AS Media Studies

1. Component 1
Media Key Concepts & Research
Name: Zain

2. What is meaning? How is it created?
Meaning has two layers in Media: Signifiers (Denotation – What we see) and
Signifies (connotation - what you can associate with this image; the deeper more
hidden meanings). For example, if you were to see a picture of a lion, we can see
that it’s a roaring lion (Denotation), but Lions may also signify loyalty, strength,
courage etc. (Connotation).
Codes: Symbolic and technical codes are used to create meaning. Symbolic codes
are made from mis-en-scene – setting, costume, makeup, props etc. These visual
codes are used to create meaning whereas technical codes are things such as
camera movements like camera shots, angles, sounds movements etc. also used to
create meaning.
Genre: A genre in media is the same meaning as it is with literature, music and art.
They are categorized by similarities in form, style or subject matter. Some genres can
exist across many mediums, like horror and mystery, other genres are more specific
to one type of medium like sitcoms.

3. Stuart Halls reception theory
Stuart Halls reception theory states that media texts are encoded by the producer meaning that whoever produces the text fills
the product with value and messages. The text is decoded by the audience, different people will decode what's going on in
different ways – not always the way the producer intended.
Media texts can be received in 3 different ways: Preferred reading, negotiated reading and oppositional reading.
Preferred reading: This is when the text is read the way the producer intended you to so the audience agrees with the ideology
that the producer has placed behind the text – the audience will view it the way the producer wanted them to. This is a positive
thing for the producer because they were successful at the point they were trying to get across. There are ways to make sure
your audience have a preferred reading with your text. This includes making sure your text has a clear message, audience
should be the same age, so they relate to
the product, they should be from the same culture, easy to understand the narrative so they can relate
to the narrative in some way, relevant to the audience's society.
Negotiated reading: This is when the audience understands the text in the way the
producer wants them to but still have their own input and understanding. They don't
disagree nor agree, they see the point being made by the producer but still have their
own opinion. Overall this is a good response because they are still getting the message
that the producer wanted to get across even if they're making their own judgment. The
reason an audience would have a negotiated reading would be from; not having the
same life experiences, may not understand the narrative enough to relate to it in a
meaningful way, age may vary and if they do not understand all the messages making
it unclear about what the dominant reading should be.

4. Oppositional reading: oppositional reading is when the audience rejects the producers preferred reading and creates there
own reading of the text, usually the opposite of what the producer intended. The reader rejects the meaning completely as
they do not agree with the message that is being presented to the audience. Overall this is a bad response to receive as it
means the audience do not agree with the producers ideologies and messages. An audience may have an oppositional
reading due to the following; the text has controversial themes; the audience disagrees with the message in the video,
the genre, don't understand the text, cannot relate to the narrative structure, not reflective in their society and come from
different cultures from different understandings.
Examples of the different readings: Let's say Maybelline posted an advertisement for women's makeup.
A preferred reading would be if the audience saw the makeup advertisement and looked appealing enough to encourage
them to go out and buy it.
A negotiated reading would be if the audience saw the makeup advertisement, looked nice but found that it was too
expensive.
An oppositional reading would be if the audience saw the makeup advertisement but rejected it completely as the audience
believes the advertisement is stereotyping women and categorizing them on their appearance.
Another example would be this Dove advertisement: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/08/dove-apologises-
ad-showing-black-woman-turning-into-white-one
In this advertisement a black women had put on lotion taken her top off and was suddenly white. The producers
intitial intention was that people would have a preferred reading and look at the advertisement as if they are being diverse.
However the oppositional reader saw this advertisement to be incredibly offensive as it implied that being black isn't a good
thing but after this lotion you would be white which is better. The negotiated readers (you and I) understand what Doves
intention was but understand why this came across as racist.

5. Symbolic codes
Symbolic codes are the intended meanings of the text.
Examples include:
• Mis-en-scene
• Setting
• Lighting
• Facial expressions
• Body language
• Props/costumes
• Colors

6. Color symbolism
Colors can represent multiple things: feelings, people, countries, cultures etc.
Here are a few examples of what the colors represent.
Red: excitement, energy, passion, speed, desire, strength, power, love, danger, heat, aggression, fire, blood
war violence, all things intense and passionate.
Yellow: Joy, happiness, optimism, imagination, hope, sunshine, summer, dishonesty, betrayal, illness,
hazard.
Blue: Peace, tranquility, calm, stability, harmony, unity, trust, faith, confidence, security, cleanliness, order,
loyalty, sky, water, cold, technology, depression.
Orange: Energy, balance, warmth, enthusiasm, vibrant, expensive, flamboyant, demanding of attention.
Green: Nature, environment, healthy, good luck, renewal, money, envy, generosity, jealousy.
Purple: Royalty, spirituality, nobility, mystery, wisdom, transformation, cruelty, evil, arrogance, mourning.
Gray: Security, reliability, intelligence, staid, modesty, maturity, dignity, conservative, practical, old age,
sadness, boring.
Brown: Earth, home, outdoors, reliability, comfort, endurance, simplicity.
White: purity, simplicity, innocence, youth, peace, cleanliness, birth, winter, snow, sterility, marriage,
humility, precision.
Black: Power, sexuality, formality, fear, evil, death, remorse, underground, grief.
An example would be a female
Dressed in red to show that she is feminine
and seen as romantic or in love which
shows a feminine side to her.
Another example is this women she is
wearing black and holding red roses. The
red roses could represent danger in contrast
with the black dress that makes her look evil.

7. Mis-en-scene
Mis-en-scene incorporates the most recognizable attributes to a film. The setting, the actors, costumes,
makeup and props. Mis-en-scene is mainly focused on the actual film itself, from doing research on the mis-
en-scene in the media and film industry, I can gather what's needed to be used in a film to make my own.
Costumes, props, setting and makeup are key elements when creating a film as audience focus on these
things and gather what's going on in the film based on these things.
For example, in a horror film you would have scary makeup done, scary costume in a dark hidden setting
with no lighting. This creates tension which allows them to focus and be engaged and aware of the
surroundings.
Notice how different these scenes
are? this is because the mis-en-scene
are two different themes.

8. Lighting
Lighting can be used to achieve a variety of effects. It allows us to
highlight important characters or objects within a frame.
To make characters look mysterious by shading sections of the face and
body in order to create a certain expectation from the audience and hold
up suspense. Lighting can also be used to reflect on a characters
mental/hidden emotions. For example: Bright = Happy, Dark = upset
There are two types of lighting: High key lighting and Lowkey lighting
High key lighting often involves a light over the camera and not too close
to the talent and lowkey lighting which is created by using only key and
back lights.
Lowkey lighting produces sharp contrasts of light and dark areas. This
lighting can be used in many ways and can be considered in a variety of
ways when creating a film based on the subjects emotions and personality
or it can also be used to create suspense and tension for horror films e.g.
Horror.
Highkey lighting is more fuller lights and looks more natural and realistic
to the eye. It produces a brightly lit set and can represent a sunny/happy
kind of day e.g. Rom coms.
Lowkey lighting – Look at the
contrast in shades of blue
between the subject and
background
Highkey lighting – notice how
the scene is lit throughout and
there are no dark spots

9. Setting
Setting creates both, a sense of place and mood and it may
also reflect on characters emotions and state of mind. It can
also give us an idea of how the story will develop. The setting
may be whatever you want it to be depending on genre of
the film.
The setting is mainly where the film is based, like a house,
field, park etc. The main plot is where the film is being set.
This can create tension in the audience if the genre was
horror. The setting should be based on the genre of the film
also.
For example: for a horror film a main setting would be in a
dark and spooky place as it creates tension and suspicion for
the audience. Because it is horror, the setting is supposed to
do this in order to be able to scare the audience. The setting
is based on the audiences emotions and engagement with
the film as well as the characters. The setting should create
certain expectations from the audience.
In this setting it is easy for the
audience to assume that its genre is
clearly horror.
In this setting it is easy for the
audience to assume it is a sitcom.
If you compare these two settings,
you can understand why the setting
is important in establishing the
genre.

10. Body language
Body language is a form of non-verbal communication. It mostly helps us understand people and relationships. Body language
can be shown through; facial expressions, gestures and posture.
Types of body
language
Posture e.g. slouching
Ways of talking e.g. pauses, stress
on words
Head movements e.g. nodding
Appearance e.g. untidiness
Sounds e.g. laughing
Closeness e.g. invading
someone's space
Body contact e.g. shaking hands
Facial expressions e.g. frowning
Eye movements e.g. winking
Hand movements e.g. waving

11. When you are in a conversation with someone their body language can tell you a lot. Your body will send signals to the other
person which helps them understand you better. These signals can be positive and negative.
Example Meaning
Arms behind back Indicates confident and authoritive
behavior
Arms crossed This is negative body language as it
indicates defensiveness or stress
Hand on nose Touching/slightly rubbing nose,
this could mean rejection, doubt
or lying
Finger tapping Shows that a person is growing
impatient or tired of waiting
Sitting with ankles crossed Defensive signal that stems from
insecurity
Biting nails Can be a habit or a sign or
nervousness/insecurity
Covering mouth Used to hid an emotional reaction, e.g.
smile/frown. Also used to express
surprise
Stroking of the chin Shows the person is trying to decide.

12. Facial expressions
Facial expressions help us determine a persons feelings and mood. Their feelings are reflected onto their
face which helps us get a better understanding of how they feel. Through muscles, the skin will fold to create
a reaction.
Here she appears to be happy, you
can tell this because her mouth
corners are raised, her cheeks are
lifted, and her mouth is opened
slightly.
Here she appears to be sad, I can tell
because her mouth corners are lowered,
and her inner brow is raised.
Here he is surprised, his jaw is
dropped slightly, his eyebrows are
raised, nostrils are flared, and his
eyes are wide open.
Here she looks disgusted, I can tell this
because her nose is wrinkled, her cheeks
are raised, her upper lip is raised, eyes
are narrowed, and her eyebrow is
lowered.

13. Props/Costumes
Costumes and props play a big role on indicating things such as the characters personality and status.
Props often go a long way on helping the audience figure out what century the film is set in. For example, if
there was a record player rather than radio, or a candlestick phone rather than an iPhone, the audience would
be able to distinguish the period it was set in just by little things like that. In addition genres like science-fiction
go all out on props representing them with high technology. Similarly fantasy films will bring magic to life with
props such as magical necklaces or swords.
Costumes are what the actor wears while they're in character. They may include jewelry or accessories
depending on the role. Costumes essentially create a sense of character – what this person may wear from a
day-to-day life and the actors will often pick out costumes they believe best reflects their character. Costume
designers must not only find the right costumes but also it must link with their age, time period and setting.
The costumes in this photo are made for superheroes, you can tell by the
shields and logos, there's also costumes for soldiers you can assume that
because of the uniform and gun – this is how costumes help the audience
identify the subjects role.

14. Technical codes
Technical codes are ways in where equipment is used to create meaning.
Examples include:
• Camera shots
• Camera angles and movements
• Sounds
• Editing

15. Camera shots
Film shots are an essential aspect of a movie where angles, transitions and cuts
are used to further express emotion, ideas and movement. The term "shot" can refer to
two different parts of the filmmaking process: In production, a shot is the moment that
the camera starts rolling until the moment it stops.

17. Camera angles and movements
The camera angle marks the specific location at which the movie camera or video camera is placed to take
shot. A scene may be shot from several camera angles simultaneously. The different camera angles will
different effects on the viewer and how they perceive the scene that is shot. Camera movement has the
potential to function in many different ways, such as to direct the viewer's attention, reveal offscreen space,
provide narrative information, or create expressive effects, such camera movement draws attention to itself
and is typically used sparingly to emphasize significant narrative details.

18. Sounds
Sound is divided into two main categories:
Diegetic sound Non-diegetic sound
Sound that has an onscreen source and
belongs to the world of film.
Sound that does not have an onscreen
and character's cannot hear it.
• Sound affects • Theme music
• Dialogue • Voice over
• Ambient sounds • Background music
Example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWgyKDfFC_U
In this scene most of the sound is diegetic because every noise is seen on screen whereas at 1:59 you can
here non-diegetic sound of music faintly playing and later in the scene when it gets intense you can hear
the music loud and clear.
Audio and video have equal importance of creating meaning.

19. Sounds can help create meaning by:
• Enhancing audiences emotional experience/providing emotional focus. (E.g. imagine the movie
Jaws without music.)
• Identifying characters/character types. (E.g. good vs bad in Star Wars)
• Tells the audience the unspoken thoughts of a character or unseen implications of a situation
(through voice overs)
• Setting the location.
• Setting the time period.
• Helps build up a scene before rounding it off to create suspense.
Example:
In this clip, you can tell the location from the diegetic score in the background of the phones ringing and people
murmuring. Later in the scene when It gets emotional a non-diegetic score begins to play adding more emotion
to the scene.

20. Soundtrack The recorded sound element of a film.
Theme music A recurrent melody in a film.
Sound affects Sounds other than dialogue or music that are made artificially.
Ambient sound Buzz/surrounding sounds.
Dialogue Speech.
Voice-over Narration of a film – not accompanied by a synchronized image of a
speaker saying the words.
Direct address When the character speaks directly to the camera (the audience)
KEY SOUND TERMONOLIGY

21. Editing
Match on action: An editing technique for continuity editing in which one shot cuts to another shot portraying the action of the subject in the first
shot. common example is a man walking up to a door and reaching for the knob. Just as his hand touches the knob, the scene cuts to a shot of
the door opening from the other side. Although the two shots may have been shot at different times, cutting on action gives the impression of
continuous time when watching the edited film. By having a subject begin an action in one shot and carry it through to completion in the next, the
editor creates a visual bridge, which distracts the viewer from noticing the cut or noticing any slight continuity error between the two shots. A
variant of cutting on action is a cut in which the subject exits the frame in the first shot and then enters the frame in the subsequent shot. The
entrance in the second shot must match the screen direction and motive rhythm of the exit in the first shot.
Jump cut: An elliptical cut that appears to be an interruption of a single shot. It occurs within a scene rather than between scenes, to condense the
shot.
Shot-reverse shot: A continuity editing technique used in conversations or characters looking at each other or objects. Shot/reverse shot is a trait
common among every film or TV show and yet the audience can still learn a lot about tone, themes, story, and character just by observing the
composition of these shots (if done well).
Continuity: When the audience should not notice when the cuts have been made. A sequence of shots that appear together and link with each
other. 180-degree rule: The 180-degree rule is a cinematography guideline that states that two characters in a scene should maintain the same
left/right relationship to one another. When the camera passes over the invisible axis connecting the two subjects, it is called crossing the line
and the shot becomes what is called a reverse angle. Reversing the angle is commonly thought to be disorienting and can distract the audience
from the intent of the scene.
Match cut: A cut in film editing between either two different objects, two different spaces, or two different compositions in which an objects in the
two shots graphically match.
Cross cutting: Alternate shots of two or more lines of action occurring in different places, usually simultaneous.
Invisible editing: Editing that is so smooth that the viewers become engrossed in the movie and don’t notice the individual cuts.

22. 180-degree rule: The 180-degree rule is a cinematography guideline that states that two characters in a scene should maintain the same
left/right relationship to one another. When the camera passes over the invisible axis connecting the two subjects, it is called crossing the
line and the shot becomes what is called a reverse angle. Reversing the angle is commonly thought to be disorienting and can distract
the audience from the intent of the scene.
Examples:
Match on action Shot reverse shot
180 – degree rule
Continuous shot

23. Four Christmases movie poster
analysis
The release date matches the
color theme and is in a medium
sized font, it stands out without
distracting from the other text
and lead characters.
The theme of red and green is festive
and fits in with the title and Christmas
theme. Red also has the connotations
of love which ties in perfectly with the
romantic genre. The background is
supposed to be a location but since it
is white it can be set anywhere.
The two main characters, Brad and Kate are
the main feature in the poster. Even without
prior knowledge of the film they are the
main characters and most likely in a
relationship. Them standing back-to-back
connotes that they don’t always agree with
each other or there is some struggle
between the narrative and characters.
However they are both also wrapped in a
ribbon which connotes they are tied
together – with each other.
The billing block contains the
production company, actors,
directors, writers, produces and
executive producers. Most movie
posters, like this one, have it at the
bottom in one of the corners. Here
its in a gray font that almost fades in
with the white background implying
that it isn't as important as the other
texts.
The lead actors names are on the top
of the poster and are written larger
compared to the other texts on the
poster.

24. Maleficent movie poster Analysis
The actresses name is written in an
elegant font with simple black capital
letters. The actress is no other than
Angeline Jolie which indicates that this
film is major as they can afford to bring
such an A-list celebrity. Furthermore
tells the audience that the acting will
be of great standard as she is an
academy award winning actress who is
well-known for her impeccable acting
skills. Her name almost attracts more
attention than the title.
Her hands are vey pale just like the rest of
her body. Her fingers look very long and
thin – like claws. Under her hand you can
see a small green glow, this could
foreshadow the magic and fantasy settings
throughout the film, again informing the
auidience what to expect when they go to
watch the film. The color of the glow is also
green which connotates envy, this could hint
that these magic powers will be used for
revenge out of envy/jelousy.
Her horns stand out a lot, this is because they are black with a white background and so the contrast
makes them pop out. The horns are also covered in leather which is known to be a very strong
material so this could portray her strength and power. The horns are also very large and consume
1/3 of the poster. The way its covered up could suggest that there is a reason to why she hides them.
Moreover, making the audience curious about her and why she is covering them. The black colors
denote the dark character she plays and her dark past.
The title is written in a thin/tall font. This could represent her sharp
personality. The color is metallic gray which compliments the genre of the
film – fantasy thriller. The spikes at the end of the letters compliment her
hands and horns.
Angelina Jolie has been photoshopped to look pale
and evil. Her eyes are bright green which makes
her seem mystical, this could also portray the
demon in her character. Regardless, her eyes look
beautiful which could suggest that she might have
a beautiful side to her underneath everything
rather than being pure evil. Her eyes are capturing,
especially because she is looking straight into the
camera directly addressing the audience.
Her lips are very bright but dark red. Red has
always had the connotations and been linked
with; lust, love, romance and danger. This
suggests that she might be dangerous as it also
may resemble blood and power, this again hints
on the fact she may want revenge on an enemy.
The bold " in digital 3D and real D
3D" informs the audience different ways
they can watch the movie at the cinema.
Above that, the date of release is shown.
This is very small compared to the title and
Angelina Jolies name. Which shows it isn't
important but still needs to be included on
the poster.

25. Annabelle trailer analysis
Annabelle is a horror, mystery and thriller, it's about a couple who experience supernatural occurrences involving a vintage doll they recently bought.
The trailer is 2 minutes and 23 seconds.
It starts off with a long shot of the house and a dark scenery shows death and mystery.
Camera angles:
Long shot of the whole house is shown at the start to introduce the audience to the setting. Then a match on action is used to follow the man going to another
house. The camera stays outside besides the wife. By doing match on action it makes the audience feel more interacted with the movie therefore more involved and
interested to watch. It also uses closeups at times of the doll to show the freakish smile she has. It shows the doll sitting still and looking straight directly addressing the
camera several times in the trailer to remind the viewer that the reason all these creepy things keep happening is because of the doll.
Editing:
At the start the editing is made so that the beginning of the film's most important shots are played with black fades, the scene happens in a fast pace which creates
suspense, this is used lot by horror movies so that at the beginning of the trailer the viewer is really interested to see what happened so there's more watch the whole
of the trailer. All scenes fade out to black. It started off scary so that it catches the viewers' attention to watch the rest of the trailer, it starts off scary and dark and the
pace of the start with the cutting of the scenes is fast.
Sound and effects
They have overlays of people talking and explain what is happening whilst showing the setting and location where they are moving too, then when a scene that
something scary happens they leave it to be completely quiet. In the middle of the trailer they play an old fashion song that plays throughout scenes that are creepy
this contrast between happy music and scary footage creates an uneasy feeling to the viewer because they don’t match and makes the viewer feel more thrills towards
the trailer. The music then lowers to a quieter volume to the sound of the sewing machine so that the viewer focuses on that. The music sounds more muted but can
still be heard in the background now. Then the sewing machine gets louder and so does tinfoil on top of the stove so the music cannot be heard, and the noises of
the sewing machine and tinfoil overlap each other repeatedly and gets louder progressively which creates suspense and then suddenly there is creaking noises/effects
added once the problem occurs because this makes the problem and situation look and sound more interesting.
Mise en scene:
All the locations are based in late 1900s (around the 1970s) the location is dark, dark colors are usually associated with horror and danger so gives off the sense that
the situation is dangerous. Dark colors such as black is usually associated with death that’s why they are used in horror films so much.
Representations:
They use the doll as the villain in this movie, dolls and teddies are used a lot in horror movies because they are scary as they expect the doll to stay still or to be played
with. Especially when the characters are young and vulnerable. We also control their actions completely. So, for them to get up and run around the house on their
own, or try to strangle us, that leaves us powerless and terrified. Because we are not used to that. Its the juxtaposition between a cute doll and the doll wanting to kill
the whole family that leads to an underlying feeling of unease. The wife was pregnant at the start which showed how out of control and vulnerable she was.
3 act structure:
First part is the establishment, where the characters are introduced, at the start they both wake up and then at night the guy acts like the hero and is shown to be
braver by going to explore what happened, the wife is holding her belly which shows she is pregnant at the very start of the film. After this occours, they explain what
happened before and they begin to introduce the storyline of them moving to a new house and having a baby. After that is when the development of the problem
begins, and it is shown that the house may be haunted due to the presence of the doll and start to experience supernatural occurrences. A montage of different
scenes showing what could have happened are played which keeps the viewer guessing what's going to happen next and want to watch the whole movie.

26. Genre:
Genre is a term that can be applied in many forms in media such as music, films, magazines and books.
Genres split up different medias into categories based on characteristics which they share such as; narratives, settings,
storylines, themes and characters.
Genres are defined by conventions that can change over time, with new ones becoming invented as well as old ones being
modified/upgraded.
Examples of different genres:
• Action: Die Hard
• Adventure: Jumanji
• Comedy: Night school
• Crime: Oceans 8
• Fantasy: Shazam
• Gangster: The Godfather
• Horror: Halloween
• Romance: The Notebook
• Science Fiction: Interstella
• Social Drama: Forrest Gump
• Thriller: Fractured.
The list of films on the left have been split into different genre. In total there are 11 main genres, each with a different film associated with it. All
these genres have different conventions, narratives, sstorylines, settings etc.

27. Genre helps both audiences and institutions to make decisions about what they want to see and what they want to make to
supply that demand. If we recognise the genre of a text it enables us to feel at home and we gain enjoyment from spotting the
conventions and making comparisons with other films that have the same genre.
o Genre offers audiences a structure/framework enabling us to feel secure with our knowledge.
o Audiences can influence genres by reviving them.
Genre theories
Buckingham 1993: 'genre is not simply given by the culture: rather it is in a constant process of negotiation and change'
Tom Ryall 1978: Ryall argues that genres are recognizable through the repeated use of generic codes and conventions – as how
the audience would know if a horror film is a horror film.
Rick Altman 1999: 'there is no such thing as 'pure' genre anymore. Genre is progressive and will always change' Rick Altman in
his book 'film/genre' has proposed what he likes to call a semantic/syntactic appoach.
Semantic: this concerns the conventions of a genre that communicates to an audience such as characters, location, props,
music, shooting style and other signifiers. E.g in western films we would expect to see horses, guns, hats, wilderness, Native
Americans etc.
Syntactic: This concerns the relations between these elements and the structure of narratives in genres. E.g in romantic
comedies we expect the potential lovers to begin by not liking each other, then there are a series of problems/enigmas which
causes them to end up having a successful relationship.

28. Daniel Chandler: Conventional definitions of genres tend to be based on the notion
that they constitute are part of a specific type of content (such as themes and
and/or from (including structures/style) which are shared by the texts which are
regarded as belonging to them. "It is difficult to make clear-cut distinctions between
one genre and another: genres overlap, and there are 'mixed genres' such as
thrillers." (Chandler, 2000)
It is easy to underplay the differences within a genre. Steve Neale declares that "genres
are instances of repetition and difference" (Neale, 1980) He adds that "difference is
absolutely essential to the economy of a genre" meaning that reptation would not attract
an audience.
Nick Lacey (2000) considers that the 'repertoire of elements' work in combination to suggest a
media text belongs to a particular genre or mix of genres. He uses a useful framework when
analyzing a genre. These frameworks can be broken down into 5 elements:
• Setting
• Characters
• Narrative
• Iconography
• Style
positives negatives
Audience already knows what
to expect.
Lazy
Structure. Boring, nothing you havn't
before
Everybody understands it It could restrict the audience
from watching it if they don’t
like a genre
Industry knows how to develop
and market it
Too many sterotypes
We can challenge or conform
it
Positives and negatives of
genre theories

29. Film Genres:
Film genres are identifiable types, categories, classifications or groups of films that have
similar techniques/conventions such as:
• Content
• Subject matter
• Structures
• Themes
• Moods
• Periods
• Time
• Setting
• Reoccurring icons
• Characters
• Narrative events
• Situations
• Motifs
• Style
• Props
• Stars
Primary film genres include the following:
• Action
• Adventure
• Comedy
• Crime
• Drama
• Epic
• Horror
• Musicals
• Science fiction
• War films
• Western

30. Sub Genres:
Sub genres are identifiable sub-classes within a larger film genre, with their own distinctive subject
matter, style, formulas and icongraphy.
For example, action films:
Action films will usually need high energy, big budget, physical stunts and chases, possibly with rescues,
battles, fights, escapes, races that go against time and crises feauturing non-stop motion, break-
neck rhythm and pacing.
Action film sub
genres
Espionage Spy
Political thrillers
Martial arts
Races against time

31. Audience:
Audiences are made up of individuals who read or consume media texts. All media industries must
be aware of their audience in order to form strategies which attract their target audience.
There are a range of different theories that help explain the different ways in which audiences
respond to texts and the reason for this. For example Clay Shirky proposed a theory which states
that the internet and digital forms of technology influence the relationship between the media and
people. Meaning that we are more likely to use forms of technology to reply to texts.
CLAY SHIRKY
Audiences are important because without them there would be no media. Media organizations produce media texts to make
profit and without an audience they wouldn't be able to profit.
Mass media is becoming more competitive than ever to attract audiences in different ways in order to stay profitable. For
example, media industries such as TV, radio and print must work harder to maintain audience members.

32.  There are two different types of audience: Target/primary audience and secondary audience.
 The primary audience is the group of people which the product is specifically aimed at. In order to reach
this audience; the product of the owner/industry which is responsible for the product would need to
consider their needs, characteristics, preferences etc.
 The secondary audience is the second most important group of 'consumers' that an industry targets. The
secondary audience is right below the primary audience. The only difference is the secondary
audience won't have as many demands and will not be as interested as the primary audience.
 Audience demographics include factors about your audience such as age, race, gender, economic status,
income level and employment. Demographics are used in the media industry in order to learn about the
audience and be able to have sufficient market research.

33.  Quantitative audience research is when companies gather information in large amounts. They do this by collecting
information from surveys of large groups. The techniques used are mail surveys, telephone surveys, internet surveys, and face
to face public surveys. Quantitative research uses closed questions within a questionnaire such as yes or no questions. This is
because they want to compare with numbers such as how many people said yes for example.
 Qualitative audience research engages with a relatively small group of people in order to gain a complex, detailed and in
depth understanding of their opinions and experiences. Qualitative research uses open questions within a questionnaire as
they want to find out the reasons and opinions for the answers given, instead of asking "do you like horror" the questionnaire
would say " do you like/dislike horror and why?"
Qualitative data
Quantitative data

34. Hypodermic needle theory:
 A passive audience is the opposite of an active audience. This audience consists of people who do not engage much with a
media product and simply just accept whatever the deeper message of the other media product is.
 Katz and Lazarsfeld (1995) proposed a hypodermic needle which states that the message conveyed in a product represents a
bullet, which is fired from the media (representing a gun) before it goes into the viewer's head. This theory suggests that
messages are 'injected' into a passive audience before the message is completely received and accepted.
 The audience is powerless to resist.
The bobo doll experiment is a controversial piece of research that proved children copy violent behavior. It was conducted in 1961
by Albert Bandura.
In the experiment:
o Children watched a video where an adult violently attacked a clown toy
called the bobo doll.
o The children were then taken into a room with attractive toys that they
weren’t allowed to touch.
o The children were then led into another room bobo dolls.
o 88% of the children imitated the violent behavior that they had earlier
viewed. 8 months later 40% of the children reproduced the same violent
behavior.
The conclusion was made that children will repeat violent behavior that they see
in the media.

35. The cultivation theory:
 By professor George Gerbner and later expanded by Gross and Gerbner. The two
began research in the 1960's attempting to study media effects, and if watching
television influences the audiences perception of everyday life.
 The theory suggests that media and television hold a small but significant influence
on societies attitudes and beliefs. Meaning people who absorb the media are more
likely to be influenced.
 The separation between light viewers and heavy viewers is called the cultivation
difference. This describes the extent in which to which a view and attitude on a
particular topic is shaped by the exposure of media.
Moral Panic:
 The concepts of moral panic was first popularized in 1972 when Stanley Cohen wrote
'Folk devils and Moral panics'. According to Cohen "moral panic has occurred when a
condition, episode, person or group emerges to become defined as a threat to
societal values and interest, its nature is presented in a stylized and stereotypical
fashion by Mass media and the moral barricades are manned by editors"
 The connection of moral panic to the media is not new. This idea has been around
for some time. In 1964 the media fueled fear over the British youth culture known as
Mods and Rockers. This group was portrayed as being a new threat to public safety
with exaggerated claims of danger posed by unconventional youth after violence
between two groups of young people had occurred one day at the beach.
 The media uses certain terminology to portray moral panic to the public. Words such
as "gangs, looting, villains" etc. As well as phrases such as "drive by shooting" "a new
menace threatening society" "crime is on the rise" - all this terminology can result in
people feeling fearful and anxious.

36. Mass audience theory:
 There is one problem with the mass audience theory. The problem is that the theory relies on the assumptions of people
reviewing the mass audience.
 The passive theory implies that the audience

37. Representation:
Media representations are the ways in which the media portrays specific groups,
communities, experiences, ideas or topics from an ideological value or perspective. They
aren’t always completely accurate, and that’s why they are said to be "re-presentation"
which may sometimes go so far and create a new reality.
A clear example of media representation can be found in beer advertisements, where
they generally make out like drinking beer is a key component in a party for it to be fun
– by doing this they are creating the connotation that it is their product that makes the
party fun which further helps them promote their product. Another example is Disney,
one of the most famous industries and film producers of film and television who
represent stories and fairytales for children primarily in terms of white, western, middle-
class values. Disney land and Disney world go as far as creating a new 'land' through
representation.
Representations in media are a key part of society, as they shape, to a certain degree,
the way we think and what we believe. This is particularly true for teenagers who are
heavily influenced by the media.

38. Racial and ethnic representation in media:
 Ethnicity is an affiliation resulting from racial/cultural ties e.g. African, Caribbean, Latino, Arab, Asian.
 A positive portrayal of people of color is crucial, especially in multicultural countries such as Britain and America as
people need to be aware of diversity and be able to learn how to celebrate and appreciate the differences.
Ways ethnic minorities are represented in the media:
• Underrepresented
• Stereotypically
• Criminals
• Threats
• Culturally abnormal
• Unimportant
• Dependent
Stereotypes and misinterpretations can be dangerous as the representation that is constructed by the media might
be the only experiences the audience has. For example, in American Tv shows and films, Latinos will play gardeners
and maids rather than lawyers and doctors. Furthermore, Hispanic men and women have been sexualized a lot by
Hollywood in the media. Latino men have been stereotyped as 'Latin lovers' and Latina women have been
characterized as being exotic, sensual vamps.
In classic cinema, Arabs are often depicted as belly dancers and terrorists. When native Americans aren't depicted as
being silent, they're depicted as bloodthirsty warriors – and if a black person isn't a maid or nanny, they will typically
be there to be the white person's black best friend. While Asians have been living in the US for generations, they are
shown to have broken English, if not, they are incredibly smart.

39. Alvarado racial stereotypes theory (1987)
Exotic: This is when a group is 'exotic' and 'sexy' for
example there is a stereotype on Latina women to be a sex
symbol, this is because they are shown to be this way
through controversial behaviors and the costumes that
they are wearing in the media are very revealing.
Dangerous: This when a group is portrayed to be
dangerous and violent rap has made the stereotype on
black males worse and has made as a stereotype that they
are violent. As well as Yusef Khan in EastEnders is shown to
be violent and extremely dangerous. This makes the
audience relate to his ethnic group.
Humorous: A good example of this is in the Simpsons, the
character groundskeeper Willie who is conveyed as heavily
Irish through his thick accent and bright red hair. He has
many humorous lines and accidents that conveys him and
his ethnicity as people who are humorous and should be
stereotyped this way.
Pitied: When adverts or documentaries are displayed for
African children and families dying of poverty, the
impression this gives off to the audience creates a feeling
of pity and makes the audience feel as if they should help
them.

40. The media has also dominated white actors. For
example, the TV show friends, is set in New York,
one of the most racially diverse cities in the US, yet
all the main characters are white. In fact, even most
secondary and minor characters were also white.
However, in recent years, there have defiantly been
some developments where ethnic groups have
landed roles based on their individuality rather than
stereotype. Such as the show Jane The Virgin.

41. Gender representation in the media:
o "Sex" refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.
o "Gender" refers to socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate
for men and women.
Toys for boys
 Toys aimed at boys promote physical action.
 They focus on skills such as competition,
racing, invention, exploration and problem
solving.
 They teach warrior like roles.
Toys for girls
 Toys designed for girls are generally associated with
nurturing.
 Big focus on beauty and physical appearance.
 Old school women duties.
Ns
Notice how girls are often accosiated with
pink and buy 'domesticating' toys such as
dolls, ovens and vaccum cleaners. Whereas
boys are usually dressed in blue and given
toys such as swords, construction sets and
cars, developing skills that are outside the
domestic sphere.

42. Representation of men:
Representations of men across all media tend to focus on the following:
• Strength – physical and intellectual power
• Sexual attractiveness (which may be based on the point above)
• Physique
• Independence (of thought, action and finances)
Male characters are often represented as isolated, not needing to rely on others (the lone hero) If they submit
to being a part of a family, it is often part of the resolution of a narrative, rather than integral factors in the
initial balance. Male physique is also becoming a more important part of representations of masculinity.
Representation of women:
Representations of women across all media tend to focus on the following:
• Beauty (within narrow conventions)
• Size/physique (again, with narrow conventions)
• Sexuality (as made in the points above)
• Emotional (as opposed to intellectual) dealings
• Relationships (as opposed to independence/freedom)
Women are stereotypically represented as being part of context (family, friends, colleuges) and working in a
part of a team. In drama films they tend to make the part of the 'princess'/damsel or the helper. Often their
passitivity leads to victimhood.

43. Laura Mulvey's male gaze theory:
 In film the male gaze occurs when the audience is put into the
perspective of a heterosexual male POV and the audience are viewing
footage from his POV. The scene may focus on the curves of a womans
body. However it is only the male gaze theory if these curves are
highlighted with specific conventions such as slow motion, deliberate
camera movements, cut-aways etc.
 The theory suggests that the male gaze denies women's human identity,
relegating them to the status of objects to be admired for physical
appearance. Furthermore, it also suggests woman can often only watch a
film from a secondary perspective and only view themselves from a mans
perspective.
 However the presence of a woman in a mainstream film is vital. Often, a
female character has no real importance to herself, it is how she makes
the male feel or act this is the importance. The female only exists in
relation to the male.
 Mulvey argues, for the result of media being presented from the
perspective of men and through male gaze, women find themselves at
times, taking of the male gaze. Women will gaze at other women the
same way a man would and end up objectifying other women.
 Mulvey states the role of a female character in a narrative has two
functions:
• As an erotic object for other characters within the narrative to view.
• As an erotic object for the audience within the cinema to few.

44. Hookah - Tyga
 Many of the conventions of these genres are evident in this video;
including nudity of women.
 The male gaze theory is very predominant in hip hop,
rap and R&B music videos
 Throughout this video when looking at the women we see them though the eyes of the
artist (POV shot) this is a clear example of the theory as the audience are being shown the
women from a males perspective.
 The song title itself is called "hookah" which could be viewed as an offensive title to some women as hookers are the women
that are mostly employed by wealthy women, as seen in the video.

45. Narrative:
Todorov's narrative theory:
Todorov's narrative theory states that most story/plot lines follow the same pattern/path. There are 5 steps
in the pattern.
• Equilibrium
• Disruption
• Realization
• Restored order
• Equilibrium again
One film that does not follow Todorov's narrative theory is Christian Nolans film "Memento 2000". This film
has a unique narrative as the film tells its story backwards so as each scene passes the audience gets to
unfold events in this drama/crime film and have a better view of Guy Peirce's character as he suffers from
short term memory loss and therefore makes it a unique film experience.

46. 1) Equilibrium:
The first part of the story will have a happy start, where
most characters are content, and everything is as it should
be.
So in the Simpsons movie, everything is normal, and homer
is just doing chores.
2) Disruption:
The second part of the story will contain a problem, or
something will disrupt the happiness.
In the Simpsons this begins when homer saves the pig.

47. 3) The realization
This is the part in the plot when everyone realizes the
problem and it sparks chaos.
In the Simpsons its when they are kicked out of
Springfield and forced to move to Alaska.
4) Restored order
This is the part in the plot when the characters attempt
to repair the damage and restore the problem.
This is when the Simpsons go back and save
Springfield.

48. 5) Equilibrium again
This is the final part of the plot when the problem is resolved, and normality can resume.
In the Simpsons this is when the dome is blown up and everyone is free.
Conclusion:
He suggested that all films follow this pattern. In my opinion I think that this theory is basic and will not be
able to apply to narratives with cliff hangers or endings that are unhappy.

49. Propps character types
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3
The Hero - the savior in the
movie
The Helper – the hero is
supported in his or her quest
by the helper – usually on old
man or magician.
The Villain – fights against the
hero – this person is the
baddie in the story
The False Hero – Sometimes
you might have a character
you first trust but turns out
they are bad!
The Donor – This donor is a
person who gives the hero
something special that will
help them succeed.
The Princess – Needs saving
by the hero or might be the
reward at the end of the
The Princess's Father –
protective of the princess.