What Is The Idiographic Approach To Study Personality

What Is The Idiographic Approach To Study Personality
1) In the idiographic approach to studying personality, the goal is to understand all the specific
details, factors and characteristics that make up the personality of a specific individual. There are
three different kinds of traits in this approach, central traits, secondary traits, and cardinal traits.
These three types allow psychologists to identify traits that are the most important to understanding
an individual, traits that are vary in when/how they are revealed, and single traits that completely
dominate a personality. To study personality using this approach, psychologists read case studies or
have participants complete surveys. In the nomothetic approach, rather than focusing on the traits
that can be applied to a specific individual, the focus is on finding traits that can be applied to all
people. There are three approaches that are used, often in combination. The theoretical approach
begins with a theory, which is then used to determine which variables or traits are important. The
lexical approach starts with a lexical hypothesis, and is a good starting point for identifying
important trait terms and important individual differences. Lastly, the measurement approach starts
with a diverse pool of personality items and the goal is to identify major dimensions of personality.
Factor analysis can be used to group items together, determine what variables belong on the same
group, and is helpful in reducing a large assortment of diverse traits into smaller, useful
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The Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire
PART 1 TEST REVIEW: TEST/INSTRUMENT: The Developmental Coordination Disorder
Questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ'07) AUTHORS: BN Wilson, BJ Kaplan, SG Crawford, and G Roberts
YEAR OF PUBLICATION: 2007 (original was published in 1999) PUBLISHER: Alberta Children's
Hospital Decision Support Research Team TYPE OF TEST: 1. The Developmental Coordination
Disorder Questionnaire'07 is administered to individuals from a child's parent. 2. The DCDQ'07 is
not in itself norm standardized, but the test does ask parents to think of other children the child's age
when filling out the test. It is strongly recommended to refer to a test that is norm referenced in
order to determine if there is a developmental problem that should be addressed further. The
DCDQ'07 is designed in a way that may over estimate coordination problems in order to not risk
missing any children. The DCDQ is essentially used as a pre screening tool in order to indicate if a
child should be assessed more. 3. The DCDQ'07 is criterion referenced. It asks for information to
identify the possibility of the presence of criterion B of Developmental Coordination Disorder in the
DSM. PURPOSE OF TEST: The purpose of the DCDQ'07 is for parents to assess children from 5–
15 on their motor control and abilities to check for the possibility of Developmental Coordination
Disorder. SUGGESTED USE: The DCDQ'07 is not meant to be used to diagnose Developmental
Coordination Disorder, and it often recognizes children that are normal as a possible

Documented Congitive Biases
For one there is a serious problem with the general reliability of the method, and of course the raters
are under the influence of the several different, well documented cognitive biases (Murphy, 2008).
Oddly this subjective method is often used even in situations where there are more objective
criterions, like sales or turnover, available (Vinchur et al., 1998). Its weaknesses aside, supervisory
ratings of individuals can indeed be meaningful under certain conditions, and there are situations
where no other measures are available. Researchers has suggested that the method can be improved
by using a carefully conducted job–analysis as a foundation for the construction of the rating scales,
and training for the observers conducting the ratings (Borman & Smith, 2012).
Objective measures, such as turnover, sales, absences or production rates are often considered as
better measures of job performance. Sadly these criterions also have their weaknesses, at least to
some extent. A recurrent problem with these measures is that of criterion contamination. Simply put,
even if the criterion in question is of central importance to the employer such as sales, there can be
several different reasons for the individuals specific value in the criterion, for example leadership
and environmental issues which effects the compared employees differently. There are possible
efforts to be made trying to limit these factors influence's on the results, with varying efficiency
(Hammer & Landau, 1981;

Test Validity
What is Test Validity? Validity can be defined as a measure of how well a test measures what it
claims to measure. In other words, validity is the overall accuracy and credibility (or believability)
of a test. It's important to understand that validity is a broad concept that encompasses many aspects
of assessment (Test Validity Research). The main thing that people want to know is whether a test is
valid or not, but it's not as simple as it may sound. Validity is determined by a body of research that
demonstrates the relationship between the test and the behavior its intended to measure. It is vital for
a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted, especially in the
context of psychological tests. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Here is an example from the University of California, Davis...Is hand strength a valid measure of
intelligence? Certainly the answer is "No, it is not a valid measure of intelligence." Is a score on the
ACT a valid predictor of one's GPA during the first year of college? The answer depends on the
amount of research and support for such a relationship. There are many different types of validity
that exist, each type is designed to ensure that specific aspects of measurements tools are accurately
measuring what they are intended to measure and that the results can be applied to real–world
settings (Introduction: Validity and Reliability). We will discuss the three main types of validity in
the following paragraphs: Content Validity, Criterion–Related Validity, and Construct

Measuring And Collecting The Right Measurement For Study
The credibility of a study as evidence for practice is almost entirely dependent on identifying,
measuring and collecting the right measurement for study (Houser, 2015). Having a reliable
measurement strategy is critical for good evidence. It is this evidence that research requires
determining if and what identification of the measurement objective and measurement strategies can
be accurate and straightforward, as when we measure concrete factors, such as a person's weight or
waist circumference (Grove, Burns & Gray, 2013, p. 382). Levels of Measurement Variables The
purpose of research is to describe and explain variance in the world. A variance is something that
occurs naturally in the world of change that results from manipulation. ... Show more content on
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The dependent variable is student–learning outcomes, and the independent variable is debriefing
methods. Study Design and Sample This study will use a two–group, quasi–experimental, pre–test,
post–test design. A convenience sample made up of nurse educators and undergraduate nursing
students coming from three to four schools of nursing to participate in the study. Schools who agree
to participate will use the same type of simulation equipment and have faculty members who have
had or no training in debriefing, use the same scenario, and will conduct debriefing sessions with
students. Data Collection Instruments Demographic Questionnaire A solicited demographic
questionnaire from all participates involved will be obtained. The data will include the participant's
age, gender, prior simulation exposure, and if they participated in a debriefing after a scenario. The
nurse educators will receive the same basic questions regarding demographics. Two additional
question will be asked separately related to (1) have they received formal training in simulation
debriefing or not; (2) do they use prepared debriefing questions or not after a simulation event. An
initial pre–test will be given to group participants once the demographic questionnaire is complete.
Scale Development Scale items developed through literature, seek expert opinions, and population
sampling as the researcher defines the

Distinction between Self-Report and Behavioral Measures
Impulsivity is commonly recognized as a multifactorial construct (Cyders & Coskunpinar, 2011). Its
definition is extensive, including traits such as: risk–taking, insufficient forethought, boredom
(Verdejo–García, Lozano, Moya, Alcázar & Pérez–García, 2010), failure to complete tasks (Cyders
& Coskunpinar, 2011), excitement– and sensation– seeking, control–, planning– and self–discipline
problems (Miller, Flory, Lynam & Leukefeld, 2003) as well as compromised risk assessment,
immediate reward seeking and difficulty controlling strong impulses (Perales, Verdejo–Gracia,
Moya, Lozano & Perez–Garcia, 2009). Impulsivity includes functional and dysfunctional (Dickman
1990) states and traits and involves cognitive, behavioral and motor impulsivity (Perales et al.,
2009). Broad and conflicting definitions of this single construct make it difficult to compare
different measures and classify behaviors consisting of particular forms of impulsivity (Anestis,
Selby & Joiner, 2007). Due to the prevalence of impulsivity in ADHD, suicide, gambling (Cyders &
Coskunpinar, 2011), bulimia and substance use disorders (Verdejo–García et al., 2010) it is essential
that impulsivity tests are valid and reliable (Verdejo–García et al., 2010). This essay will firstly
address the distinction between self–report and behavioral measures, next, the advantages and
disadvantages of measures and finally, tests and their appropriate clinical use and implications for
research. Due to its intrinsically broad

Evaluation Of A Performance Assessment
Evaluation of a Performance Assessment: edTPA James (Monty) Burger Texas A&M University
Evaluation of a Performance Assessment: edTPA Teacher effectiveness is of the utmost importance
to ensure student success. However a valid and reliable performance assessment to evaluate teacher
effectiveness has historically remained elusive. Recognizing this need, Stanford University
developed the edTPA (formerly Teacher Performance Assessment) to specifically measure teacher
readiness/effectiveness. The edTPA began field testing in 2009, and has been administered
operationally since 2013. The focus of the edTPA is to assess an authentic cycle of teaching which is
comprised of three tasks. These tasks include ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to the 2014 edTPAAdministrative Report some random sampling was done for scorer
reliability with very positive results. Out of 1,808 portfolios (which were double scored
independently) the scorers assigned either the same or adjacent scores with total agreement in nearly
all cases (93.3%). While that speaks well for the scorer reliability, as far as appropriate sampling for
validation and norming the edTPA appears to fall short. There are several mentions of small sample
sizes and differences in group sizes preventing any strong generalizations or conclusions. Some
sample sizes are as large as several thousand while others fewer than 10, creating the opportunity for
instability. Reliability The next condition that should be closely reviewed when evaluating a
performance assessment is reliability (Rudner, 1994). As discussed above the inter–rater reliability
for the edTPA seems to be very reliable. Ten percent of portfolios are randomly double–scored to
examine scorer rates, and the results provide evidence of high total agreement. According to the
2014 edTPAAdministrative Report the overall reliability coefficient across all fields was 0.923,
indicating a high level of consistency across the rubrics, establishing that the rubrics as a group are
successfully measuring a common construct of teacher readiness. There was some concern with
reliability specifically surrounding the

Ap Psychology Unit 4
2) Isolation/causation. Isolation is if only thing changing is that which is being manipulated whether
up or down, then the change in effect is caused by the change in IV (the thing manipulated). It is
harder to get isolation from psychology, than that from physical experiments. In experiments, even
in a double blind study, the IV and subjects are changing. This can prove to make things even more
difficult when the DV is based on the subject, the change on the DV may be due to difference in
samples and not on changes due to the IV. Where a confounding variable is the environment or
situation, the difference in subjects such as age or gender is a subject variable. This is important to
note the differences as subject difference Subject variables ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Compulsive or obsessive are broad terms. Questions like do you feel anxious? Do you repeat your
actions?
Empirical
Divergent/ Discriminant validity is a measurement of a construct if the item does not correlate with
measure of the construct, which is almost never done. Example would be a test of obsessive by
measuring a person's reaction to a question on their favorite colour.
Convergent validity is a measure as a construct to the extent that the item correlates with what it
should correlate if it is a measure of the construct, usually by Pearson correlation. Measure can be
positive or negatively correlated. For example, how many times do you knock on a door positively
correlating to compulsive to how many times you quietly meditate being negatively correlated.
5) Imputation (missing values).
Deductive is the first method typically used for missing values. This relies on data missing that was
overlooked but easily calculated or sometimes may be slight estimations. For example, knowing that
highest level of education is college, they left completed high school blank could be answered from
previous question. However, one might take an estimation on something such as missing age, since
the person states being born in 1986, we can estimate that they are likely 30 years

Situtational Judgement Tests
Introduction Situational judgment tests (SJTs) is one of the common methods which always be used
in personnel selection recently. Specifically, "situational judgment tests (SJTs) typically consist of
scenarios of hypothetical work situations in which a problem has arisen. Accompanying each
scenario are multiple possible ways to respond to the hypothetical situation. The test taker is then
asked to judge the possible courses of action" (L. A. L. de Meijer et al., 2010, p.229). In terms of the
development of SJTs, the scenarios and situations are always gathered by the subject matter experts
from specific job–related critical incidents; and then subject matter experts would gather
information in order to create the possible responses; finally, subject matter experts would develop
the scoring keys for the SJTs (Crook et al., 2011). SJT items may be presented in different formats,
such as paper–pencil based, verbal, video–based, or computer–based formats (e.g., Clevenger,
Pereira, Wiechmann, Schmitt, & Schmidt–Harvey, 2001; Motowidlo et al., 1990), and participants
of the SJTs are usually required to choose the most appropriate option among the several options for
each situation or scenario (Christian, Edwards, & Bradley, 2010). The most common formats are
paper–pencil based and video–based SJTs. We first have the paper–pencil based SJTs, and then,
Thorndike (1949) mentioned the video–based SJTs would be closer to real–life situations than the
paper–pencil based formation of

Face Construct And Criterion-Related Validity Essay
There are differences among face, construct, and criterion–related validity. Face validity assesses a
task under evaluation. A group of subjective experts evaluate face validity (Maribo, Pedersen,
Jensen, & Nielsen, 2016). Face validity can be utilized to motivate stakeholders within an
organization. If stakeholders are not supportive of the results from face validity they will become
disengaged. For example, when measuring the level of professionalism during the hiring process
questions should relate to different levels of professionalism. If not stakeholders will not be
motivated to give their opinion and the true assessment of the hiring process will not be achieved.
"Face validity considers the relevance of a test as it appears to testers" ... Show more content on
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367, 2012). This particular validity is important when it comes to legal defensibility. Construct
validity explains how what is being studied matches the actual measure. Criterion validity answers
the question of whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. One way to assess criterion validity is
to compare it to a known standard. A reference is needed to determine an instrument's criterion–
related validity. Criterion–related validity predicts the future. If a nursing program designed a
measure to assess student learning throughout the program, a test such as the NCLEX would
measure student's ability in this discipline. If the instrument produces the same result as the superior
test the instrument has a high criterion–related validity. The higher the results the more faith
stakeholders will have in the assessment tool. "A criterion–related validity study is conducted by
statistically correlating scores with some measure of job performance" (Biddle, p.308, 2010).
Criterion–related validity is most important when it comes to predicting performance in a specific
job, and predicting future

Discretion-Related Validity
Essentially, there are a variation of methods to record the job–relatedness and precision of a test as a
decision–making device, however, a working comprehension of validation should focus on some
general types of validation. According to Heneman, Judge, and Kammeyer–
Mueller (2012, p. 335)
"Validity is defined as the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure." All the
more, the differences among face validity, construct validity and criterion–related validity are as
follows:
Face Validity:
Face validity pertains to whether the test "looks valid" to the examinees who take it (Niche
Consulting, 2017). Essentially, face validity encompasses the definition of do the people who are
taking the measure think it looks relevant ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Criterion Related Validity is the extent to which a test or questionnaire predicts some future or
desired outcome, for example work behaviour or on–the–job performance. This validity has obvious
importance in personnel selection, recruitment and development. Whenever possible, the statistical
evaluation of the relationship between selection measures and valued business outcomes is
desirable. This type of validation is known as "criterion–related validation" and it can provide
concrete evidence of the accuracy of a test for predicting job performance. Criterion validation
involves a statistical study that provides hard evidence of the relationship between scores on pre–
employment assessments and valued business outcomes related to job performance. The statistical
evidence resulting from this process provides a clear understanding of the ROI provided by the
testing process and thus helps document the value provided. Criterion–related validation also
provides support for the legal defensibility of an assessment because it clarifies the assessment's
accuracy as a decision–making tool. While criterion–related validation may seem mysterious, it has
much in common with two more well–known concepts that are used to help find value within
business processes: six sigma and business intelligence. Both of these methods require that data be
examined in order to help clarify relations between various process components. The resulting
information can be used to help streamline business processes and uncover meaningful relationships
between various streams of data. The creation of a feedback loop using criterion validation is really
no different (Handler, 2009).Criterion–related validity is the ability of a test to make accurate

The Pros Of Construct Validity
Any time a test is conducted, one of the major concerns is if the test is valid or not. Testing the
validity of a test is the measurement of how well what is being tested is measured. "For example, a
test might be designed to measure a stable personality trait but instead measure transitory emotions
generated by situational or environmental conditions. A valid test ensures that the results are an
accurate reflection of the dimension undergoing assessment" (Cherry, 2016). There are two main
types of validity: content – related validity and criterion – related validity.
Content related validity includes face validity and constructs validity. Face validity ask the question
does this test what is supposed to be tested. According to Saul McLeod, ... Show more content on
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"This type of validity refers to the extent to which a test captures a specific theoretical construct or
trait, and it overlaps with some of the other aspects of validity. Construct validity does not concern
the simple factual question of whether a test measures an attribute" (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). "To
test for construct validity it must be demonstrated that the phenomenon being measured actually
exists. So, the construct validity of a test for intelligence, for example, is dependent on a model or
theory of intelligence. Construct validity entails demonstrating the power of such a construct to
explain a network of research findings and to predict further relationships. The more evidence a
researcher can demonstrate for a test's construct validity the better. However, there is no single
method of determining the construct validity of a test. Instead, different methods and approaches are
combined to present the overall construct validity of a test. For example, factor analysis and
correlational methods can be used" (McLeod, 2013). The method is imperative to predicting the
future potential of candidates. Because the more information that can be produced by the construct
validity test the more material can be used to forecast the individual

Therapeutic Psychology
Assignment 01 due 15 April – 15 Multiple Choice questions
In the article by Gadd and Phipps (2012), they refer to the challenges faced by psychological and,
specifically, neuropsychological assessment. Their study focused on a preliminary standardisation of
the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (a non–verbal measure) for Setswana–speaking university students.
The US normative sample is described as participants (N = 899) aged 18 to 29 years who were
screened beforehand to exclude individuals with a history of neurological, learning, emotional and
attention difficulties. The South African sample consisted of university students (N = 93) from both
genders, between the ages of 18 and 29, who were screened in terms of hearing and visual ... Show
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It can be used as a diagnostic tool and also as an instrument in the provision of quality–assured
student development opportunities.
The WQHE provides an opportunity to describe group and / or individuals' wellness profiles and to
follow this up with tailored services and programmes to facilitate individual or group development.
Such development may be completely self–managed and applies to all students, whether or not they
are already well–developed.
Recommended test development guidelines were closely followed, including the submission of the
manual and test materials to the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) for test
classification in 2010. Adequate reliability and validity coefficients have been obtained for this
completely indigenous South African measure, and we are patiently awaiting the results of the test
classification process.
Question 3
The Cronbach's Alpha coefficients imply that ...
(1) the test is internally consistent
(2) the test is stable over time
(3) the error due to chance factors is unacceptable
(4) the type of reliability is not appropriate for this type of test
Cronbach's alpha is a statistic generally used as a measure of internal consistency or reliability.
Cronbach's alpha determines the internal consistency or average correlation of items in a survey
instrument to gauge its reliability.

Evaluation Of A Correlational Study Design Essay
The present study contains a correlational study design as well as a between–subject design. A
correlational study design will allow the researchers to adequately answer the first research question.
The correlational study design allows the researchers to identify and interpret any correlational
trends regarding mental health effects and the success of transitioning amongst the participants. The
dependent variable of the first research question includes the success of transitioning (employment,
education, residential status, and communication after high school) and mental health
(depression/anxiety, sleep, obesity, and physical activity). There is no independent variable in the
first research question due to the correlational design. A between–subject design will allow the
researchers to effectively answer the second research question. This type of design matches
participants based on a related variable; groups with or without employment to further examine any
differences that may exist between the two groups. The dependent variable of the second research
question is the level of mental health. The independent variable of this study is the two groups that
the researchers are exploring: employment group vs. non–employment group. Participants The
present study will include a target goal of 100 individuals with DS between the ages of 17 to 40
years old, and their parent or primary caregiver. The participants will be recruited through DS–
Connect, a secure platform for

Reliability And Validity Essay
Establishing Reliability and Validity In conducting a research or survey, the quality of the data
collected in the research is of utmost importance. One's assessment may be reliable and not valid
and thus this is why it is important that when designing a survey, one should also come up with the
methods of testing the reliability and validity of the assessment tools. For MADD (Mothers Against
Drunk Driving) to conduct a survey, the questions they propose to use must pass the validity and
reliability test for one to conclude that the survey is reliable and valid. This survey will try to find
out the risk factors that contribute to drunken driving by teenagers or young adults. Reliability can
be defined as the statistical measurement of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, the types of validity include content validity, criterion validity and construct
validity (Litwin, 1995). The assessment of these forms of reliability and validity determines the
quality of the data that our tools will collect and hence affects how reliable and valid the research
will be. When using multiple indicators, the test–retest is the most common and easiest. This is
usually done by administering survey questions to the same respondents at different times so as to
see how consistent their responses are (Litwin, 1995, p. 8). This process measures how reproducible
the results are. When the two sets of responses from the same respondent are compared, their
correlation is referred to as intraobserver reliability. This measures the stability of the responses
from the same respondent as a form of the test–retest reliability. The alternate–form or alternative
method is almost similar to the test–retest method but differs on the second testing, where instead of
giving the same test an alternative form of the test is given to the same respondents (Carmines &
Zeller, 1979, p. 40). However, the two tests should be equivalent in that they should be designed to
measure the same thing. The correlation between the results of the two forms is the interobserver
test, which gives an estimate of the reliability. The split–halves test involves splitting the survey
sample

Staffing System For A Job
Maria Romano MGE 629 HW#3 Chapter #7 1. Imagine and describe a staffing system for a job in
which no measures are used A staffing system for a job in which no measures are used would be
virtually impossible. Measurement is the key in staffing organizations, as it is a method used for
assessing aspects within the organization. A system without methods would have no efficient
method for determining a framework in the process of selection. 2. Describe how you might go
about determining scores for applicants' responses to (a) interview questions, (b) letters of
recommendation, and (c) questions about previous work experience. To determine scores for
qualitative responses such as interview questions, letters of recommendations and previous work
experience questions, a scale would have to be created. To determine these scores, the answers
would have to be looked at subjectively by the reviewer and given a number on a rating scale. Once
the answers are given a numerical value, the total score can be compared to other applicants' scores
to determine who may be more valuable to the company. 3. Give examples of when you would want
the following for a written job knowledge test: (a) a low coefficient alpha (e.g., a=.35) and (b) a low
test–retest reliability. A low coefficient alpha represents a low reliability measure, showing that there
is a decreased correlation between items on the test measure. A company would want a low
coefficient alpha level if they were trying to prove

Validity and Reliability Matrix Essay
Galinda Individual Validity and Reliability Matrix Internal consistency––The application and
appropriateness of internal consistency would be viewed as reliability. Internal consistency describes
the continuous results provided in any given test. It guarantees that a range of items measure the
singular method giving consistent scores. The appropriateness would be to use the re–test method in
which the same test is given to be able to compare whether the internal consistency has done its job
(Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010). For example a test that could be given is the proficiency test which
provides three different parts to the test, but if a person does not pass the test the same test is given
again. Strengths–The strength of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Weaknesses–The weakness would be if the characteristics that are being measured assumed would
change over time, and lower the test/retest reliability. If the measurements were due to variance
other than error variance there would be a problem. If the reliability of a test is lower than the real
measurement it may be because the construct may varies. Parallel and alternate forms–The parallel
and the alternative forms of test reliability utilize multiple instances of the same test items at two
different time with the same participants (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010). These kinds of test of reliability
measurement could be proper when a person is measuring traits over a lengthy period of time, but
would not be proper if a person was to measure one's emotional state. Strengths–––The parallel and
alternate form measure the reliability of the core construct during variances of the same test items.
Reliability will go up when equal scores are discovered on multiple form of the same test. Internal
consistency estimate of reliability can analyze the reliability of a test with the test taker going
through several exams. Weaknesses– The parallel and alternate form test takes up a lot of time and
can be expensive along with bothersome for test takers who have to take different versions of the
test over again. These tests are not dependable when measuring

Validity and Reliability
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Research process involves several steps and each step depends on the preceding steps. If step is
missing or inaccurate, then the succeeding steps will fail. When developing research plan, always be
aware that this principles critically affects the progress. One of critical aspects of evaluation and
appraisal of reported research is to consider the quality of the research instrument. According to
Parahoo (2006), in quantitative studies reliability and validity are two of the most important concept
used by researcher to evaluate the quality of the study that is carried out. Reliability and validity in
research refer specifically to the measurement of data as they will be used to answer the research
question. In most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Assessment of stability involves method of test–retest method reliability and using of alternate
forms reliability.
3.2.1 Test – retest method
This is the classical test of stability called test–retest method. This method allows researchers to
administer the same measure to a sample twice and then compare the scores (Polit & Beck,
2012). According to Wood & Rose–Kerr (2006), test–retest method is repeated measurements
over time using the same instrument on the same subject to produce the same result. For example, a
test is developed to measure knowledge of mathematics. The test is given to a group of students and
repeated two weeks later. Their score in both tests must be similar if the test measure reliably. A
reliable questionnaire will give consistent result over time. If the results are not consistent, the test is
not considered reliable and will need to be revised until it does measure consistently.
Based on the above example, the result from the first testing can be correlated with the result of the
second testing and resulted with high correlation. The comparison is performed objectively by
computing a reliability coefficient, which is an index of the magnitude of the test's reliability.
Reliability coefficient usually ranges between 0.00 and 1.00. The higher the coefficient, the more
stable the measure. Reliability coefficients above 0.80 usually are considered good as stated by Polit
and Beck (2012). For unstable variables, the

Attention Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder ( Adhd )
Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder in which children
have substantial difficulties paying attention and/or demonstrate hyperactivity–impulsivity
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). ADHD is primarily diagnosed when a child is in
elementary school (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and the diagnosis requires that the
child has major problems in more than one location, for example at school and at home
(Subcommittee on Attention–Deficit/Hyperactivity et al., 2011). There are various scales that have
been completed by parents, and teachers in order to help with ADHD diagnosis, such as the
Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Scale, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), Strengths and
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Results indicated that the VADPRS had high concurrent validity, which demonstrated that the
VADPRS was measuring a similar construct from the C–DISC–IV but they were not equivalent
(Wolraich et al., 2003). The VADPRS was also compared to the Vanderbilt ADHD Teacher
Diagnostic Rating Scale (VATDRS) and the C–DISC–IV in order to assess reliability and factor
structure. The internal consistency reliability was high for the VADPRS and for the VATDRS and
C–DISC–IV as well (Wolraich et al., 2003). The item reliability for the VADPRS was just as
excellent as the item reliabilities for the VADPRS and C–DISC–IV (Wolraich et al., 2003).
Additionally, the VADPRS was consistent with the two DSM–IV core symptoms of inattention and
hyperactivity/impulsivity (Wolraich et al., 2003). In another study, 587 parents were sampled from
an ADHD prevalence study conducted in rural, suburban, and suburban/urban school districts (Bard,
Wolraich, Neas, Doffing, & Beck, 2013). The parents completed the VADPRS and then the
VADPRS was evaluated for its construct validity and criterion validity (Bard et al., 2013). The
construct validity and the concurrent criterion reliability were decent, indicating that the VADPRS is
useful in the diagnosis of ADHD in children (Bard et al., 2013).
In addition to the VADPRS, the SDQ has also been an effective tool in helping diagnose ADHD in
children. The SDQ is a behavioral assessment for kids that incorporates five scales: emotional

Polit & Beck's Reliability
Polit & Beck (2014) state "reliability is the consistency with which an instrument measures the
attribute" (p.202). The less variation in repeated measurements, the more reliable the tool is (Polit &
Beck, 2014, p.202). A reliable tool also measures accuracy in that it needs to capture true scores; an
accurate tool maximizes the true score component and minimizes the error component (Polit &
Beck, 2014). Reliable measures need to be stable, consistent, and equal. Stability refers "to the
degree to which similar results are obtained on separate occasions (Polit & Beck, 2014, p.202).
Internal consistency refers "to the extent that its items measure the same trait (Polit & Beck, 2014, p.
203). Equivalence refers "to the extent to which two or more independent observers or coders agree
about scoring an instrument" (Polit & Beck, 2014, p.204). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
205). Like reliability, validity has several aspects including face validity, content validity, criterion–
related validity, and construct validity (Polit & Beck, 2014). "Face validity refers to whether an
instrument looks as though it is measuring the appropriate construct" (Polit & Beck, 2014, p.205).
Content validity regards the degree to which an instrument has an appropriate sample of items for
the construct being measured (Polit & Beck, 2014). Criterion–related validity examines the
relationships between scores on an instrument and an external criterion; the instrument is valid if its
scores correspond strongly with scores on the criterion (Polit & Beck, 2014). Construct validity
most concerns quality and measurements; the questions most often asked are "What is this
instrument really measuring? And Does it validly measure the abstract concept of interest?" (Polit &
Beck, 2014,

Examples Of Proactive Personality Construct
The proactive personality construct was introduced by Bateman and Crant (1993) who defined it as
"a relatively stable tendency to effect environmental change" (p. 107). Since that time proactive
personality has emerged as a heuristic construct in organizational settings, showing significant
relationships with such variables as job performance, career success, and leadership quality (e.g.,
Crant & Bateman, 2000; Crant, 1995; Seibert et al., 1999; Thompson, 2005).
Proactive personality is most frequently measured by Bateman and Crant's (1993) scale.The internal
consistency of this scale ranged from .83 to .89 across three college student samples. The construct
validity of Bateman and Crant's (1993) 17–item proactive personality scale was tested in relation to
other personality constructs, such as conscientiousness (r = .43,p < .01) and social desirability (r =
.004,n.s.). In order to test for criterion validity, Bateman and Crant (1993) correlated their measure
with several criteria including, extra–curricular activities aimed at constructive ... Show more
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Employees with this disposition tend to perceive opportunities for positive changes in the workplace
and then actively work to bring about these changes (Bateman & Crant, 1993; Grant & Ashford,
2008). Proactive employees demonstrate initiation, perceive their work roles more broadly, take
active steps to get work done, initiate changes, follow through until completion, and subsequently
perform well at work; hence, proactive personality has been linked to a number of positive work
outcomes (see Crant & Bateman, 2000; Crant, 1995; Seibert et al., 1999; Thompson, 2005), which
makes proactive employees desirable to their organizations. Crant (1995) noted that proactive
personality is a potentially useful tool for selection due to its strong relationship with job
performance, making it a valid

Define Internal And Different Types Of Assessment :...
1. Define parallel forms reliability and split–half reliability. Explain how they are assessed.
Parallel forms reliability is a type of measure of reliability that you can get by doing different types
of assessment. They must both have same construct and knowledge system with the same group of
people. You must make two parallel forms and create a questionnaire that will have the same system
and by random divide the questionnaire into two different sets. Between the two parallel forms
whatever correlation is recognized is the reliability. This can be very like split–half reliability. The
biggest difference between parallel form reliability and split–half reliability is the way the two are
constructed. Parallel forms are done so that both forms are independent of one another and are of
equivalent measure. With split–half reliability the whole sample of all the people are calculated and
the total score for each randomly divide half.
.
2. Define internal and external validity. Discuss the importance of each.
Internal validity is how well or to what degree in which your results likely to the independent
variable and not of another explanation. You will use this to test your hypothesis. While external
validity is the degree to which your results of the case can be concluded. Internal validity is
important to show the cause and effect relationship. It shows if the conclusion is outstanding or
lacking. If the study shows a higher degree of internal validity we know that a

A Comprehensive Psychological Assessment At Bradfield...
Julie Coldwell, aged 25, has been referred by her General Practitioner to myself at Bradfield
Hospital Mental Health Unit, where I work as a Clinical Psychologist, due to concerns about her
physical and mental health from her job. Ms Coldwell is a trainee manager in a supermarket.
Recently she has felt that work is taking a toll on her, and hasn't been feeling herself. She has
reported symptoms of extreme fatigue whilst working, and has made mention of difficulty sleeping.
She worries about being fired due to her poor performance at work, which she says has become
progressively worse over time. Ms Coldwell is concerned that her work colleagues are judging her
due to her performance and discussing it when she is not present. Consequently, she is finding it
very difficult to go to work. Ms Coldwell has given informed consent to complete a comprehensive
psychological assessment in order to determine a diagnosis and treatment. Key considerations to be
addressed are her sleeping difficulties, fatigue, worries of how others evaluate her, and her
reluctance to work. As limited information has been issued, additional background information is
required to complete a comprehensive psychological assessment. This includes a request to her
General Practitioner for her medical history, as well as relevant personal history (brief description of
her childhood, adolescence and adulthood, relationships with others, family, educational and work
history, any history of substance use, and

Accuracy And Validity Of An Instrument Affect Its Validity
1. We point out in the chapter that scores from an instrument may be reliable but not valid, yet not
the reverse. Why would this be so?
The scores from any source can be reliable as the authority or sincerity towards responses is
expected. Validity is of different type's criterion, and the content validity. Face validity is often
calculated and verified for instruments by teachers and it validates the nature of instruments but it
doesn't ensure the validity of all types.
2. What type of evidence–content–related, criterion–related, or construct–related–do you think is the
easiest to obtain? The hardest? Why?
Type of evidence is of different types, the content related evidences are the easiest to obtain.
Constructs are based upon questionnaires and their validity so it requires ensured validity for long
run effects and validity of instruments. Sample size and tests to be applied are also issues in criterion
and construct validity.
3. In what way(s) might the format of an instrument affect its validity?
Format of an instrument affect validity as it requires a balanced mode of the questionnaires and
interviews to be done. In case the questions are lengthy, the required level of questionnaires will be
more than the satisfactory limit that will cause lack of information and evidences. The respondent
will not have any interest in responses for a lengthy questionnaires.
4. "There is no single piece of evidence that satisfies construct–related validity." Is this statement

Screening Potential Employees
There are hundreds of tests available to help in the process of screening potential employees. Using
selection procedures and test is what helps employers to promote and hire potential employees.
Cognitive tests, medical examinations and other test and procedures aid in the process of hiring
potential employees.. The use of tests and other selection measures can be a very useful way of
deciding which applicants or employees are most competent for a particular job. Employee selection
tests are intended to offer employers with an insight into whether or not the potential employee can
handle the stress of the job as well as their capacity to work with others. Employees believed that
personality and psychological assessments can help to predict ... Show more content on
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Cognitive ability test also measures the ability to solve job–related problems. There are many
advantages and disadvantages for using cognitive ability test it has been used to predict job
performance. Employers use cognitive ability test because it can be cost–effective and does not
require a trained administrator reducing business cost. Using the test to predict individuals for hiring
promotion or training. The cognitive ability test can also be administered using pin and paper or
computerized methods which helps when testing big

Content Validity
Content validity is often seen as a prerequisite to criterion validity, because it is a good indicator of
whether the desired trait is measured. If elements of the test are irrelevant to the main construct, then
they are measuring something else completely, creating potential bias. In addition, criterion validity
derives quantitative correlations from test course. Content validity is qualitative in nature, and asks
whether a specific element enhances or detracts from a test or research program. How is content
validity is measured by using surveys and tests, each questions is given to a panel of experts
analysts, and they rate it. The analysts give their opinion about whether the question is essential,
useful or irrelevant to measuring the construct under study. For example, a depression scale in which
there is low content validity if it only shows ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition content validity addresses in the field of vocational testing and academic, where test
items need to reflect the knowledge actually required for a given topic area (e.g., history) or job
skills (e.g. bookkeeping). One of the most known methods used to measure content validity was
created by C. H. Lawshe "subject matter expert raters" (SMEs) is when a panel use the following
questions such as "Is the skill or knowledge measured by this item 'essential', 'useful, but not
essential', or 'not necessary' to the performance of the construct?" (Lawshe, 1975). According to the
author Lawshe if the results are more than half this indicates that the item is essential and show
specific content validity. However,

Beck Depression Inventory
Beck Depression Inventory–II
Dependent Variable The main dependent variable in the study is depression level (continuous
dependent variable). In this paper, depression will be operationally defined as a score level of Beck
Depression Inventory–II (BDI–II).
Instrument to Measure Depression
The Title of the Instrument The title of the instrument is Beck Depression Inventory–II (BDI–II).
Beck Depression Inventory II was developed by Aaron T. Beck (1996). Content of the instrument –
how many categories, items. The BDI–II is broadly utilized 21–item self–report inventory
measuring the severity of depression in adolescents and adults (Age 13 years and over) (Beck, Steer,
& Brown, 1996; Carmody, 2005).
Regarding types of items, patients choose statements to describe themselves in terms of the
following 21 areas: sadness, pessimism, past failure, loss of pleasure, guilty feelings, punishment
feelings, self– dislike, self–critics, suicidal thoughts or wishes, crying, agitation, loss of interest,
indecisiveness, worthlessness, loss of energy, changes in sleeping pattern, irritability, changes in
appetite, concentration difficulty, tiredness or fatigue, and loss of interest in sex (Beck, et al., 2004).
The patient response is rated on a 4–point Likert–type scale ranging from 0 to 3, based on the
severity of each item (Wang, Andrade, & Gorenstein, 2005).
Score the instrument – subscale score and total score. Each of the 21 items corresponding to a
symptom

College Students ' Satisfaction With Their Academic Majors
There's a lot of things happened in our life will affect our mood and emotions. While, our happiness
or satisfaction will also affected by different outcomes or decisions that we made. The major
satisfaction including a lot of factors such as job satisfaction, life satisfaction/ relationship
satisfaction, academic satisfaction, and et cetera. This research had studied how the college students'
satisfaction with their academic majors by using the Academic Major Satisfaction Scale (AMSS)
and analyzed the AMSS items by using the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The satisfaction for
college students most are came from the academic satisfaction. There were two study conducted in
the research and the researcher hypothesized that: (1) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The items will then submitted for the exploratory factor analysis by item–to–total correlations at the
final AMSS which will help to differentiate the student who stayed or leaved their majors after 2
years. The researcher used the independent–samples t tests and found out all the 10 items
successfully differentiate the student who stayed or leaved their majors but there probably will
included other factors that affected them to do so. While, the types of reliability that they provided
were internal consistency. The cronbach's alpha of the 6 items was .94, which means the items have
high reliability. The t–tests was conducted only by using the 195 declared majors' students which
available 2 years after, however other student were unavailable because of graduated or had left the
college. The researcher also discovered that some students would increase their satisfaction towards
their major over time. The researcher has included three types of validity in the first study: face,
criterion–related, and predictive validity. In terms of face validity, the items of AMSS in the first
study created based on other factors of satisfaction from earlier literature including measurement of
life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985) and job satisfaction (Ironson et al., 1989). The items of the first
study was related and look like what it supposed to measure. The researcher

A Summary Of Content-Related Validity
There are a variety of strategies available to I/O practitioners for the purpose of validation. For
example, there is construct validity, criterion–related validity, content–related validity, transport of
validity, meta–analytic validation evidence, or consortium studies, among others (Scott & Reynolds,
2010). However, the two most used methods (and therefore most researched) are criterion–related
and content–orientated strategies (Scott & Reynolds, 2010).
Evidence for criterion–related validity is generally obtained by demonstrating a relationship
between the predictor and criteria (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology [SIOP],
2003). The predictor is the results gathered from a selection procedure (e.g. test scores), and criteria
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, although criterion–related validity provides empirical evidence, it may produce errors
if too small of a sample is used, and in situation like this it may be better to use content–related
validation. Another consideration, that most organizations would likely want to know, is what the
return on investment is when using validation methods (Scott & Reynolds, 2010). Attention to legal
and regulatory rules would have to be taken into account when choosing the right validation strategy
too. McPhail and Stelly (as cited by Scott & Reynolds, 2010) have this to say about choosing a
validation strategy, "From an applied perspective, the type and amount of validation research
undertaken in a given application may in part be a function of the value of such research based on
relative costs and benefits" (p. 703). Therefore, costs (both actual and potential) associated with
various validation strategies would need to be weighed against the benefits such strategies would
provide. Ultimately, knowing what is needed and what needs to be obtained from a validation
strategy, as well as the situational constraints involved, will help to guide an I/O practitioner when
choosing a validation

The Importance Of A Family Intervention For Heart Failure...
Extraneous variables are undesirable variables that influence the outcome of an experiment, though
they are not the variables that are of actual interest (Grove, Burns, & Gray, 2013). Family influence
could be an extraneous variable that would need to be addressed. Establishing a family intervention
would control this extraneous variable. There are few family intervention studies for heart failure.
Many patient education guidelines promote inclusion of family in teaching heart failure patients.
The structure and nature of family relationships are important to mortality and morbidity. It is clear
that those patients living alone are a vulnerable group to target. Isolation leads to depression, which
could relate to poor self–care behaviors. Family interventions have shown to improve outcomes and
lower patient hospital readmission (Dunbar, Clark, Quinn, Gary, & Kaslow, 2008). A research
instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure variables,
characteristics, or information of interest. Several factors should be considered before choosing an
assessment instrument: the purpose of assessment, the type of assessment outcomes, resource
availability, cost, methodology, the amount of time required, reliability, and the audience
expectations (Bastos, et al., 2014). The Self–care Heart Failure Index (SCHFI) is the existing
instrument that will be utilized in my research study. SCHFI measures 3 domains of self–care: self–
care

The Performance And Reward Management System
Performance ratings is part of the performance and reward management system that used to support
organisations' personnel decisions in performance appraisal, promotion, compensation, and
employee development (Yun, Donahus, Dudley, & McFarland, 2005). Accurate performance ratings
are fundamental to the success or failure of the performance management process, therefore, raters
have been suggested to be fully trained to minimise potential errors in performance ratings (Biron,
Farndale, & Paauwe, 2011). Several rater training programs have been developed to enhance the
quality of performance ratings, such as rater error training and frame–of–reference training
(MacDonald & Sulsky, 2009). Nevertheless, not all rater training programs have been equally
successful, many researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of frame–of–reference training in
increasing rating accuracy (Woehr, 1994; Keown–Gerrard & Sulsky, 2001; Roch, Woehr, Mishra, &
Kieszczynska, 2012). The following will assess the effectiveness of frame–of–reference training in
increasing rating quality through comprehensive examination of its validity, accuracy and reliability.
Explanation for Frame–of–Reference Training
Early approaches to rater training were focused mainly on reducing raters' common errors,
(MacDonald & Sulsky, 2009). However, rater error training has been proven ineffective in actual
application. Researchers have found that rater error training may teach raters to use inappropriate
response

Essay On Limitations Of Self Report
Limitations of Self Report Data
Abstract
Self–report data may be obtained from a test or an interview format of a self–report study. The
format of self–report study that will be used to discuss limitations of self–report data will be a test
and a personality disorder test will be used as an example. For specific example answers for the test
I completed the results all rated "low" for all personality disorders. Limitations arise from decreased
reliability and validity and issues with credibility of responses due to response bias. Content validity,
construct validity and criterion–related validity as well as test–retest reliability will be presented.
The forms of response biases that will be discussed are social desirability, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Construct Validity
Construct validity is the extent to which a test measures a theoretical construct (Dyce, n.d.); that is,
can the 4degreez.com Personality Disorder Test measure the presence of the different behaviours
described by the diagnostic criteria for the different personality disorders? There are two
subcategories of construct validity: convergent validity and discriminant validity. In the case of a
personality disorder test convergent validity is the degree to which the test that should be
theoretically related to a behaviour associated with a given personality disorder is in fact related.
This form of validity is an example in which results should be taken in a person's context or in
conjunction with results of other forms of testing. For example, Q11 of the 4degreez.com
Personality Disorder Test (n.d.) "Do you have a difficult time relating to others?" (p. 1). If a person's
contacts are of at a lower education level their language or ideas may or may not be understood. For
discriminant validity it is the degree to which the test that should not be theoretically related to a
behaviour associated with a given personality disorder is in fact not related. No information was
available to know how the 4degreez.com Personality Disorder Test faired on testing for construct
validity. Howard (1994) claims that the construct validity coefficients of self–report testing are
superior to those of

The Brigance Diagnostic Inventory Of Early Development II
The Brigance Diagnostic Inventory of Early Development–II was written by Albert H. Brigance &
Frances Page Gloscoe. The IED–II was published by Curriculum Associates, Inc. in 1978–2004. The
test is administered individually with the age range of birth–7 years old. This test was created to
monitor a child's development. Because it was not a high stakes test, there was more room for error.
The IED–II was translated into Spanish. Spanish tests were given to 8.6% of participants but since
scores were never compared to the English version of the test, there is no confirmation of reliability
or validity (Davis pg 9). Also, the Spanish version of the test is not publicly available. "The purpose
of the Brigance Diagnostic IED–II is to determine readiness for school, track developmental
progress, provide a range of scores needed for documenting eligibility for special education
services, and enable a comparison of children 's skills within and across developmental domains in
order to view strengths and weaknesses and to determine entry points for instruction" (Davis 1). It
also helps in assisting with program evaluation. The subtests in the IED–II include 11 areas of
development. These areas include preambulatory motor skills, gross motor skills, fine motor, self–
help skills, speech and language skills, general knowledge/comprehension, social emotional
development, readiness, basic reading skills, basic math for criterion–referenced and manuscript
writing (Davis pg 2). The

The Measure of Aggression
The construct that is in question is the measure of aggression. Aggressiveness has been a popular
disposition for study because it can be closely linked to observed behavior. An aggressive behavior
has generally been defined as a behavior that is intended to injure or irritate another person (Eron,
Walder,& Lefkowitz, 1971). Aggressiveness, then, is the disposition to engage frequently in
behaviors that are intended to injure or irritate another person. The one difficulty this definition
presents for measurement is the intentionality component. Whether or not an observed behavior
injures or irritates another person can usually be determined without much difficulty, but the
intention behind the behavior may be more difficult to divine, ... Show more content on
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Such that if the person is in a good mood they might not view themselves as negatively as well they
may not be fully aware of their actions in the past and how they truly relate to the question being
asked. Similarly more salient factors of aggression may not be observed by peers.
Overview of the Scale: The Aggression Questionnaire was developed by Buss and Perry in 1992, to
replace the Hostility Inventory, consists of 29 items concerning self–reports of behavior and
feelings, which are completed along a five–point scale (5: "very often applies to me" to 1: "never or
hardly applies to me"); two items are reverse–scored. There are four subscales, physical (9 items),
verbal (5 items), anger (7 items), and hostility (8 items). The first two are concerned with behavior
(e.g., "I have threatened people I know," and "I often find myself disagreeing with people"), and the
other two with feelings (e.g., anger: "I have trouble controlling my temper"; hostility: "I am
sometimes eaten up with jealousy"). The questionnaire is intended for the general public to ascertain
the level of aggression and what subscales of aggression the person exhibits. This can be used in a
clinical setting and/ or as a predictor of the subject's interactions with the public.
Item Format:
Each item was rated on a 5–point Likert type scale which was rated least characteristic to most
characteristic. The 4 scales (factors) of

Reading Free Vocational Interest Inventory
Reading Free Vocational Interest Inventory: 2 The first Reading Free Vocational Interest Inventory,
R–FVII, was developed in published by the American Association on Mental Deficiency in 1975,
and later revised in 1981 (Becker, 1981; Becker and Becker, 1983). The most updated version, R–
FVII: 2, was developed by Ralph Becker and published by Elbern Publications in the year 2000
(Becker, 2000). Description of the Instrument This inventory was created to measure vocational
interests of individuals with disabilities, ages 12–62, in a reading–free format. This test can be used
with people who may have physical, intellectual, and or specific learning disabilities. This inventory
is also appropriate for individuals whose first language is not English, those who have a mental
health diagnosis, or economically disadvantaged populations. The test consists of a series of 55 sets
of three drawings each illustrating different job tasks; the individual chooses the most preferred
activity in each set. This inventory can be used in multiple settings such as junior and senior high
schools, vocational and career training programs, career counseling centers, colleges and can be
used by various qualified professionals for example psychologists, counselors, teachers, and
paraprofessionals. Scales The test measures 11 different vocational interests areas that fall within 5
cluster dimensions. The 11 vocational interest areas are: Automotive interest Building Trades
interest

Validity And Reliability Paper
Validity and Reliability
A key component of using evidence–based practices is to review the best available data from
multiple sources to ensure that a quality decisions. (Barends, Rousseau, & Briner, 2014). To identify
the best available data, one can begin by questioning the validity and reliability of a study. Validity
and reliability in evidence–based research is essential to the success of a research paper. Validity is
concerned with the extent to which the research measures what it designed or intended to measure.
(McLeod, 2013). The validity of research relates to how valuable the research findings are to the
question at hand (Leung, 2015). Validity in research is the work done that is credible and believable
because those sources find ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Researchers prove these three types of validity by having a set of measures that is valid. Content
validity measures how well the collected data represents the research question (Cooper & Schindler,
2011, 281). Criterion–related validity determines how well a set of data can estimate either reality in
the present or future (Cooper & Schindler, 2011, 281–282). The best suggested way to measure this
is to "administer the instrument to a group that is known to exhibit the trait" (Key, 1997). Construct
validity determines the success in the measurement tool of validating a theory (Cooper & Schindler,
2011, 282–283). There is another less common validity factor called face validity, which determines
if "managers or others accept it as a valid indicator" (Parker, 2003). In addition to the three
categories of validity explained above, there are two types of validity to consider internal and
external. Flaws within the study, such as design flaws or data collection problems, affect internal
validity. Other factors that can affect internal validity including the size of population, task
sensitivity, and time given for data collection. External validity is the extent to which you can
generalize your findings to another group or other contexts (Henrichsen, Smith, & Baker, 1997). An
example of this is having a study done over only male football players. This study might not have
the external validity for female gymnasts due to the specific domain of the

Reliability and Validity Paper
Reliability and Validity Paper
University of Phoenix
BSHS 352
The profession of human service uses an enormous quantify of information to conduct test in the
process of service delivery. The data assembled goes to a panel of assessment when deciding the
option that will best fit the interest of the population, or the experiment idea in question. The content
of this paper will define, and describe the different types of reliability, and validity. In addition
display examples of data collection method and instrument used in human services, and managerial
research (UOPX, 2013).
Types of Reliability
Reliability is described as the degree to which a survey, test, instrument, observation, or
measurement course of action generating ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A high–quality test will mainly deal with these issues and provide somewhat minimal difference. In
contrast a changeable test is extremely susceptible to these issues and will provide unstable ending.
Validity
Validity is the degree to which the test measures what it is set out to measure (Reshow &
Rosenthal, 2008).The types of validity includes "construct, content, convergent or discriminant,
criterion, external, face, internal, and statistical" (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008, p. 125). It is
important to distinguish the validity of the research outcome because it cannot contain any room for
error, nor pending variable without an applicable explanation. Validity is not verified by a statistic;
rather by a uniform of examiner that reflects exemplify knowledge, and relationship among the test,
and the performance it is projected to measure. Therefore, it is important for a test to be applicable
in order for the product to securely, and correctly apply, and translated.
Construct validity is the extent to which suggestion can be made from a broad view standpoint
lining ideas to observations in the research to the hypothesis on which those ideas are based.
Content validity reflect on a personal pattern of measurement because it transmit on people's insight
for measuring hypothesis, which is complicated to measure if the test–to retest type was to
performed. Convergent is the degree

Criterion-Related Validity Essay
In this post, I will examine the relationship between SATs scores and student success in college
through the lens of criterion validity. Since currently Higher Education institutions are focusing on
ranking, now, more than ever, admissions requirements are becoming more strict, and heavier
weight is being placed on SAT scores as a way determining "quality" students. Currently, SAT
scores are used to determine whether a student will be successful in college. This shift is causing a
great push to identify students of risk, and for more elite institutions, who should be admitted
(Chronicle of Higher Education, 2017). Do to this shift, there is great emphasis placed on the SATs
as an indicator of college success. The question that many student affairs professionals and
educational leaders ask are, does this test accurately measure and show a relationship between test
scores and outcomes?
Using criterion–related validity, we can get a glimpse into the relationship between test scores and
outcomes. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the context of Higher Education and its reliance on the SATs as a predictor to determine the fate
of many student's paths, it is important to know that the this standardized test scores accurately
measure what we say they measure.
Some things to consider about using this test to measure student success...does it account for aspects
of social capital (Yosso's Model) and its influence on how a student may interrupt a question? Does
this standardized test have a way of understanding the multiple aspects of a student's identity that
influences the way they perceive and interpret questions? Does it account for the financial aspect of
paying for tutoring? The SATs do give institutions the ability to anticipate a student's success, but it
certainly does not measure the academic

A Comparison of Multiple Research Designs
Reversal design involves repeated measures of behavior in a given setting requiring at least three
consecutive phases: initial baseline, intervention, and return to baseline (Cooper, 2007). As with any
intervention, baseline data is a typical primary condition for beginning the process. With reversal
design data is collected, until steady state responding is achieved and then intervention is begun. The
condition is applied in the form of treatment and then reversal of the treatment is performed. This
procedure is described as A–B–A or baseline, treatment, baseline. The operation and logic of the
reversal design involves the prediction, verification, and replication of the treatment reducing the
target behavior. The reversal of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Irreversibility can be a significant factor of this treatment design. Reversal design is not appropriate
when independent variable cannot be withdrawn. The level of behavior from earlier phases cannot
be reproduced again under the same conditions. Reversal phases can be relatively short. Reversal of
intervention may not be appropriate in harmful situations
Measuring the validity of reversal design takes into consideration the social significance of the
behavior to be modified, the results that can be improved through replication, and will the
diminishment of the behavior be meaningful to the individual. An appropriate intervention using
reversal design would be for a student that is struggles to stay in his seat during classroom
instruction. The teacher records that the student is out of his seat five times during a 60–minute class
period. During the intervention period, the teacher offers the student free time passes for every 15
minutes that he remains in his seat.
Multiple baseline design takes three basic forms to change target behaviors. The multiple baseline
across behaviors design, consisting of two or more different behaviors of the same subject. After the
baseline data has been recorded the independent variable is applied to one behavior until one
criterion level is met for that behavior before moving on to the next behavior.
The multiple baseline across settings design, consisting of

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