AS Media Studies Research

1. Component 3
Media Key Concepts
Research
Name: Cameron Armstrong

2. What is
meaning?
How is it
created?
Meaning is what we see in the shot or on screen.
The director and actors can create meaning in lots
of different ways, largely by the use of symbolic
codes which are things such as: settings, props,
costume, makeup, lighting and movement.
Another type of code is technical code, which can
be linked to the post-editing and post-shooting of
the movie. In this section there is ideas such as:
camera shots, camera angles, post editing
techniques and post sound usage, as well as the
use of sound while on set.

3. Stuart Hall's Reception
Theory
The idea behind the Stuart Hall Reception theory is simple. The producer will create the
meaning and there is then 3 different ways it can be viewed by the person watching the
show or movie. A perfect example to back up this theory is the dispute between Dove
and the public solely on the way that the public saw it and how they felt about it. The
overall idea was that it shows that Dove was for all women, not just certain races. But the
way that the public saw this was highly racist as it showed the white woman
transforming to a white woman.
Preferred Reading
The idea of the preferred reading is that it is seen the way the producer intends it to be
seen. The audience agree with the messages that the producer has placed behind the
text or image. An example can be a handbag in a magazine looks appealing to a female
reader while could encourage her to go out and buy it.
Negotiated Reading
This is when there is a mid-point, so you can see what the creator wanted you to think
but you can also see another point that has been made. If this is a point you do not agree
or disagree, however you can see a point being made in relation to your own opinion. An
example could be someone sees a handbag being advertised and think it looks nice, but
they also know it would not justify the amount they would spend on it.
Oppositional Reading
This is when the audience completely ignore the ideas of the creator and when they
make up their own view of it. They reject the meaning as they do not agree with the idea
that has been presented. In most cases this is a bad response to an advert or a TV show
or movie. An example of this could be an advert for a handbag is rejected as they believe
it is stereotyping woman and categorizing them on their appearance.
Times when they could see an oppositional reading is when:
• - A product has a controversial theme
• - Audience disagree with the messages of the video
• - Dislike the genre
• - Do not understand the video or image
• - Cannot relate to the narrative
• - Is not reflective of their society
• - If they have different cultural beliefs or understandings

4. SymbolicCodes
When in media there is certain things that get described and this can often be called the
symbolic codes. There is quite a long list of codes. They are as follows:
• Settings
Setting in the idea of symbolic code can range from where it is set (interior, exterior) how
is it set (natural, stylized) and what does the background look like (is it the real life
background or is it a painted background inside a studio)
• Props
When looking at props in the code this can again be a range of things: key props,
incidental props, foreground props and background props.
• Costume
Another key part of any video, TV show or movie is the costume, and this is also part of
the symbolic code. This can include: authentic costume (is it linking to where the movie
or TV show is being made) stylized (is it made to look very fancy and flamboyant) or
coordinated with the setting (for example if you are in a forest you would likely have
camo clothing)
• Makeup
When moving to look at another part of the code we come to makeup. Types of it
are naturalistic and expressionistic. One is how it would be seen in real life, natural, and
the other is showing more expression, expressionistic.
• Lighting
The lighting in movies or TV shows are a key part of the symbolic key, it can be separated
into 3 types: low key light (usually key light, fill light or back light for illumination), high
key light (aims to reduce the lighting ratio present in the scene) and natural lighting
(when there is daylight or a sunset/rise or something outside by force of nature that is
allowing you to see the image.)
• Movement
Movement can be put into 3 sections: positioning (how someone is stood while acting or
in shot), body language (how someone is acting and what their body language says about
them while they are in shot) and facial expressions (this is when someone is expressing
something, this could be just a feeling or all part of one action)

5. ColourSymbolism
Colour Symbol Connotation
Red The colour red can sometimes mean passionate
love and seduction, but it can also mean violence
danger and anger.
Black Black can be associated with power, elegance,
formality, death, evil and mystery. Black can also
be associated with the unknow, due to their links
to black holes. It is usually a negative connotation
for example: blacklist, black humour and black
death. In heraldry, black is the symbol of grief.
White White is usually associated with light, goodness,
innocence, purity and perfection. It can also
represent a successful beginning.
Green Green is usually the colour of nature. It can
symbolize growth, harmony, freshness and
fertility. Can also have a strong link to safety. In
places like Ireland it can be linked to luck. Dark
green is commonly linked with money.
Yellow Yellow is linked with joy, happiness intellect and
energy. It can also product a warming effect and
arouses cheerfulness as well as stimulates mental
activity and generate muscle energy.
Blue Blue is the colour of the sea and sky and is often
linked with depth and stability. It can symbolise
trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence, faith, truth and
heaven. It can be strongly linked with tranquillity
and calmness.
Gold Gold is a colour commonly linked with
illumination, love, compassion, courage, passion,
magic and wisdom. It can also be linked with
wealth, grandeur and prosperity. As well as linking
with sparkle, glitz and glamour.

6. Mise – en – scene
The word mise en scene translates from French to English as 'setting the stage.' Usually
in theatre this is the arrangement of scenery and stage properties. When it is being
looked at in film and TV analysis it is referred to as everything in front of the camera,
including set design, lighting and actors. The mise en scene will usually effect how the
whole of the movie or TV show comes together for the viewer. Some of the key
elements in the mise en scene are: the set, props, lighting, costumes, actor blocking and
shot composition.
The Set
When it comes to the analysis of a scene with mise en scene included the set plays a
large part. Be the set someone's house, a factory or the woods, this will always effect
the overall movie and the whole scene.
Props
Props are usually objects that are included in action on the stage, be this a teacup,
cheese sandwich or a knife. Actors can make use of these props or sometimes the props
can be just there and become a part of the background or set.
Lighting
There are different types of lighting to suit certain scenes such as. Natural lighting which
is usually from natural sources like the sun, the moon or stars. Set lighting which allows
for light to be evenly distributed across the stage. Directional lighting which can shape a
character for the purposes of storytelling.
Costumes
Like other parts of the mise en scene, costume is something that can affect the overall
mood and feeling of a scene. Costume is usually decided upon by when the scene or
movie/TV show is based. So if it is based in modern day you will see very modern outfits,
and same goes for Victorian period etc
Actor Blocking
To put it into simple terms, actor blocking is 'working out the details of the actors moves
in relation to the camera.' It can be thought of as choreography for a dance, all the
elements are needed such as: actors, extras, props, crew and equipment. For the scene
to work well and be successful each of the elements need to work well with each other.
Shot Composition
Shot composition can largely be linked to the ideas of photography with the use of
framing. The idea behind it is the way that the scene is arranged in the camera frame
and how it will look before edited. Shot composition usually helps arrange the visual
elements in order to convey a message.

7. Lighting
Lighting is useful in scenes to light up places and help illuminate
certain areas of the shot. As mentioned in a previous slide, there is
different types of lighting:
Directional Lighting Natural Lighting
Set Lighting
Different types of lighting can create
different moods. As a link to colour
symbolism, depending on the colour
this can also influence the mood and
feeling in the shot or scene.
LKL is a lighting technique to a scene
that focuses on making the shadows
look much more obvious by using a
hard source of lighting.
HKL is used to make a scene look
more optimistic and get an upbeat
reaction.
High Key
Lighting
Low Key
Lighting

8. FacialExpressions&Body
Language
Below you can see just a few of the basic emotions that on a day to day
basis we as humans go through, as well as many others which are not
shown below. Emotions can be a massive help to a scene as it can almost
make us feel what the character is feeling.
Working alongside the
emotions we feel there is also
many many facial expressions
we can make. With just a few
shown above and below there
is a range of moods this can
create in the scene or shot.

9. Props &Costume
What an actor wears or uses in a certain scene can determine how the
mood and feeling will be moving forward, or at least for a large part of the
coming section. Directors need to take into consideration of the feeling
they want to put across in that scene, therefore if they wanted a happy and
joyful feeling, they would not dress the actors in full black, almost as if they
were at a funeral. Same thing goes if they were at a funeral, they would not
wear bright colours.
An example of complete opposites
like mentioned above could be a
mourning family at a funeral and then
jump to the opposite of the Mad
Hatter out of Alice and Wonderland, 2
very different feelings they directors
wants to get across.

10. TechnicalCodes
A large part of the mise en scene is also the technical code.This includes the
editing side of things, sound and camera.Technical codes are different to the
symbolic codes as this makes large use of technology or something not related to
the scene.This can be how the camera is used, what the camera captures, what
parts of the shooting are kept in or the types of sound used.
Editing
This part of the mise-en-scene is post production.This can be adding
features to the scene, adding sound effects, adding images or videos. A
good example of editing is in the first episode of The Crown. Here we see
the King being sick over the toilet and as he brings his head up we see the
words Buckingham Palace 1947. This type of editing might be un-
noticeable but it is still classed as a type of editing.
Sound
Sound is classed as non-diegetic and diegetic.This is either something that
can be heard on the set like someone playing a guitar or plates being
thrown onto the floor or this is sound that is added in during editing, this
can be a sound track or a score of a film put over scenes of a movie orTV
show.
Camera
Camera is the type of shot or angle used or the way the camera is used, this
can be pan and tilt, hand used, stedi-cam. Types of shots can be close up,
long shot, medium shot, reaction shot, point of view shot and over the
shoulder shot.

11. Camera
Shot Example Description
Establishing shot This shot is used to allow
the director to introduce
where they are and what
the surroundings looks like.
Extreme close up This shows us a certain area
of the actors face, for
example the eyes or the
mouth, a specific area.
Close up This shot shows us a larger
area than an extreme close
up but it still in a general
area.
Medium close up shot This is half way between a
close up and a medium
shot. It brings in more parts
of the image, such as the
upper part of the body
which allows for the
expressions to be shown
more.
Medium shot This shot gives us more
detail than a medium close
up shot and can sometimes
be called a cowboy shot.
Medium long shot This gives us an idea of
what the surroundings
looks like but also includes
the main character usually.
Long shot This shot puts the character
into context with the
background and the
foreground.

12. Cameracontinued
Extreme long shot Extreme long shot is all
about showing the world in
which the story takes place.
In an extreme long you will
see large landscapes in the
frame.
Wide shot This shot shows the subject
with their background and
again gives detail and ideas
of where they are and what is
happening around them.
Two shot Pretty simple, a shot that
includes two characters next
to each other.
Ariel shot An aerial shot is a shot that's
taken from an elevated
vantage point than what is
framed in the shot. Aerial
shots gives viewers a deeper
understanding of what is
happening below, both
literally and metaphorically.
Point of view shot A point of view shot is a film
angle that shows what a
character is looking at in the
first person. This is usually
the character looking at
something or someone else.
Over the shoulder shot This shot is most commonly
used to present
conversational back and forth
between two subjects.

13. Sound
In most movies there is two types of sound: non-diegetic and diegetic.
Non-diegetic
Non-diegetic music is usually always added in post-production, this could
be score, sound effects and foley. Score music is when an orchestra creates
the music for the scene, a perfect example is the StarWars opening score.
Sound effects are added in post-production as well, this could the cartoon
sound of a pan hitting someone or some cymbals crashing.
Diegetic
Diegetic sound is sound or noise that comes from the set, this could be the
sound of guns being fired, a jack hammer on a NewYork street or the
sound of someone breathing.

14. Editing
Editing Technique Definition Example (YouTube clips can
me copy and pasted here)
Match on Action Cutting on action or
matching on action refers to
film editing and video editing
techniques where the editor
cuts from one shot to
another view that matches
the first shot's action.
Friends
Shot Reverse Shot Shot reverse shot is a film
technique where one
character is shown looking at
another character, and then
the other character is shown
looking back at the first
character. Since the
characters are shown facing
in opposite directions, the
viewer assumes that they are
looking at each other.
Spider-Man
180 Degree Rule In filmmaking, the 180-
degree rule is a basic
guideline regarding the on-
screen spatial relationship
between a character and
another character or object
within a scene. By keeping
the camera on one side of an
imaginary axis between two
characters, the first
character is always frame
right of the second
character.
When Batman Broke the
Rule

15. Editing continued
Jump Cuts A jump cut is a cut in film
editing in which a single
continuous sequential
shot of a subject is
broken into two parts,
with a piece of footage
being removed in order
to render the effect of
jumping forwards in
time.
Little Shop of Horrors
Flash backs This is used when there is
a character looking back
on something. For
example if they are
looking back on their
childhood.
Titanic?
Continuous Shot A one-shot or continuous
shot feature film is a full-
length movie filmed in
one long take by a single
camera, or manufactured
to give the impression it
was. A perfect example is
the recent movie 1917 -
interview
1917

16. How is meaning
created?
In this image there is various ways that meaning is created, be this through the small little
things in the image or the things that stand out largely.One of the key things seen in this scene is
the colours that are used, putting aside the fire, a lot of the colours in the shot are dark. Dark
colours are usually associated with fear, mystery and aggression and in this scene the two
characters running away from something or someone will bring this out perfectly.The reds and
oranges in the fire as seen behind the two actors can be seen as a colour of extremes. It can show
violence, danger, anger and pain.This also links well with the injury that has been caused to the
two actors. Moving to look at the camera angle and shot we can see the shot used is a medium
long shot, and this also manages to capture just the two actors with the background in to help
give us a bit of context to the scene.This scene is set out in the streets ofThailand and the crashed
cars and buildings they walk past are all styled to look as realistic as they can.Although the streets
will not always look like this the change makes it look as it would during a time like this.As the
two actors walk through the scene of rubble and chaos there will be a few props which they could
pick up, one of these being a dead man's gun which they could make good use of.They are also
seen in scenes with guns and this could be a way that the main character is a fighter.The costume
on both of the two actors links perfectly to the current situation they are in, some kind of
combat situation and again trying to get away from something or someone who may be chasing
them.The idea is the boy needs to be 'extracted' from the city and took to safety. Looking at
the makeup of the two characters you aren't able to see clearly but on the man's head you can
see gashes and lines of blood, this can link back to the idea of blood red and how it can show pain
and fear. In parts of the movie where there are reaction shots, the use of the makeup is much
easier to see as you are close up and in the actors faces.The lighting of this shot is very natural as
they are running round the streets ofThailand, so in this scene since it can be seen it is day time
the lighting is reasonably bright and can allow you to see the actors face and their expressions
clearly, linking back to the emotions and makeup. Moving to look at the movement within this
scene the two actors are placed into the centre of the shot as they are coming towards the
camera and moving away.The body language of the two actors is very alert and shows them
being very cautious of their surroundings, still as if they are not sure what could happen.The
facial expressions show that the two of them know something is about to happen, but they don't
know where or when.

17. How is meaning created?
Representation is the way in how certain things are shown in movies and can also reflect the ideologies of society at that time. When you watch movies and TV
shows you can put together certain ideas and thoughts about how you see things and how the director wants you to see it, this can sometimes be known as
verisimilitude.
When looking at the mise-en-scene there is a few key things you need to look at: the settings, the costume & makeup, the lighting and the movement & expression.
When we look at the setting in this specific part of the clip, we can see it is a very quiet area and it is not very busy until the rest of the family enter the waiting area.
The fact that the waiting room is quiet could be the director looking to show the relationship being very strained and how there is not much to say. We can also link
the strained relationship to the gap between the chair where the girl and woman are sat, this could be like that to make us feel there is some sort of gap between the
2 of them in their relationship and maybe them being there could be a way to fill the gap and fix their strained relationship. Moving to look at the other part of the
clip where they are in the house it gives a feeling that the woman there, as she is sleeping on the sofa, is maybe a friend who is there looking after the house till the 2
of them come back or could be a family member who the house owner does not like so much. The lady on the sofa could also show a strained relationship between
her and the woman at the hospital.
Moving to look at the costume and makeup of the first part of the clip we can see that it is what someone would wear to go out, very minimal, and how they may not
have been prepared for this. In the other part of the clip this woman has just got out of bed therefore she is not going to be wearing a lot of clothes and again links to
the minimal ideas as shown above. When we look at the lighting of both parts of the clips, it uses very natural lighting and there is no lighting which would not be
there, this is because it allows the actors to almost make you seem like you are there with them. Finally the movement and expressions, these are something that in
the hospital scene, can be seen very clearly and it is very prominent. Whenever we get the over the shoulder shot we can see clearly the expressions of the other
actor and how they feel, and in some way this can make us almost relate to the character and their feelings and emotions at that point in time.
When we look at the camera shots we can see there is a variety of different shots, which linking back to the above comment, makes us sometimes feel as if we are
there with the character and we can feel what they do. An example of this is when we see an over the shoulder shot used and it makes us feel as if we are the ones
looking at the other character and speaking to them. This is a great way to push emotion across to the viewers and make them feel something. The movements of
the camera gives us the idea it uses a stedi-cam as it is almost as if it is being filmed by hand as it can be seen shaky in a few parts.
Moving to look at the sound used in the clips we can get from this it is all very natural and again made to feel as if you are there, so if you hear something in a hospital
like something in the PA or the sounds of ambulances you would likely here it in this scene as it is made to replicate their situation. Moving to look at the 2nd part of
the clip it is again showing what the house would be like, so the knock on the door when she is waiting outside is all the idea that you are meant to be there and in the
view of the character. In the end part of the clip when the music begins to play this has all been added post production, which takes us on nicely to the editing of the
clip.
We can see that there is a range of editing techniques used, for example it uses basic cuts when going from location to location in the hospital scene and we also see
it use the 180 degree rule to ensure that there is the 'action' going on in the line. When we look at the scene in the house this uses basic cuts when it follows the
character out of bed and to the door, and then uses more cuts to get in all the action and what is happening at the door.
Linking back to the idea of representation, there is certain things in the scenes that makes us feel as if there is some sort of a relationship but it is on some sort of
strings and is very tense but as we see in the end of the clip there seems to be some sort of makeup at the end and this tense relationship throughout is solved and
things can continue without any worry.

18. How is meaning created?
Throughout many different TV shows and movies, directors use many different symbolic and technical codes to create different representations. As seen in
the following clip there are many ways that they can be used to push the ideas that a director wishes for.
In the beginning of the clip we can gather using a high angle shot and a wide shot, the director has aimed to get all of the room and all of the characters into
the shot, this allows for the viewer to get a good idea of the location of the hostage situation and how intense it is, as well as a brief look as to who is in this
scene. The use of post-production shot reverse shots and regular cuts adds to the feeling of tension and suspense. We are also able to get the feeling with
the positioning of the camera, it is almost as if it is a CCTV camera looking down on them and recording what is happening. This adds to the idea of them
being watched. Looking at the immediate scene and those in it we first get the idea that this could be very secretive and the guard he is with is in all black
which pushes the idea of darkness and evil to the viewer. We can also add the fact that the guards were wearing a mask to the idea of anonymity and trying
to be hidden from what is happening. To include the sounds in this clip we can look at the non-diegetic music added in post-production. The use of this is to
create a more tense and scary atmosphere which will inevitably make the viewer be fearful and worried about what is happening or about to happen. The
music added in post-production also adds a sense of tension which helps drag out scenes. Still sticking with music, when the woman is shown the picture of
the spy it goes quiet and then a sudden bang noise, this can be linked to a bullet shot which is how the spy died. To link with the camera shot and type of
camera used, we can see that throughout the whole clip there is a range of close ups, wide shots, medium shots and two shots but something that is not as
well know would be the fact it uses a handheld camera to make more tension in scenes. We can infer this by the fact in certain scenes the camera is shaking
quite a lot, all this intentional and made to get a reaction from the viewers.
Moving to look from the view of this terrorist holding the British hostage we can see that it is a large stereotype that because he is a Muslim man, he is a
terrorist and he is going to cause problems and hurt people, but that is not always the case, but here it is. Also looking at the idea of this man, although he
might be a terrorist it is not shown in the way of what he is wearing. You would expect that they would wear their local dress, but this man is wearing what
seems to be a very fancy and expensive work suit and this goes against the stereotype. Something else that goes against this stereotype is the fact that he
seems very educated and his English is very strong, as you would expect for a terrorist not to be very knowledgeable and also have a poor quality when it
comes to speaking English. He can also be seen wearing jewelry which can point out that he does have money and that he could be considered rich and
wealthy. The fact he is wearing a suit points out to his sophistication and how smart he may be, after all he has caught two British spies. As it comes near to
the end he begins to talk about how a unnamed drone' would be sent to 'ruin and destroy a wedding party.' From this we can pick out that it has been
something that has happened to him as be does speak about this very strongly and it could have been something that has affected him with trauma.
Looking at the woman who has been caught we can see clearly that she is a very strong woman as she does not react to being held hostage by this man.
This goes against the common stereotype of women being the ones who need to be saved and the 'damsel in distress'. She speaks very strongly, and she
does not react nor show any emotion to him. Her face has no emotion, and she is stuck to her cause. The idea of the woman being the one to read the
message and words to the camera instead of a man is more thought provoking due to the fact the woman can be seen as more emotionally vulnerable and
someone who could be broke but to back up the previous point of her breaking the stereotype, she does not crack, and she still stays strong. When she
reads the words the man has gave her, he says to her 'you read those words with no emotion,' this just adds to the idea that she is a strong woman and is
able to know that she can't break her strength and she keeps on staying strong till the end.

19. How is meaning created?
In the beginning of the clip we are able to see a man coughing blood into a toilet. The coughing is able to show us that he is sick which would give a sense of
weakness and then when we see that it is blood in the toilet we can infer that this is a very serious problem and there could be a possible death. The blood can
also be seen as very foreshadowing the later events. In the scene, we can see the use of low key lighting. This has been used as the director doesn't want to give
away what will happen in the few moments of the opening. The low key lighting has also been used to show that this particular scene is very serious and it is also
able to show some tension between the characters in the next few scenes. When the scene opens we are able to see the camera panning across from the right to
the left to show us a man standing over the sink coughing up blood. This uses a medium wide shot and them moves to a close up when the camera moves over to
the toilet the camera follows his head up when he has spat out the blood. The idea of the blood can be seen to create an idea of 'what happens next' in the viewers
mind and will have them sitting on the edge of their seats waiting to see what happens next. Something that also helps create a mood of suspense and tension is
the fact we only hear the King coughing, the tap stop running and then the toilet flush. There is little sound which again links to the idea of what is going to happen
next. When looking at the editing side of things you are able to see the camera come in at the start and then it cuts to looking next to the toilet as the King lifts his
head up and then flushes the toilet. In the beginning we are also able to see a title of 'Buckingham Palace' with also the date of 1947.
Moving to look at the next scene when the woman is pacing around outside of the doors we can get a sense of her being tense and her not knowing what is
happening. You can see from her facial expressions she is very nervous and from her body language she is very anxious. The fact she has her arms folded and is
also moving around quite a lot can give the suggestion that she is worried or impatient. The camera, which is largely focused on her, follows her round and then it
comes to look behind her as the doors open, into the ceremony. In this part the camera is focused on the lady waiting, this gives us some idea that she is important
and she is there for a reason which might be later explained.
Once the doors are opened into the little room where some sort of a ceremony is taking place we are then able to see the camera look to the point of view of the to
be Duke as the King walks in. When the King begins to read out his speech to the Duke he begins to stutter and stumble on his words, this could be something
hinting at the fact that he needs help to do his duties as King. He then pulls out a bit of paper which helps him with the speech as he continues it. The fact that he
needs a bit of paper to help him do his important role as King suggests that maybe someone will need to take over as this. When he then reaches out to shake the
new Dukes hand we see him grab it and then pull it closer to him and shake it. After this the King then leaves, not sticking around for very long. This could be the
King trying to say that he doesn't like the new Duke and he thinks that this choice is not a good one for him nor the country. While the King is making his speech we
are able to get the over the shoulder shot to see the emotion around the room, it is very lively when the Duke is waiting but once the King arrives it goes all quiet.
This could be a way of the people saying they don't like the King or it could be there way of respecting the King. With the use of a wide shot we are able to gauge
where they were and that this was an important event with people dressed in state dress were there. The over the shoulder shot shows the nerves and anxiety of
the Duke and King. When the King walks in we hear tense music and this is something that grabs the viewers' attention instantly as it is just people talking but then
goes to music. The music also gets more tense as the scene moves on, linking back to the idea that no one knows what is going to happen.
After the ceremony we see the King march out and leave, not staying for any little words or anything after, and then the Duke leaves the little hall and returns to
this lady who is waiting for him. We can see by the way he greats her that there is a strong bond between them and they could be husband and wife. When the
Duke comes up to her we can see instantly he is the more dominant and in charge of the relationship as when he comes up to her and kisses her we see the smile on
his face and she looks very nervous, almost as if he has done something he should not have, and this in some way is correct as in those times it was in some way
frowned upon to show public acts of affection. To show the meaningfulness of this moment we use a 2 person clip to just get the Duke and the lady in shot, as well
as blurring out the background so we can throw all of the focus onto the 2 main characters in this scene.

20. Genre:

21. Types ofGenre
A small list of the types of genre can be:
Under genres there is sub genres.A list of sub genres of action:
There is also something called hybrid genres, this is a cross over of genres, a few
examples are:
As time goes on and as we move forward into the future
there will be many many more new genres and new
crossovers and hybrids that get created, as well as many
new sub genres.The above is just a few examples of
different genres, sub genres and hybrids, there is many
more out there and many more to come.
Action Comedy Crime Drama
Horror Romance Thriller Western
Straight
Action
Adventure
Action
Adventure
Chase
Thrillers
Heist Films
Cops &
Robbers
Detective
Mysteries
War Movies
Rom-Com Horror-
Comedy
Comedy-
Drama
Superhero
-Western

22. GenreTheory
The word genre comes from the French for kind, and it is also derived from the Latin for
class and type. Over the years, there has been many different theorists who have
produced ideas for classification of films and TV shows. The 4 main ones are: Rick
Altman, David Duff, Robert Stam and John Hartley.
Rick Altman
Altman suggests that genres can be decided by their semantics, this being the different
elements, such as location, costume, lighting, body language and actors. The other way
it was decided was by the syntactics, this is the plot lines and story ideas. Use the
example of a action movie. When looking at semantics we can identify guns, fast cars,
big houses and explosions. Looking at the syntactics of an action movie we can identify
the ideas of a good guy and a bad guy, a damsel in distress and someone saving the day.
David Duff
Duff uses the idea that we can put movies into a certain genre as we recognize it from
another movie, for example we can classify films such as James Bond movies, Mission
Impossible movies and Bourne movies as action movies due to their similar story line.
Robert Stam
Stam was someone who said, 'should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive?' His
idea is that genre is something that is now way too broad and is something that is
constantly growing over time. An example of a change of genre could be the movie 'the
exorcist' going from a very scary horror movie to a pretty cringy and funny movie, under
the comedy section. In a conclusion he thinks that genre doesn't exist. Another factor is
the growing amount of sub genres and hybrid genres. As time goes on more and more
will be created.
John Hartley
Hartley was someone who said that genres always change over time. Like mentioned
above the Exorcist is a perfect example, going from a horror movie to a funny and
comical movie. These changes can be due to culture and location.

23. RickAltmansTheory –
Semantics andSyntactics
Horror Action Romance
Semantic • Isolated House
• Darkness
• Dark forests
• Ghosts
• Empty houses
• Low key lighting
• Blood & gore
• Action hero
• Damsel in distress
• Cities
• Super powers
• Kiss scene
• Supportive friend
• Group of friends –
complete opposite
• Happy ending
Syntactic • Paranormal
Activity
• Evil
• Isolated
• Forbidden area
Starts off with a big action
scene and then introduces
the characters.There is
some woman who
becomes the eye candy of
the whole movie.The
main character falls in love
with the eye candy and it
ends all well with the bad
guy dying or leaving.
Two main characters
always meet in a comical
way.They have their
differences. Most plots
often include one
character having to chase
the other, there is lots of
obstacles in between.
They fall in love and there
is many ups and downs in
the relationship.

24. Narrative:

25. Todorov’s
Narrative
Structure
Todorov invented the idea that for
each movie or TV show there is a
set structure to it. That includes:
1. Equilibrium – the state of
balance and calmness
2. Disruption to the equilibrium
– when something breaks
the peace
3. Recognition – when they find
out what the issue was
4. Attempt to fix the damage –
when the characters try to fix
the issue
5. New equilibrium – when the
characters have solved the
issue and have fixed it and
things go back to normal.
After this you will see the cycle
repeat a few times.

26. OpenandClosed
Narratives
Open narrative is when there
seems to be no end to the
story, a perfect example of
this is aTV Soap like
EastEnders or Coronation
Street.This can be a link to
Personal Relationship and
Personal Identity as you
create some form of a bond
with the characters in theTV
shows if you are a regular
viewer. When looking at open
narratives in movies this
could be something like Harry
Potter or Blade Runner.
When looking at closed
narrative movies andTV
shows these are something
that there is only a few of or
even just one. In short, there
is a defined end to these, for
example the Bee Movie or
The Lovely Bones

27. LinearNarratives
A linear narrative is when the
scenes that are filmed are in a
certain order. For example,
the scenes throughout the
Harry Potter and the Prisoner
of Azkaban.This changes
when Harry and Hermione
travel back in time and then it
becomes non-linear. As soon
as Harry and Hermione come
back to the present the
storyline continues as a linear
narrative. Another example
of nonlinear movies can be: IT
ChapterTwo, Captain Marvel,
Mamma Mia! Here We Go
Again, Gone Girl, Man of
Steel, Inception and all of the
Back to the Future movies.

28. Propps' Character Types
Propps came up with the theory that there are different types of characters in a movie or aTV
series, the table below will explain it. http://changingminds.org/disciplines/storytelling/characters/propp_personae.htm
CharacterType and Image Explanation
The Hero The hero is usually the character that is
looking for something and sent out by the
Dispatcher.There is no boundaries as to it
being a man or woman or even an animal.
The Helper The helper is the character that helps the
hero.They will usually work for the hero on
their mission or help them in a way we don't
see, but in the end, it will help the hero to
succeed in their mission.
TheVillain The villain is the character who attempts to
stop the hero and the helper from succeeding
in their task.They will do whatever it takes to
stop them.
The False Hero The false hero is the character who takes the
credit for the actions of the hero and tries to
make it seem like they did all the work but
they have done nothing in the end!

29. The Donor The donor is someone who gives the hero
something to help them with their mission,
this could be powers to let them fly or a car to
help them drive across the country to get to
their destination.
The Dispatcher The dispatcher is the person who send the
hero and the helper out on their mission.This
could be a family member or even sometimes
the princess's father who sends the hero to go
and rescue the princess. Sometimes the
dispatcher can be linked with another role, an
example being the false hero who trails behind
and waits to pounce and get what they sent
the hero to do.
The Princess's Father The princess's father is the authority figure in
the movie and is also the person who officers
the hero a reward, in the case of Shrek, for
rescuing his daughter.
The Princess The princess is the person who the hero must
rescue, or they can also be called the damsel in
distress.The common idea for this is that the
hero is sent on the mission to find them and

30. Representati
on:

31. Alvarado's Racial
StereotypesTheory
The exotic
The exotic is someone who is represented by what
they look like, how they dress, what they eat and by
their different customs, as well as how they act. An
example can be Gloria from Modern Family or Honey
Ryder from the James Bond, Dr. No.
The pitied
A great example of someone who could be classified
as 'pitied' is an immigrant. Something you will see a lot
on UKTV is the issue of migrants coming from the
French waters to the British waters. A way the media
responds is by doing this.

33. TITLE
The humorous
Another great example of this character type is
GroundskeeperWillie.This is conveyed through his
heavy Scottish accent and bright red hair, this is also a
link to the stereotypes of Scottish people. He has
many humour filled lines throughout episodes as well
as him falling into many traps and that resulting in
humour.
The Dangerous
An example of a dangerous character type can be the
characters from the Pirates of the Caribbean movies,
they are the ones who invade the land and steal the
treasure.This is again a link to the pirate stereotype.
Another example of a dangerous character can be the
bad guys out of action movies, they are always the
ones who do something wrong and they are usually
the ones who die or end up in jail. Due to the lack of
personalities of these characters it is much easier to
blame them for a range of social problems.
Alvarado's Racial
StereotypesTheory

34. Audience:

35. Uses andGratification
Theory
Some of the key parts of the gratification theory are personal identity,
personal relationship, escapism and surveillance. Below will be them
explained in a bit more detail.
Personal Identity
This is where the audience identifies with a character - perhaps they
are going through some similar issues that they can relate to.
This is important because you want your product to be realistic and
engage your audience. People are more likely to respond if they can
relate to it. This can often give the viewer a feeling of ‘I have felt that’
or there is some way they can link them to themselves in some way.
An example can be ’13 ReasonsWhy’ as this is based widely based off
bullying, and a lot of young people will go through some sort of
bullying in their childhood and teenage years.
Personal Relationship
This often occurs when there is something such as a long running
show or series of movies (Modern Family or Friends and James Bond
movies or Harry Potter movies) and over the time of the series the
audience form a relationship with the characters, and it is almost as if
they will have a favourite and they will feel as if they are with the
characters and they have grown up with them.
Escapism/Divergence
Audiences often use the media as a form of escapism, when they want
to escape reality and spend a few hours in a make-believe world. It is
normally a way for the audience to sit back and relax and not think
about their current issues or problems. It is largely used to put their
real lives on hold.

36. Uses andGratification
Theory continued
Surveillance/Information
Audiences often use the media as a form of finding out
information. This could be in the form of news or information, an
example being Sky News, BBC News or NatGeo Channel.This can also
be in the form of a movie that brings around historical information,
such as Dunkirk or Gladiator. Another type is the realityTV shows
such as Big Brother, Keeping upWith the Kardashians andGreat
British Bake off.The listedTV shows are something that people can
keep up with something as it goes on week by week.

37. PassiveAudiences
AudienceTheory What is it?
(Explain in more detail)
Hypodermic Needle Theory The Hypodermic Needle is something that would often create
very negative images, and this would then make violet behavior
with the people who were affected. In most cases this will cause
large groups of people to view things differently. It can also
create ideas of manipulation and again add to the feeling of
anger.
The Hypodermic NeedleTheory was one of the earliest ways of
thinking about how the mass media influences audiences. It was
developed in the 1920s and 1930s after researchers saw the effect
of propaganda duringWW1 and events like OrsonWelles' War of
theWorlds broadcast.
It is a linear communication theory that suggests media
messages are directly injected into the brains of a passive
audience. It suggests we are all the same and respond to things
the same way.
CultivationTheory TheCultivationTheory was a theory that was proposed by
George Gerbner, and it is one of those core theories of media
effects. An example is people who watch television frequently are
more likely to be influenced by what they watch, e.g. if they
watch slasher movies, they could be influenced by this and go out
and 'slash' people.
The theory postulates that watching television frequently
influences an individual to develop certain ideas of reality or
beliefs and assumptions about life that mirror the most
consistent or universal values that are showcased on television.
The more a person watches television, the more likely he is to be
influenced by what he watches when compared to others who
watch less but share other similar demographic characteristics.

38. PassiveAudiences
AudienceTheory What is it?
(Explain in more detail)
Moral Panic Moral panic is the feeling of spreading fear among many people.
A great example for current times is the beginning of COVID-19.
When it first became a thing in the UK people went out and
bought lots and lots of toilet rolls, this was when the UK was close
to a lockdown.

39. Audience Demographics
When it comes to creating a type of media be this aTV show, movie,
documentary or a reality series you always need to keep in mind who
your media will be aimed at.To do this you are able to use audience
demographics.The main demographics that are used are:
o Age – how old someone is?
o Gender – male, female or other
o Location – where do they live? Can be split into things such as
countryside, city, coastline
o Ethnicity – what is their ethnic background
o Religion – what is their religion – Muslim, Christian, Jewish, Hindi
o Socio-economic group – refer to the image and explanation to the
left
Another way that creators can find out about their audience is
through surveys. Results they get from this are split into two types:
- Quantitative – number based data, for example a simple age and
gender survey, this will come back as numbers andY or N.
- Qualitative - this is data that will come back and can be used as
more accurate and more descriptive as it allows the form filler to enter
their opinions and say more, rather than a number and yes or no.
Socio-economic groups are a way to
identify a group of people by their
job type. See above for a breakdown
of each category. Think of A as the
people who run companies, think of
C1 as people who work for group A
and think of E as people who are not
working and are unemployed.

40. Audience
Psychographics
Audience psychographics can be research that is done to decide who your
target audience is.This could be based off audience demographic factors
such as age, location, religion or gender.There is many more audience
demographics, but the above are the main ones.
Motives - this is the idea that an internal force stimulates someone to act or
behave in a certain way. A motivation for watchingTV could be escaping
real life and some time away.
Attitudes - this is a learned predisposition, a feeling that is held towards a
person, object or behaviour. Attitude is something that is enduring, and they
could be positive or negative.
Personalities - this is the collection of traits that make a person different
and special compared to everyone else.They influence how a person look at
the world, how they perceive and interpret what is happening around them
and how the respond to things intellectually and emotionally as well how
they form their opinions and attitudes.
Lifestyles - these factors form the main ideas behind each person's
psychographic profile.This can include research which looks at how people
allocate time, energy and money.
Another part of the audience psychographics is the
above table. These are the types of people who use
media. A lot of the time this is linked to the
demographics and allows media creators to aim their
product towards certain people. An example could be a
TV advert for people who have no job, so they would be
classed as the E of the soci-economic group and this
could be something also for the reformers or strugglers
and it could be something to push their motivation up
and make them change how they do things. This is just
one of the many examples of how a creator could aim
their product.