement of the continents through time
These studies can be thought of as giant 3-dimensional jigsaw
puzzles with many pieces missing.

50 million years ago
http://www.valdostamuseum.org/hamsmith/location.html
Today
http://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-for-kids/0145-ocean-
currents.php
Chapter 4:Read the entire chapter.
Vocabulary:
Sediments
Sedimentary rock
Paleoceanography
Neritic Vs. Pelagic
Lithogenous = terrigenous sediment
Weathering
Erosion
Transportation: winds, streams, glaciers, gravity
Texture
Grain size: boulders, pebbles, sand, silt,
clay
Sorting
Distribution

Neritic
Beach
Continental Shelf
http://www.indiana.edu/~g131/seds2.gif
Turbidite
Glacial
Pelagic
Abyssal Clay
Biogenous Sediment
Ooze
Algae vs. Proterozoan
Siliceous Ooze
Source: Diatoms vs. Radiolarians
Planktonic
Calcareous Ooze
Sources: Coccolithophores vs.
Foraminifera
Distribution
Neritic
Limestone / Reefs
Stromatolites
Pelagic
Siliceous Ooze
The CCD = carbonate compensation depth
Hydrogenous Sediment
Manganese nodules
Phosphates
Carbonates
Evaporites
Cosmogenous Sediment
Meteors
Tektites
http://www.indiana.edu/~g131/seds2.gif
Sediment mixtures – understand how/why

Dominant composition of neritic and pelagic
sediments (why?)
Sediment thickness and deposition rates
Resources: Petroleum, Evaporites
Homework:
1) End of section concept check 4.2 #1) Describe the origin,
composition, texture, and distribution of lithogenous sediment.
2) End of section/concept check 4.3 #1) Describe the origin,
composition, and distribution of biogenous sediment.
composition, and distribution of hydrogenous sediment.

composition, and distribution of cosmogenous sediment.
5) Fill in the blank questions. Use l (lithogenous), b
(biogenous), h (hydrogenous), or c (cosmogenous) to answer the
following questions:
a) Sediment formed by erosion onland, or erupted from
volcanoes ____________
b) Sediment formed by direct precipitation out of seawater
____________
c) Sediment primarily formed from the shells of microscopic
organisms ____________
d) The most common sediments of the neritic (near shore)
environment ____________
e) The most common sediments of the deep sea floor
____________
f) The least common sediments in the ocean ____________
6) T or F? Calcareous biogenous sediment will dissolve
completely in the more acidic water below the CCD.
Oceanography-Chapter 3
Marine Provinces
The seafloor can be divided into three distinct regions:
Continental Margins
next to a continent
made of granite / continental crust

transition between the continent and the ocean
Deep sea Basins
beneath the open ocean (away from the continent)
built of basalt / oceanic crust
Mid-Ocean Ridges
Volcanic mountain range
built of basalt
Near the center of most ocean basins
Fig. 3.8, p. 80
Continental Margins come in two types:
Active margins (leading edge or Pacific Type) are located at
plate boundaries
have earthquakes +/- volcanoes
lead the continent into the plate boundary like the front bumper
of a car (leading edge).
mostly around the Pacific Ocean (Pacific Type)
Passive margins (trailing edge or Atlantic Type) are not at plate
boundaries
no earthquakes or volcanoes
trail behind the continent like the back bumper of a car
(trailing edge).
mostly around the Atlantic Ocean (Atlantic Type)
Fig. 3.9, p. 81
Parts of a Passive Continental Margin
Abyssal Plain

Figure 3.10 showing the internal structure of a Passive
Continental Margin.
Parts of a typical passive continental margin
The continental shelf = shallow, flat area just offshore.
Average slope ≈0.1°
Up to 350 km (220 mi) wide
Ends at shelf break 135 m = 443 ft deep worldwide.
The continental shelf is believed to have formed by erosion and
deposition while exposed above water during glacial low sea
level stand.
The continental slope = a “steeply” sloped region extending
seaward from the shelf break.
Average slope ≈ 4° (too steep for sediments to stick)
Extends to an average depth of 4 km or 2.4 miles (varies
between 1 – 5 km).
The Continental Rise is found only at Passive Margins.
Thousands of feet of sediments deposited on oceanic crust.
Slope = < 1°
Average depth = 4 – 5 Km (2.4 – 3 miles)
Figure 3.10
5
Active Continental Margins = Plate Boundaries.
Because of plate tectonics, active margins look different than
passive margins.
We can define two types of Active Continental Margins:
Convergent Active Margins (e.g. west coast of South

America, or coast of Oregon and Washington).
Transform Active Margins (e.g. southern and central
California coast).
Convergent Active Continental Margins compared to Passive
Margins
Continental Shelf=> These are narrower and more deformed
than at passive margins
Shelf Break at 140 m or 460 feet
Continental Slope => steeper and longer than at passive
margins, ending at 8 – 12 km
Deep Sea Trench instead of a continental rise => these extend
up to 12 km (7 miles) deep. Note, your book includes these with
the deep sea floor.
Active Continental Margins have:
Continental Crust
Oceanic Crust
Deep Sea Trenches mark ocean-ocean and ocean-continent
convergent plate boundaries => subduction of oceanic crust.
Deep sea trenches trap and subduct sediment as it slides down
the continental slope, so no continental rise forms on passive
continental margins.
Figure 3.17

8
Figure 3.16
9
Transform Active Continental Margins do not have a deep sea
trench!
They do have Continental Borderland -> a very bumpy
continental shelf with lots of faults and islands.
Submarine Canyons are “narrow”, v-shaped features most often
found on passive continental margins. A few small canyons
exist on active continental margins. Submarine canyons are only
narrow when compared to the vast size of the oceans. Our very
own Monterey Submarine Canyon (a relatively small example)
is every bit as spectacular as the Grand Canyon.
Most submarine canyons start just offshore of large rivers, and
act as “pipes” carrying continental sediments to the deep sea
floor.
We think the canyons originated as rivers when sea level was
lower.
Submarine canyons continue to remain open and even get deeper
due to the erosive action of the turbidity flows that
move sediments through them!

http://www.dkimages.com/discover/Home/Science/Earth-
Sciences/Hydrologic-Sciences/Oceans-and-Seas/Ocean-
Floor/Submarine-Canyons-and-Deep-sea-/Submarine-Canyons-
and-De-3.html
Garrison, 2012, Essentials of Oceanopgraphy
Turbidity currents = underwater landslides
Move fast down the steep slope, slow down near the flatter deep
sea.
Graded bedding – steep on the bottom of the layer, fining
upward.
Wicander and Monroe, 2008, Essentials of Geology
Submarine Fan = a thick, fan-shaped deposit of turbidity
deposits found on the seafloor at the mouth of a submarine
canyon. 1000’s of meters thick
On passive margins these merge to form the continental rise.
But how can we continue to deposit thousands of meters of
sediments into an ocean basin that is only 5 km deep without
filling it up?
Remember isostasy?
Added sediments = added weight
Mantle displaced to balance, and the crust sinks.
Less weight here

More weight here
Less weight here
More weight here
Garrison, 2012, Essentials of Oceanography
Features of the Deep Sea Floor
Abyssal Plains are flat sediment draped areas of the deep sea
floor that are only found next to passive continental margins.
Abyssal Plains also form as turbidity currents or
underwater landslides bring sediments down the continental
slope and rise.
Features of the Deep Sea Basin:
Abyssal hills, seamounts, guyots (gee-o) and islands
Volcanic in origin
The name depends on height and shape
Abyssal hills are only a few 100’s of meters tall
Seamounts are several thousand meters tall
Guyot are flat-topped seamounts
Islands are tall enough to stick out of the water.
Islands, seamounts and guyot form as the seafloor moves over a
hotspot in the mantle. They are part of the hotspot chains –
Hawaii and the Emperor Seamount Chain are examples.
Guyot form when islands are eroded flat by waves and wind
while above the water, then sink deep below the surface.
But…
Why do they sink?????????????

Isostasy strikes again….
When the volcano is active,
The seafloor is warm = less dense.
Less dense things float higher and
the seafloor is shallower
Once the volcano dies, the seafloor cools = more dense.
More dense things sink deeper, so the seafloor is deeper.
The cooler it is the deeper it sinks.
This takes thousands of years, plenty of time to erode the island
before it sinks away.
Hot
Cool
Cold
Features of the Deep Sea Basin:
Mid-ocean Ridges!
Chains of volcanic mountains that run through all ocean basins
like the seams on a baseball
Mid-ocean Ridges = Divergent Plate Boundaries
Chains of volcanic mountains that run through all ocean basins
like the seams on a baseball
Up to 2000 km (1200 miles) wide

2-3 km (1.2 – 1.8 miles tall
May have a central rift valley < 2 km (1.2miles) deep
Interesting fact about Mid-Ocean Ridges:
They are dotted by hydrothermal vents = underwater hot springs
Seawater seeps through cracks in the seafloor,
is heated by underground magma chambers,
and makes its way back to the seafloor, dissolving minerals
Once erupted at the seafloor, the dissolved minerals reform and
create weird and fantastic shapes called black smokers.
The mineral-rich waters support an ecosystem based on
chemosynthesis or chemical energy (not the sun)
Ecosystems based on chemosynthesis or chemical energy (not
photosynthesis)!
Methane “eating” bacteria live inside the clams and tube worms,
providing food for their hosts and obtaining nutrients in return –
a symbiotic relationship.
www.botos.com / marine / tube_worm_colony.jpg
http://www3.ncc.edu/faculty/bio/fanellis/biosci119/marineorg.ht
ml
http://www.divediscover.sr.unh.edu/images/3747_006lg.jpg
Fracture Zones

Long, linear features that cut across the mid-ocean ridge at right
angles
Extend for 1000’s of km across the ocean basin
These are transform plate boundaries
between the offset ridge segments
Away from the ridge, fracture zones are scars of old faulting.
Fig. 3.22, p. 92
Chapter 3:Read the entire chapter.
Vocabulary:
Bathymetry
Fathoms
Soundings
Echo sounder
Continental Margins
Passive Margin
Active Margin
Convergent Active Margins
Transform Active Margins
Continental Shelf
Shelf Break
Continental Slope
http://geography.unt.edu/~williams/geog_3350/examreviews/tec
tonics.htm
Continental Rise
Continental Borderland
Submarine Canyons
Turbidity Current
Graded Bedding
Turbidite Deposits

Submarine Fans
Deep Sea Basis
Abyssal Plains
Suspension Settling
Seamounts
Tablemounts = Guyots
Abyssal Hills
Ocean Trench = Deep Sea Trench
Volcanic Arc – Island Arc vs. Continental Arc
Pacific Ring of Fire
Mid-ocean Ridges
Rift Valleys
Hydrothermal Vents
Fracture Zones vs. Transform Faults
Islands
Volcanic
Continental
Chapter 3:
1) Essential concepts review critical thinking question #3.2) To
help reinforce your knowledge of continental margins, draw and
describe the difference between passive and active continental
margins from memory. Be sure to include a real world example

of each type, associated features, and how these features relate
to plate tectonics. Hints: Use a separate piece of paper turned
sideways. see handout and figure 3.9 for help.
2) T or F? The shelf break marks the location of the shore
(where the ocean meets the land) during the last glacial sea
level low stand.
3) What is a turbidity current and what role does it play (we
think) in the creation of submarine canyons?
4) Answer by writing Active Margin, Passive Margin, or Both
behind the statements below.
a. Found mostly around the Pacific Ocean _________________
b. Do not coincide with a plate boundary _________________
c. Contain a continental shelf _________________
d. Very rarely have an abyssal plain adjacent to
them_________________
e. Trail behind a continent as it moves toward a convergent
plate boundary_________________
f. Face but are not at a divergent plate boundary
_________________
5) Most abyssal plains are found adjacent to passive continental
margins. Explain why:
6) What is the Pacific Ring of Fire? What does its presence

suggest about the future of the Pacific Ocean? Hint: think about
the Wilson Cycle of Chapter 3.
7) On the map view diagram of the seafloor at right, highlight
the fracture zone with red or pink, and the active transform
plate boundary with blue or black.
The History of Oceanography
http://ernielb.blogspot.com/2010/10/sailing-ships.html
Humans first went to sea to find food,
for transportation, and
for trade.
Studies of oceanography evolved as people looked to get more
out of the ocean
studied fish to find more fish,
analyzed currents to travel faster,
watched the weather to learn how to predict storms…
Early voyages were carried out with little knowledge of
geography.
Early explorers include:
Polynesians,
Chinese,

Greeks, and
Vikings
They made remarkable voyages traveling well beyond the
boundaries of the known world. They had no maps, no GPS, no
idea of what they would find.
WHY did they make these risky voyages?
To find new land,
To discover new food sources,
and to escape war.
The Middle Ages:
The Arabs dominated in the Mediterranean Sea, east Africa, and
the Indian Ocean.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Calipha
te.svg
In Europe, the Vikings were the dominant sailors, and were the
first Europeans to discover America! Figure 1.8, p. 11.
All Viking colonies in North America and Greenland died
out by 1450.
The Age of Discovery: Columbus, Prince Henry, and…
Ferdinand Magellan
The first voyage to circle the globe.
5 ships and 270 men left from Spain in 1519.
1 ship and 34 men returned in 1522,
almost exactly 3 years later.
Even Magellan died during the trip!
Modern Oceanography is considered to have started with the

voyages of Captain James Cook (1768 – 1776).
Scientific goals included :
1) studying the position of stars and planets in the southern
skies
2) searching for an expected southern continent (Terra
Australia) Achievements include:
1) discovered New Zealand, Australia, and many islands
2) described and collected samples of flora and fauna of
newly discovered lands
3) sampled seafloor sediments
Cool Fact:
1) his notes and maps were so well constructed that they
were still used during WWII
Fate:
1) He was killed in Hawaii during a
dispute with the native population.
Cook
Garrison, Essentials of Oceanography, 2012
James Cook’s voyages of discovery 1768 – 1776.
Figure from Garrison, Oceanography: An Introduction to
Marine Science, 2007
The U.S. jumped into ocean exploration - after 10 years of
congressional argument over funding the project – with the
1838 – 1842 Exploring Expedition
1) 6 ships
2) supposed to show the flag, scout whale populations,

perform scientific exploration and mapping
3) also supposed to test the theory that the Earth was
hollow and could be entered through holes located at either the
north or south pole.
4) Materials collected formed the beginning of the
Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D. C.
Beginning in 1847, American Matthew Maury collected data on
ocean currents and wind patterns. The maps prepared using this
data were used to speed ocean voyages. This continued the
mid-1700’s work of Ben Franklin
Cool Facts: Maury’s maps cut 30 days off the average trip from
the East Coast to California, which the ‘49ers appreciated!
The first totally oceanographic voyage was that of the HMS
Challenger (1872 – 1876)
(The first where the scientists told the captain where to sail)
Discovered 4717 new species
Collected 472 bottom samples and depth soundings
Proved the existence of life below 1800 feet
Discovered the Marianas Trench (the deepest spot in the ocean)
Collected seawater samples, and salinity and temperature
readings throughout all the world’s ocean
Discovered manganese nodules
Published their results in a 50volume report which is still
studied today.
6
Technological advances, especially those driven by military
needs during WWII, have given oceanographers the ability to
explore the ocean and deep sea floor with much greater speed
and vastly increased resolution.
More recent developments in Oceanography!

dusk.geo.orst.edu / pg / fornari.gif
Technologies such as sonar, echo sounding, and seismic
profiling => detailed images of the seafloor from the surface.
Sophisticated instrument packages sample and record chemical
and physical data through the ocean column.
Techniques such as deep sea drilling plus manned submarines
and unmanned deep submersibles => see and sample the deep
sea directly, in real time.
http://dusk2.geo.orst.edu/pg/fornari.gif
All of these methods ARE EXPENSIVE!!!
Most research is now done by consortiums or groups of
scientists, universities, or countries – for example the Integrated
Ocean Drilling Project (once known as DSDP and then
JOIDES).
The DSDP Glomar Challenger
(Deep Sea Drilling Project)
The JOIDES Resolution
(Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling)
The IODP R/V Chikyu
(Integrated Ocean Drilling Project)
http://www.iodp.org/ships-platforms/
http://wizzyschool.com/cosmiceducation/coordinates.php#Prime
Meridian

F Y I
Developed by Hipparchus (Greek, 190-120 BCE=Before
Common Era)
refined extensively as our knowledge of the world has
increased.
A set of imaginary circles around the Earth
projection may make them appear as straight or curved lines.
Latitudes and Longitudes:
http://www.stuffintheair.com/world-map-latitude-longitude.html
Remember,
a circle can be divided into 360 degrees.
A half-circle contains 180 degrees
A quarter circle contains 90 degrees.
A cross-section of the Earth is a circle!
Latitudes
Circles which run east – west
Circles get smaller the closer to the pole one gets
Distance between circles of latitude remain the same
Latitude is measured as the angle between the equator, the
center of the Earth, and the point of the Earth’s surface.
a. Latitude of the equator = 0 degrees = 0°
b. The north and south poles have a latitude of 90°
5. Latitudes are given with a suffix to denote hemisphere.
a. N means north of the equator

b. S meanssouth of the equator
6. Maximum Latitude = 90°N or 90 ° S
http://geographyworldonline.com/tutorial/lesson1.html -
CHECK THIS WEBSITE OUT!
13
Longitudes
circles which run north – south.
meet at the North and South Poles.
size of a degree of longitude changes
circles stay the same size
0° longitude = the Prime Meridian
Now a line through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich,
England.
Has changed position in the past (See the Da Vinci Code)
measured as the angle from the prime meridian, to the center of
the Earth, and out to the position at the Earth’s surface.
maximum value =?
180° toward the east and 180° toward the west.
We use a W or an E to indicate which hemisphere we are in.
180° E = 180° W and is approximately the same as the
International Date Line
http://geographyworldonline.com/tutorial/lesson1.html
The position of any point on Earth can be given by a latitude
followed by a longitude.

Don’t forget the N or S and E or W to show hemisphere.
For example, point A has the position 60° N and 90° W.
BUT… 1° of latitude = about 70 miles on the ground. We need
to be more accurate than that! SO…
1° = 60’ (60 minutes)
1’ = 60’’ (60 seconds)
1° = 60 min/deg x 60 sec/min = 3600 seconds
Latitude was/is determined by shooting the stars using a
sextant. The angle of the north star above the horizon roughly
measures angle of latitude.
http://www.clipperlight.com/howusesextant.html
Do determine longitude, we need to understand the difference
between Earth’s:
revolution = time around the sun = a year = 365 ¼ days
rotation = time to spin on axis = a day = 24 hours
http://www.boscobel.k12.wi.us/~schnrich/eath's_revolution.htm
local noon = the time of shortest shadows ≠ 12:00
http://www.eso.org/public/outreach/eduoff/aol/market/collabora
tion/luneclipse/locnoon.html
To determine longitude, we need to know the difference in time
of local noon between a known location and our unknown
location.
The change in longitude can be determined by:

1) difference in local noon (hours) x 15° per hour = difference
in longitude in degrees.
Why?
1 rotation (day) = 24 hours
1 rotation (day) = 360 degrees, so
360 degrees / 24 hours = 15 degrees / hour
note: (you have to measure time in the same way both
times so don’t reset your clock).
2) If local noon happens sooner at your unknown location then
you have traveled east
a) for example, local noon at your unknown place happens
when it is only 9 am in “known place” time.
3) if local noon happens later at your unknown place then you
have gone west.
a) example, local noon at your unknown place happens
when it is 3 pm in “known place” time.
http://www.longcamp.com/longitude.html
Example: I measure local noon at my starting position of San
Francisco at 12:15 pm. I get on a plane and fly somewhere.
The next day, I measure local noon at my new position which
occurs at …
3:15 pm San Francisco time = 15:15 (24 hour time)
Longitude difference = (15:15 pm-12:15 pm) hours x 15°/hour
= 3 hours x 15°/hour = 45° difference
Since 15:15 is after 12:15, I have gone west. 122 °W + 45 ° =
167 °W

Formation of the Universe,
The Solar System, and
The Earth!
One popular theory says that the universe began about 13.7 BY
(billion years) ago
How?
in a BIG BANG = explosion of pure energy from a single point.
Before the Big Bang there was nothing…
NOT IN BOOK!
Everything was HOT, HOT, HOT right after the BIG BANG –
about 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 degrees C!
Everything was expanding during this time.
About 300,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperatures had
dropped enough for atoms to form. These were mainly
hydrogen, with some helium and lithium (the smallest and
simplest atoms we know).
After 500 MY, there was enough matter in the universe for the
first stars and galaxies to form!
A star = a massive sphere of gas that is hot enough to glow
incandescently (like a light bulb). Our star is the Sun.
A galaxy = a huge rotating clump of stars, dust, gas and other
interstellar debris. Our galaxy is the Milky Way.
The universe = the totallity of all things that exist.
According to Garrison – there are more stars in the Milky Way
galaxy than there are grains of sand on the beach, and more
galaxies in the universe than stars in our galaxy.

Fate of the Universe
(just for fun, not on test)
The Closed Universe Hypothesis – based on the idea that what
goes up must come down, this idea says that the universe will
eventually collapse back into a single point due to the pull of
gravity, paving the way for another Big Bang.
Open Universe Hypothesis – the energy released during the Big
Bang was so huge, it overcomes gravity and the universe
expands forever. Eventually, all stars will burn out and drift as
dead balls of stone in a cold, lightless and lifeless space
Nothing we need to worry about – it is still many billions of
years
in the future!
OR
solar nebula (condensation) theory of star formation
One of several theories of star formation.
A nebula is a cloud of mainly hydrogen and helium gas mixed
with cosmic debris.
Lots of mass, so lots of gravity…
Nebula begins to collapse in on itself due to gravity =>
protostar
Gravitational energy is converted to heat.
once the star reaches a temperature of 18 million degrees,
nuclear fusion begins and a star is born.
A solar nebula collapsing, with protostar heating up in the
center. http://astrobob.areavoices.com/tag/solar-nebula/
Gas => protostar => star Stars glow but don’t burn!

http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fusion/Fusion1.shtml
Nuclear fusion = heat energy causes 2 or more smaller atoms to
merge or fuse together to form a heavier atom.
In glowing stars, hydrogen, lithium and helium atoms are fusing
to form heavier atoms such as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.
Isotopes of hydrogen
Future Test Question!
The aftermath of a 1054 supernova – nuclear fusion has created
heavy elements such as iron, uranium, gold, and others (1999
photo)
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/The-Hubble-
Space-Telescopes-Finest-
Photos.html?c=y&page=3&navigation=next#IMAGES
Eventually stars exhaust or use up their nuclear fuel.
Small stars, like our sun, simply burn out and hang in space as
balls of cold rock.
Large stars explode as supernova. These release huge amounts
of energy which power nuclear fusion reactions that create the
even heavier elements: iron, magnesium, etc.
Recent evidence suggests the heaviest elements, including gold,
were produced when two neutron stars(collapsed cores of
massive stars) collide and merge. The image below shows an
artist’s conception of the moment of collision and is from
NASA.

Our solar system is believed to have started from a solar nebula
that was spinning due to the impact of a nearby supernova.
But… supernovas add heavier elements too, remember!
Because of the spin, heavier elements moved to the outer part of
the cloud.
Figure 1.14, page 17.
There the billions of tiny particles accreted (collided and stuck).
They slowly grew to small planets or planetessimals,
eventually formed our 8 known planets - plus Pluto and the
other almost planet - sized bodies.
The solar system was finished when the Sun “turned on” about
4.6 BY ago.
FACT OR THEORY?
Lutgens and Tarbuk, Essentials of Geology, 2011
The asteroid belt (between Mars and Jupiter) is considered a
failed planet. This is what the solar system probably looked
like during the planet accretion phase.
Garrison, Essential of Oceanography, 2012
http://www.crystalinks.com/asteroidbelt.html
The estimated age of the solar system is based primarily on
radiometric dating of meteorites (pieces leftover during planet
accretion).
Due to more recent events on Earth, there are no rocks
preserved from this time. Our oldest dated rocks so far are only

3.6 BY old!
http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect18/Sect18_1.html
- Initially, the earth was a homogeneous (well-stirred)
It was pretty hot due to
Heat left over from accretion,
heat released during radioactive decay
creating smaller elements out of bigger, releasing heat
Impact of meteorites and comets (left-overs of solar system
formation)
http://meditationandspiritualgrowth.com/?paged=2
Impact of a Mar-sized body with the Earth about 4.4 BY ago :
Added enough heat to the Earth to cause it to melt completely
Placed enough material into orbit around the Earth to form the
moon
the same collision and accretion process that formed the planets
Garrison, Essentials of Oceanography, 2012
34
An artist’s conception of how our Earth looked from the newly
forming moon . Garrison, Essentials of Oceanography, 2012.
- Around 4.4 BY ago, the Earth became so hot that it melted
completely,

- This allowed density stratification or separation into layers
much like oil and vinegar salad dressing.
More on this in a minute!
Fig. 1.11, p. 12
Iron
Lighter
matter and
silicates
http://www.odysea.com/shop/product.php?id=65
The early Sun is believed to have been brighter and hotter than
today.
Our first atmosphere (maybe made of hydrogen and helium) was
quickly burned away by the extra heat!
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=jupiter-
migration-mars
Earth’s second atmosphere formed from volcanic gasses => a

smog-like toxic mixture of ammonia, sulfur, and carbon gases.
There was little oxygen present at that time!
http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1048506_california-
steps-up-gross-polluter-vehicle-retirement-program
Volcanic outgassing and collisions with icy comets are also the
source of the water of the Earth’s oceans
Figure 1.15, page 18.
How did we get the oxygen rich atmosphere we have today?
We think that relates to life,
so…
Where did life come from?
http://granitegrok.com/blog/2013/07/a-question-for-martha-
fuller-clark-why
Biosynthesis = the formation of new life.
Stanley Miller demonstrates his biosynthesis experiment.
Stanley Miller’s 1953 experiments:
Very large electric current (like lightening) though water
containing chemicals similar to those in the early ocean and
atmosphere
Created the basic building blocks of life – amino acids,
proteins, sugars, etc.

Note Miller did not make new life!
Believed that these organic molecules gradually combined
and evolved into primitive life forms somewhat like bacteria.
Questions remain about where this happened – in tide pools,
below a thick ice cap, on the deep sea floor, at hot springs?
We also don’t know when, although our earliest fossils show the
presence of life by 3.5 BY ago and there is evidence for life
3.85 BY ago. Maybe as early as 4 BY ago?
www.astrobio.net / articles / images / miller.jpg
NO! There is too much oxygen in the atmosphere now! Also,
the life that we do have today would scavenge the newly formed
organic elements – the amino acids, sugars and proteins, etc –
long before they would have time to evolve into life!
Could biosynthesis happen today?
We think…
First life was pretty simple, possibly similar to bacteria recently
discovered living in rocks deep below the surface.
These were consumers or heterotrophs = other feeders.
They had to find organic matter to “eat.”
Later, producers or autotrophs = self feeders developed,
perhaps as organic matter became scarce.

Early autotrophs may have been similar to the
chemosynthetic bacteria living around hydrothermal vents on
the deep sea floor.
http://www.123rf.com/photo_5528931_8-5x11-flyer-cover-your-
cough.html
http://www.ibiblio.org/virtualcell/amazingbiology/oceanography
/chemof.htm
Where did all that oxygen come from?
From plants, of course! Beginning about 2.5 BY ago, plant-like
autotrophic organisms developed photosynthesis.
- Through photosynthesis, plants convert the sun‘s energy
to food and release oxygen as a by-product.
Figures 1.22 and 1.23, page 26 and 27.
Where did all that oxygen come from?
- By about 500 MY ago, there was finally enough oxygen
in the atmosphere to allow life to crawl out onto land!
- We also needed to develop an ozone layer before life
could exist on land. WHY?
- Ozone in the upper atmosphere blocks UV light
(poison to life)
http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/060413/fossils.shtml
Animals (heterotrophic and multicellular) evolved in response
to the free oxygen in the atmosphere (and dissolved in the
ocean), which they use to break down their food to get energy!
Shown, artists conception of early multi-cellular animals.

http://www.astrobio.net/exclusive/3733/skeletons-in-the-pre-
cambrian-closet
Of all the planets in our solar system, only the Earth is known
to have life. Why? Because it has liquid water!
It is in the ”life zone” – Far enough from the sun to keep the
water from boiling, but close enough to keep it from freezing
Our atmosphere acts like a blanket keeping surface temperatures
comfortable!
Our rate of rotation is perfectly timed to keep water fluid
You are here
http://www.yecheadquarters.org/catalog2.0.16.html
We use geophysics to learn about the internal structure of the
Earth!
geophysics = the study of the earth's physical properties and
physical processes acting upon, above, and within the earth.
http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag159.htm
gravitational field => The Earth must contain denser material
than we see at the surface!
FYI = the pull of gravity is directly proportional to the mass of
the objects, so the heavier the Earth, the faster the apple falls!

http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/infobank/programs/html/definition/gra
v.html
magnetic field => The Earth must contain more magnetic
material than we see at the surface!
FYI = the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field is proportional
to both the type and amount of magnetic material it contains.
http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/mag_field.htm
3) Since the early 1900’s, our best source of information comes
from seismology = the study of seismic waves traveling through
the Earth from earthquakes and large explosions.
http://geophysics.ou.edu/solid_earth/notes/seismology/seismo_i
nterior/seismo_interior.html
Path of seismic wave through the Earth!
The velocity or speed of a seismic wave depends on: the type
of wave, type of rock, pressure (more is faster), and heat (more
is slower).
Pressure and heat both increase with depth.
Garrison, 2007, Oceangraphy
Seismic waves will change course where the rock type or rock
ooziness changes.
=> changes the travel time of waves!
http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/earth/geophysics/Seismic
%20Waves%20Reading.htm

A highly simplified view of how seismic waves bounce around
inside the Earth following a large earthquake!
http://faculty.weber.edu/bdattilo/shknbk/Notes/insdearth.htm
Use the arrival time of different types of seismic waves to
INFER (guess) what the inside of the Earth looks like!
Travel time => velocity =>rock type or behavior
The Earth is an Onion!
No, not really, but it has layers like an onion…
http://www.themedattraction.com/theonionslice.htm
http://roulette404.multiply.com/journal/item/7132/Other_DIME
NSIONS_Getting_a_Little_Cosmic
The first model of the Earth was based on changes in rock type!
Remember, this is a theory and is still tested and refined today!
Like Fig. 1.18, page 21.
Layer NameSub-layer NameDepth to TopDepth to
BottomCompositionCrustOceanic0 Km10 KmBasaltContinental0
Km25 – 50 KmGraniteMantleBase of crust2,900
KmPeridotiteCoreOuter Core
2,900 Km5,150 KmLiquid Nickel - IronInner Core5,150
Km6,380 KmSolid Nickel - Iron

There is also another way to divide up the Earth –
Layers based on material behavior
Chemical or Rock-Type Layers
Physical Property Layering
See figure 1.18 in text
100 km
700 km
Earth Layers Based On Physical Properties
(better for Plate Tectonics)
Layer NameDepth to TopDepth to BottomBehaviorLithosphere0
Km100 KmRigidAsthenosphere100 Km700 KmOozyMesosphere
(Lower Mantle)700 Km2,900 KmMore RigidOuter Core2,900
Km5,150 KmFluidInner Core5,150 Km6380 KmRigid
100 km
700 km
Isostasy = the idea that the outer surface of the Earth is
floating buoyantly in the oozy asthenosphere (like an iceberg or
a boat floats on water).
Why does
this iceberg
sink deeper than
this iceberg?
FYI: Objects float by displacing or pushing aside a mass of

water equal to the mass of the object.
A loaded boat weighs more than an empty one so it has to push
more water away and it sinks deeper.
Figure 3.7 in text
Density = how “heavy” something is.
It is a constant for a specific type of material
Density = mass/volume
Density is measured in grams per cubic centimeters = gm/cm3
http://fashionista.com/2011/08/here-is-a-list-of-things-that-are-
bigger-than-stella-tennants-waist-on-the-cover-of-vogue-italias-
september-issue/bowling-ball/
http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball
http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/textbook/density.html
http://www.grossmont.edu/judd.curran/outline3.htmContinental
CrustOcean
Oceanic CrustMantle2.8 gm/cm31.0 gm/cm3
3.0 gm/cm35.5 gm/cm3
According to the Theory of Isostasy:
1) every column extending from the surface to the
asthenosphere weighs exactly the same
2) Any excess mass at the surface – mountains or heavier
crust – must be balanced by a lack of mass at depth
3) So just like heavier boats sink deeper in the ocean,
heavier crust sinks deeper into the mantle.
4) So heavy mountains have light weight roots
5) The heavier oceanic crust sinks deeper, leaving room

for the light-weight ocean to balance it out.
Isostatic Equilibrium => all pieces of the crust are in balance.
As weight is removed (by erosion or melting glaciers) the
crust rises.
As weight is added (mountain building or formation of
glaciers), the crust sinks again.
Geologic Time – there are two kinds of time in geology!
Relative time – putting events into their order of occurrence
I am older than my daughter, but younger than my father
in Geology, this is based on fossils, the geometry of the
rock layers, and more…
before 1900+, this was all geologists could do
Absolute time – assigning ages in years
my daughter is 18, my father is 80, and I am ?
the absolute ages of rocks is determined using radiometric
dating techniques
similar to the carbon 14 dating used in archeology.
The Relative Geologic Time Scale – derived in the 1800s based
on relative dating, after many heated debates and the occasional
fist fight!

The Absolute Geologic Time Scale adds ages.
Based on radiometric dating = spontaneous decay of one of
several specific elements (the parent) to a new element (the
daughter). Eg. Uranium 235 to lead 207

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