Symbiotic Relationship Lab Report

Symbiotic Relationship Lab Report
Parasitic or Mutual Symbiotic Relationship?
Author: Natasha Patel. Lab Partner: Ariana Crolene. Mira Costa College 3333 Manchester Ave
Cardiff, CA 92007.
Abstract:
Our experiment is designed to show the symbiotic relationship between the mycorrhizal fungus and
spinach plant. We constructed a 2X2 table of live molasses and controlled groups. Our hypothesis is
that the live molasses with mycorrhizae group will extend the plants root bodies and increase the
total surface area of the plant. That being said, the fungus and the plant will have a symbiotic mutual
relationship towards each other. Our predictions came out to be false. The controlled groups had a
higher average in shoot length and wet mass, which indicates that the plant and fungus have a
parasitic relationship towards each other.
Introduction: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The mycorrhizae benefited from the sugars but the plant did not benefit from the mycorrhizae,
which caused them to not extend their root bodies. The controlled groups had higher averages than
the lived averages. Also, the class averages were similar to our data as well. For future experiments,
the plants with mycorrhizae should be given more molasses, which will allow us to detect if the
plant and fungus have a symbiotic relationship or not. There have been many studies that provide
mycorrhizae aiding plants for nutrients, proper growth, and survival. However, there are
experiments that will show outliers and proving that not all studies are correct, which basically
demonstrates the field of biology. In biology, we constantly perform numerous experiments to
validate our hypothesis. But, there are exceptions when our hypothesis comes out to be false, which
always gives us room to modify our errors. Thus, biology is a never–ending field and is constantly
growing for new findings in
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Kill Fungus Experiment
In our experiment we can conclude that the control/water can't kill fungus you would need some
type of alcohol chemical or even our daily hand soap to kill the fungus. The experiment wasn't quite
what we were expecting because we thought the fungus would grow more on the control and soap,
but the soap didn't get a whole bunch of fungus. Another thing that didn't we expecting was the hand
sanitizer because it was 70 percent ethyl alcohol so we were expecting less fungus than we got. Our
hypothesis was if fungus grow on soap, water, or hand sanitizer, then no chemical can kill fungus.
The hypothesis was and was not prove correctly because you need water and some sort of hand
cleaner (like soap) to get your hands clean. The fungus can't dead by

What Is 5. 5 Antimicrobial Agar Diffusion Assay
5.5 Antimicrobial Activity
The antimicrobial agar diffusion assay was performed according to disc diffusion method against
four bacterial strains; Bacillus subtilis , Shigella flexneri, Escherichia Coli ,Enterobacter cloacae and
four species of fungi Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus candidus, Aspergillus niger and
Pencillium Species.Potato Dextrose Agar for fungus and NAM(Nutrient agar media) for bacteria
was prepared according to the accurate composition and immediately after autoclaving, it was
cooled in a 45 – 50°C.The freshly prepared and cooled medium was poured into petri plates. The
agar medium was cooled to room temperature unless the plate is used the same day; and stored in a
refrigerator (4°c).
5.5.1 SPREADING OF BACTERIAAND FUNGUS ON THE PLATES
100 µL of bacteria and fungus from freshly prepared culture was taken in the pipette and poured in
the middle of the respective petri plate. Remove excess inoculum by lightly pressing the swab
against the tube wall at a level above that of the liquid.Using a cotton swab that has already put in
UV light, the bacteria and fungus was spread evenly on the surface of the plate so that bacteria and
fungus were spread in each corner of the plate and dried for 4–5 minutes Inoculate the agar by
streaking with the swab containing the inoculum. Rotate the plate by 60° and repeat the rubbing
procedure. Repeat two times. This will ensure an even distribution of the inoculum. Allow the
surface of the medium to dry for

Cryptococcus Neoformans is a Basidiomycetous Yeast Fungus
Introduction/Background
Cryptococcus neoformans is a basidiomycetous yeast fungus that is enclosed with a polysaccharide
capsule. C. neoformans can undergo sexual reproduction that is due to crossing α– and a–mating
types, resulting in the formation of sexual spores or basidiospores (Buchanan and Murphy, 1998). It
is an intracellular pathogen that affects more than one million individuals, resulting in over 700,000
deaths per year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Individuals become infected
with this pathogen when they inhale fungal particles from the various sources that C. neoformans is
found in: bird guano, decaying vegetables and soil (Upadhya et al. 2013). These particles then enter
the alveoli within the lungs. In individuals with a healthy immune system, the infection is cleared or
stays dormant until an imbalance of the immune system occurs. However, in individuals with
compromised immune systems such as those with HIV, cancer or those taking corticosteroid
medications; the fungus can disseminate and enter the central nervous system. Symptoms include
coughing, chest pain, fever, weight loss, pneumonia and respiratory distress syndrome as well as
meningoencephalitis that is fatal if left untreated (Bose et al. 2003; Upadhya et al. 2013).
Cell mediated immunity in the infected host is very important to respond to fungal invaders.
Phagocytic cells like macrophages, and neutrophils produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) which
kill

Nutritional Options For The Fungus Saccharomyces...
Introduction
The following paper covers the nutritional options for the fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The
taxonomy of the species is Eukaryota; Fungi; Dikarya; Ascomycota; Saccharomycotina;
Saccharomycetes; Saccharomycetales; Saccharomycetaceae; Saccharomyces. The ecological role of
most fungus is a consumer. It grows on an organic material and pull the required nutrients out of it
furthering decomposition. S. cerevisiae is a heterotroph that consumes digestible saccharides from
its environment in an anaerobic action to produces CO2 and ethyl alcohol as byproducts. This action
takes place in the absence of oxygen and is known as fermentation. S. cerevisiae does not have
specific mode of transportation. It reproduces asexually through a process called 'budding' (see
Figure 1). When each cell reaches a certain size, a new cell grows by 'budding' the new out of the
cell wall of the old cell. To do so, it metabolized saccharides in its environment to provide the
biological energy needed. The purpose of the study is to determine if different food sources will
facilitate growth and if the use of commercial artificial sweeteners will have any effect of the growth
rate. If Saccharomyces cerevisiae is able to perform glycolysis on multiple saccharides, then it
should be able to digest those saccharides and some artificial sweeteners, which are chemically
similar to natural sugars. The procedure to test this hypotheses is to use individual fermentation
vessels with

The Species Are Declining Around The World
Background Information
Amphibians in General
Amphibian species are declining around the world. According to The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species "one third of the about 6,500 extant amphibian species as threatened with extinction"
(Rödder et al., 2009, p. 53). Main threats to amphibians include habitat loss/degradation, global
warming, pollution, invasive species, over–exploitation and pathogens (Wanner, 2015). Amphibians
are considered an indicator species. Indicator species are very sensitive to a changing environment
and when they begin to decline as a result, it serves as a warning to other species, including humans
(Wanner, 2015). Wanner stresses that "The risk of losing the world 's amphibians represents a threat
to losing entire ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not all amphibians are affected by chytrid fungus the same way. Susceptibility of B. dendrobatidis
in amphibian hosts depends upon the particular species immune system make up; some species have
antimicrobial peptides and mutualistic bacteria that fight epidermal infections (Stockwell, Storrie,
Pollard, Clulow, & Mahony, 2014, p.397). And there is evidence that some amphibian species can
clear chytrid fungal infection (Retallick, McCallum, & Speare, 2004, p. 1970).
Origin
Chytrid fungus is very widespread and prevalent in watersheds around the world. Bd is prevalent in
amphibian populations in Australia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, New Zealand, and Spain and has
been found in every continent that has amphibians. (Weldon, Preez, Hyatt, Muller, & Speare, 2004,
p. 2100). The specific origin of chytrid fungus is not fully known. However the earliest evidence of
Bd was found in Africa in the 1930s on skin samples from African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)
(Rosenblum et al., 2010, p.1). It spread from there via the large exportation of these frogs in the light
of the discovery of pregnancy assays (Weldon et al., 2004, p. 2102). The pregnancy assay devised
from these frogs is based on the fact that when urine from pregnant woman is injected under the frog
's skin, the urine contains sufficient hormones to make the frog ovulate, thus producing a positive
result of pregnancy for that woman (Marris, 2009).

Exaggeration In The Zombie Ant
This paper explores how M.R.Carey exaggerates the evolution and real biological details of the
"Zombie Ant" fungus, Ophiocordyceps unilateralis, in order to create an exciting, horrifying story,
The Girl with All the Gifts. In Carey's zombie apocalypse novel, biologist Dr. Caldwell explains that
the fungus has taken a leap from ant hosts to humans, turning them into "hungries" (54). The next
stretch Carey makes is how the fungus affects its host. Infected ants bite leaves and hang on, but
hungries are driven to chase down unaffected people and animals and feed on them. In another
exaggeration, evolution happens much more quickly than in reality. There are second generation
hungries that still have human thoughts but are immuned to the spores the fungus releases in its final
stage. Each of these children has a fungus that is a "true symbiote rather than a parasite"( Carey
379). Finally, Melanie, a second generation hungry and main character, decides to speed up the
spread of the fungus with fire. While real O. unilateralis spores spread to cover the rainforest floor to
infect more ants, these spores will cover thousands of miles and change the world forever.
Fungus Among Us? The Real Life vs. Fictional Zombie Fungus in M.R. Carey's The Girl with All
the Gifts
M.R. Carey's The Girl with All the Gifts is a zombie apocalypse story filled with references to actual
biology. In this scientific thriller a powerful fungus has infected most humans on

Oxidative Enzymes For Lignin Removal
E
4. Oxidative Enzymes for Lignin Removal
Lignin is composed of non–phenolic and phenolic structures. White–rot basidiomycetes such as
Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes versicolor, Trametes Trogii, Pleurotus ostreatus, Lentinula
edodes, Irpex lacteus, Fomes fomentarius and Cerrena maxima have been found to be the most
efficient lignin–degrading microorganisms studied. It has been reported that lignin degrading fungi
secreted enzymes collectively termed "ligninases" (Figure 2). These include two ligninolytic
families; phenol oxidases (laccases) and peroxidases [lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese
peroxidase (MnP) and versatile peroxidase (VP)]. In delignification process, ligninolytic enzymes
have been applied in different methods as fungal delignification, enzymatic delignification, laccase–
mediator system (LMS), and integrated fungal fermentation (IFF) (Angel, 2002; Martin, 2002; Pérez
et al., 2002; Alcalde, 2007; Hammel and Cullen, 2008; Plácido and Capareda, 2015). Lignolytic
peroxydases
LiP (EC 1.11.1.14) catalyzes the H2O2–dependent oxidative depolymeriza¬tion of lignin. It was
first discovered in the the white–rot fungus, P. chrysosporium. Multiple LiP isoforms exist in P.
chrysosporium and other white–rot fungi such as Phanerochaete sordida, T. versicolor, Phlebia
radiata, and Phlebia tremellosa (Abdel–Hamid et al., 2013). LiPs are stronger oxidants because the
iron in the porphyrin ring in theses enzymes is more electron deficient than in classical peroxidases.

Fungi Are Fungi Different From Plants
Fungi are a group of living organisms which are classified in their own kingdom. This means they
are not animals, plants, or bacteria. Unlike bacteria, which have simple prokaryotic cells, fungi have
complex eukaryotic cells like animals and plants. Fungi are found throughout the Earth including on
land, in the water, in the air, and even in plants and animals. They vary widely in size from
microscopically small to the largest organisms on Earth at several square miles large. There are
more than 100,000 different identified species of fungi. How are fungi different from plants? Fungi
were once classified as plants. However, they are different from plants in two important ways: 1)
fungi cell walls are composed of chitin rather than cellulose (plants) and 2) fungi do not make their
own food like plants do through photosynthesis. Characteristics of Fungi They are eukaryotic. They
get their food by decomposing matter or eating off their hosts as parasites. They do not possess
chlorophyll like plants. They reproduce through numerous spores rather than pollen, fruit, or seeds.
They are usually not motile, meaning they cannot actively move around. Roles of Fungi Food –
Many fungi are used as food such as mushrooms and truffles. Yeast, a type of fungi, is used when
baking bread to help it rise and to ferment beverages. Decomposition – Fungi play an important role
in the decomposition of organic matter. This decomposition is necessary for many of the cycles of
life such as the

Fungal Nail Infection Definition
Fungal Nail Infection
Fungal nail infection is a common fungal infection of the toenails or fingernails. This condition
affects toenails more often than fingernails. More than one nail may be infected. The condition can
be passed from person to person (contagious).
CAUSES
This condition is caused by a fungus. Several types of fungi can cause the infection. These fungi are
common in moist and warm areas. If your hands or feet come into contact with the fungus, it may
get into a crack in your fingernail or toenail and cause the infection.
RISK FACTORS
This condition is more like to develop in:
Males.
People who have diabetes.
People who are older.
People who live with someone who has the fungus.
People who walk barefoot in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thickening of the nail.
Nails that become yellow or brown.
Brittle or ragged nail edge.
Crumbling nail.
A nail that has lifted away from the nail bed.
DIAGNOSIS
This condition is diagnosed with a physical exam. Your health care provider may take a scraping or
clipping from your nail to test for the fungus.
TREATMENT
Mild infections do not need treatment. If you have significant nail changes, treatment may include:
Antifungal nail polish and nail cream. These may be used along with oral antifungal medicines.
Oral antifungal medicines. You may need to take the medicine for several weeks to several months
and results may take longer to see. These medicines can cause side effects. Ask your health care
provider what to watch out for.
Laser treatment of the nail.

Surgery to remove the nail. This may be needed for the most severe infections.
Treatment takes a long time and the infection may come back.
HOME CARE INSTRUCTIONS
Medicines
Take or apply over–the–counter and prescription medicines only as told by your health care
provider.
Ask your health care provider about using the over–the–counter medicine Vicks VapoRub on your
nails.

Forest Of Hands And Teeth Analysis
In the Forest of Hands and Teeth by Carrie Ryan, one the biggest topics in the story is zombies.
Recently scientists have found a fungus called Ophiocordyceps unilateralis, or more famously called
as "Zombie ant fungus". After killing its host, the zombie ant fungus grows from the ant's body and
produces spores, which rain down on the forest floor to infect new hosts.The zombie ant fungi is
named for its ability to control the behavior of its host in this case. All of the characters of The
Forest of Hands and Teeth all the characters would be shocked because. Something so little as a
fungi spore could infect and kind control humans (or ants) would blow their minds. Though it would
be kind of hard to know what the characters from the story would think and feel, I feel that they
would be kind of scared of the fungi or shocked. Not only could you be infected from zombies but
something so simple as a certain type of fungi? I think it would be harder for the fungus to infect
people and turn them into zombies, so I would think Travis and Mary would be smart and know that
the fungus would be harder to catch and turn.
Could rabies genetically mutate to become the end of the human race? When a person is exposed to
rabies, could drive the host mad. Is this zombie ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Zombie movies has been being done for many years and it's glorified this day in age. For example
The Walking dead is a spectacular show but I think my character to the story would think "why do
we like zombies so much, these things killed the people we love?." So I think Travis and Mary
would look at us in disgust when we're watching zombie stuff. They also could really like the
zombie craze here. If anybody Travis loves killing zombies and if you could watch movies about
other people killing zombies. Also if he could play zombie killing games I think he'd flip in joy if he
could have seen these

Harriet Burge's Model
For decades, experts have investigate the role of mycotoxins and how they related to people
suffering negative health effects after occupying a water–damaged building. In 1966, the early years
of this investigation, Harriet Burge, a renowned industry leader in fungal contamination, gave a risk
assessment to review the indoor contaminations of mold. What did they incorporate?
Burge's model examined both the allergic and poisonous characteristics related to mold. During the
study of mycotoxins, Burge's model showed that the majority of mold growth has not developed
extensively enough to produce harmful health effects. In the years that followed, many experts
challenged that assessment on numerous fronts.
The recent anecdotal, medical and analytical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nevertheless, despite an almost obvious connection, most researchers believe that occupants who
spend time in water–damaged environments would encounter the poison in too small of an amount
to cause symptoms. We do not have research to suggest that anyone has ever been exposed to
enough mycotoxin to experience the symptoms.
Dave Gallup, chairperson at EMLab, conducted a study where he created a formula to look at the
dose needed to cause health effect. In it, he calculated that a person would to live in a hugely water–
damaged structure for more than 1,000 days before they might reach a level that may cause health
issues.
Despite the fact that these scientific calculations made sense and other researchers had made similar
evaluations, there were still occupants left sickened by water–damaged buildings. Nevertheless, as
they studied the concepts from the allied fields more closely, they created a better model. This deal
with total body burden, which had been developed for dust exposure, but it could be used for
mycotoxins,

How Does Voc's Affect Plant Communication?
Human observers of nature are familiar with the communication among animal species. For
example, a bird's call may alert others to a predator, or a wolf's howl–bark may help coordinate a
hunt (Wolf Talk, 2015). Less obvious, however, is the wondrous ways in which other creatures–
fungi and plants– communicate and share resources. These interactions may be symbiotic and thus
mutually beneficial.
Plant communication can occur through the release and reception of airborne volatile organic
compounds (VOC's) (Ueda, Kikuta, Matsuda, 2012). These VOC's are released during
photosynthesis. The plant releases metabolites other than glucose, including what gives the plant
color, taste, and smell (Kegge, Wouter, Gankema, Paulien, Pierik, Ronald, 2013). The VOC's not
only determine the plant's smell, but also are used to attract pollinators and communicate with other
plants. This also allows enemies to locate the place of battle by "eavesdropping" on VOC's.
Different blends and types of VOC's emit different messages (Ueda et al., 2012). The most common
VOC's are terpenoids and green leaf volatiles (Kegge et al., 2013). VOC's are also used in
communication within one plant, for example to coordinate branches. In contrast, some VOC's,
rather than warning plants of danger and recommendations to adjusting their defense systems, can
function as herbicides and harm other plants (Arimura, Shiojiri, Karban, 2010).
Plants not only communicate through chemicals also can transfer carbon and

Cunninghamella Elegans
C. Resistance of Cunnighamella elegans to different concentrations of studied metals:–
In the present work, low concentrations of manganese could stimulate the Cunninghamella elegans
growth. Interestingly, increase the manganese concentration to 30 ppm was optimum for the fungus
to give the highest growth rate and the best sporulation comparing with control and other manganese
concentrations (Fig. 35). Increasing the manganese concentration to 50 ppm recorded the same
growth as control and then this rate suddenly decreased with 100 ppm manganese. The fungus
completely killed with 300 ppm manganese and above (Table 33, Fig. 34). There is no appreciable
difference in growth of Cunninghamella elegans with increasing concentration (1 ppm–100 ppm) of
copper and markedly decreased with increasing metal concentration (300 ppm–1000 ppm). Souza et
al., (2005), revealed the physiological aspects of the growth of C. elegans in the presence of copper,
whereas C. elegans is able to grow in copper containing medium and that the metal has a stimulatory
effect on biomass production. Therefore, the fungal growth in control media was slower than in the
presence of copper. In the present study, we confirmed the previous results but with a limited
amount of copper in the culture media (1 ppm– 50 ppm) while the growth inhibited with high
concentrations (100 ppm to 1000 ppm) and going slower than control. Luciana et al., (2004) stated
that chitosan was the polysaccharides with the best capacity for copper biosorption (75 %). ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
39). This fungus adapted well with all zinc concentrations, despite that the growth less than control
but this rate was almost stable in different zinc concentrations (Table 35, Fig. 39). The fungus
sporulation increased gradually with increasing zinc concentrations in the culture media and higher
than that of control culture (Figs. 40,

Essay On Photosynthification
Endophytic fungus morphology and molecularly identification
This study aimed to isolate prospective beneficial endophytic fungi from its host extreme hot desert
plant and investigate their potential roles in heat stress tolerance under field conditions.
A thermophilic fungus was isolated from the roots of an extreme hot desert–plant delile cullen
pilicata, Aswan governorate, Egypt. The climatic environments in this region ranged between
moderately cold dry winter to very hot dry summer (Abdelrahman et al., 2016). The isolate fungus
was identified by the morphology of the fungal culture, including colony and medium color, colony
characters, spore characters, mycelium characters, and fruiting structure. The text (book) used for ...
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Phenological traits of Cullen pilicata in response to endophytic fungus inoculation:
Comparing the control and treated groups of Cullen pilicata in terms of phonological traits showed
significantly differences could be attributed to the presence of endophytic fungus. The impacts of
endophyte inoculation were seen significantly difference on, soil water content, leaves number,
fruits number, fruits weight, root length, and root fresh and dry weight. The most potential functions
of endophytic fungi are the facilitation of plant nutrient uptake which causes root growth stimulation
(Devendra & Ajit 2016). The plants are capable of adapting their roots developmentaly and
moleculary to cope with abiotic stress (Koevoets et al., 2016). In the context Fig.8. showed the
effect of the endophytic fungus on the root length of our studied plant where it is signiﬁcantly higher
(P≤ 0.006) in E+ group than E– group respectively (50 ± 0.8 and 26.6 ± 2.3 cm/plant) (Fig.2.).
Fungal Endophytes may promote plant water use efficiency under low water availability, where the
inoculated plants reduce transpiration rates to ensure conservation of soil moisture (West 1994;
Morse et al. 2002). Fig.3. showed the soil water content (S.W.C) of the E+ group was highly
significant (P≤ 0.008), than the non–inoculated group (2.7 ± 2.6 and 0.6 ± 0.9), similarly findings
with root fresh and dry weight (P≤ 0.009, P≤0.01

Dendroctonus Ponderosae
In the pacific northwest, there exists an insect the size of an apple seed. It feeds on the phloem of
trees, leaving them mutilated, their bark eviscerated and leaking sawdust. Victims of choice include
lodgepoles, western white pines, and ponderosa, but any gymnosperm will do. For the mountain
pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, the invasion means reproductive success. For the tree, it
means slow death.
Though the beetle chooses the victim, it is the fungus it carries, Grosmannia clavigera, that delivers
the fatal blow (Safranyik and Carroll 2006). Working in tandem with the insect, the fungus spreads
across the surface of the trunk, dismantling all defenses. So refined is this relationship that the
beetles store the fungus in specialized containers. Sap, which trees use to wash out offending
beetles, crystallizes, forming a "pitch cap" characteristic of infected trees. Cut off from nutrients, the
host begins to wither away. It can be a slow process, with some trees standing, in limbo, for up to a
decade. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ponderosae looks much like other members of Coleoptera. Its eggs are deposited in the inner bark of
trees, incubating for an average of two weeks. It undergoes four stages of metamorphosis, meaning
its larval form dissolves into itself and, while still incased, begins to sprout wings, with the fully–
developed adult emerging only to mate and feed. Hardened wing plates known as elytra help
distinguish adults from other insects, and an appetite for wood helps distinguish the 600 species of
bark beetle from other beetles. Unlike many tree invaders, however, which preferentially target the
weak and diseased, D. ponderosae increasingly besieges healthy

Mold Research Paper
''Mold is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. In contrast, fungi
that can adopt a single celled growth habit are called yeasts.''
Mold is not an animal or plant, but it is alive. Mold is a living organism and is a type of fungus.
Mold can grow on any food besides bread; this makes it unable to eat. The fungus can grow on
ceilings, walls, and the floors of your house, also can be found outside of your home. Mold grows
from seeking through food, moisture, and warmth. The climate of where you live can affect the
mold growth in your home. The fungi can thrive and can reproduce into damp or wet places in or at
your house. Mold would usually grow from the temperatures forty–a hundred degrees Fahrenheit.
Mold has about 300,000 species, and every house or place has mold. There may be even more
species than that, but not all of them have been identified so we are not sure. The fungus's best place
to grow is in a warm climate. The fungus is most likely to start growing in warm or damp spots, and
humid conditions. Fungi can keep growing when it starts to reproduce; this is done when it makes
spores. The spores can survive in the harsh environments, such as dry conditions, but in places that
do not support normal mold growth. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not only is it found on surfaces, but it is also in the air. A little bit of mold spores in the air is not
bad for you, but it could cause problems if there is a lot. If you find mold in homes, buildings, or
other structures, it is usually due to having a lot of moisture in the air. Water leaks, plumbing
problems, and leaky pipes are usually a big risk of mold

Avian Aspergillosis
Avian Aspergillosis
The subfamily Aspergillus has a wide range of fungi which can cause Avian Aspergillosis.
Aspergillus Fumigatus is the most commonly diagnosed species of the fungus, others include flavus
and niger. Aspergillus Fumigatus tends to thrive in moist and warm environments. Endotoxins are
released through the dispersal of microscopic spores, which usually become airborne. This enables
the disease to travel from one location to another and then proceed to grow, which creates areas that
are more highly populated compared to others. In small minorities the fungus is less likely to have
adverse consequences. Some factors concerning the environment that can increase the chances of a
bird inhaling spores are poor ventilation and sanitation, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Acute Avian Aspergillus can create a loss of appetite and can cause severe difficulty when breathing.
This can be seen by the bird showing signs of accelerated breathing, gasping and voice changes. An
infected bird might also have abnormal excretion, a strong thirst with excessive urination or show
signs of emaciation and central nervous system damage. This severe damage will be evident in an
obvious lack of muscular coordination and mobility; the bird might also hold its head at an unnatural
angles. Central nervous system damage will only occur if the fungal infection reaches the brain. The
most common signs of Avian Aspergillosis are drooped wings and rapid opening and closing of the
bird's bill. The fungus usually affects the respiratory region including the trachea, lungs and syrinx;
the infection can however spread to the kidneys, brain, skin, and muscles. Since Aspergillus can be
fatal, a lot of birds are diagnosed post–mortem. The signs from an autopsy can include brain tissue
death or meningoencephalitis; white nodules can also be evident. These small growths are evidently
what cause erosion through the tissue, enabling a vast amount of conidia to enter the

Taking a Look at Zombie Ants
The stereotypical "Zombie Ant" , most typically found in a rain forest and or farm climate, are not
the flesh tearing type of zombie you most likely had in mind, instead, fungal–spreading mind
controlled ants, taken over by a fungal parasite. And these ants, are far from usual. There is a
cycling, almost endless process, repeated in three stages. The process and fungus is called
Ophiocordyceps Unilateralis. During the first faze, the fungal parasite picked up by the target ant,
enters the ant's brain, by latching on to the skin, literally tearing its way through its cuticle, and
separating all inside muscle tissue. The fungus is picked up from the forest floor, in particles
dropped by another infected ant. This powerful overtaking fungus is known as. After the fungus has
entered the body, it starts to travel up into the head of the infected ant.
After the parasite has entered the brain, the "zombification" stage of the fungus inside the ant causes
the fungus to grow in the head and take over the mind, where the ant now goes through an
uncontrollable, helpless faze, where the fungus is present in the head, and now in charge of the ant's
mind. In full control of the ant's body, the fungus can now direct the ant away from it's natural daily
routine, and cause it to roam around the forest hoplessly. The reason being for the fungus to target
and take over these ants in the first place is to create a sort of mass production of the fungul parasitic
ants, taking over the forest,

Infections of the American Chestnut Tree Essay
Cryphonectria parasitica, a filamentous, ascomycete fungus, is the causal agent of the chestnut
blight5,14 which was introduced to North America from Japan circa 190412,14.The chestnut blight
infects all members of the Castanea family14, and some members of the genus Quercus though C.
parasitica infections are superficial14. A C. parasitica infection typically begins at a branch node or
wound in the tree's bark 14. Once a spore has entered the tree, hyphal growth begins14. When the
fungi's hyphae reach the cambium, the xylem and phloem are blocked, cutting off the transport of
water and nutrients and a sunken canker is formed14. Eventually, the lack of water and nutrients
kills the tree above the point of infection14. As a fungus, C. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
One excellent use for blight–resistant American chestnuts is reclaiming surface mines. Though other
species of trees can survive in the harsh conditions typical of surface mines, they have little to no
value as lumber and provide little for wildlife4. Chestnuts would also provide a fast growing lumber
source, one that is lightweight, strong, and moderately rot–resistant. Additionally, the large nut crops
produced by the American chestnut would increase the ecosystems carrying capacity for wildlife,
and moderate population fluctuations that follow mast (nut crop) fluctuations. For these and other
reasons which space here does not permit, restoring the American chestnut is worthwhile endeavor.
Although C. dentata is not resistant to an infection by the blight fungus, it is not entirely defenseless.
One attempt at warding off C. parasitica is the growth of callus encircling the fungi's mycelium to
prevent its spread (cite). This may or may not work, in either case the fungi will spread to another
site on the tree via sporulation. A second barrier to blight infection is the chestnut's relatively high
levels of tannic acid(s) in the cambium (cite). However, as will be discussed later, tannic acids may
benefit the blight. The most promising method for increasing C. denata's blight resistance is The
American Chestnut Foundation's breeding program. To give the chestnut the advantage in its battle
with its evolutionary foe, it is necessary to study the factors that make C.

The Causal Fungus Of Guava Scabby In El Beheira Governorate
Characterization and Control of Pestalotiopsis sp the Causal Fungus of Guava Scabby Canker in
EL–Beheira Governorate, Egypt.
ABSTRACT
During 2013–2014 growing seasons, forty three isolates of Pestalotiopsis spp were recovered from
guava leaves and fruits showed scab symptoms from different regions in EL–Beheira governorate.
Five Pestalotiopsis species were recognized according to the morphological characteristics of fungal
colony (Colony color, Size and number of acervulii) and conidia (Length, Width, and Color of
median cells, Length and the number of apical and basal appendages); they were P. psidii, P.
microspora, P. clavispora, P. neglecta and Pestalotiosis sp. All the isolates recovered were
pathogenic to the cv. Balady of guava fruits. However, P.psidii isolates were the most highly
pathogenic followed by P. neglecta, P. clavispora, P. microspora and Pestalotiopsis sp, respectively.
RAPD–PCR analysis using five random oligonucleotide primers revealed DNA fingerprints and
considerable variations were revealed with primers tested. Bar marker showed a common band for
all Pestalotiopsis isolates and species at 500bp, while BAQ, 18 and A9B4 exhibited banding pattern
similar for all isolates of the same species which were different from that of the other species. Scab
disease control of infected fruits by chitosan as s natural product was tested. The in vitro 2.5%
chitosan application significantly inhibited the growth of Pestalotiopsis spp tested by 86.53% on
agar plates.

Fungus Essay
Fungus
The Latin word for mushroom is fungus (plural, fungi). The word fungus has come to stand for a
whole group of simple plants that contain no chlorophyll and lack such complex plant structures as
roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. Included among the fungi, along with mushrooms, are molds,
mildews, rusts, smuts, truffles, and yeasts. Toadstool is another name for mushroom. Some people
use the name toadstool only when referring to poisonous mushrooms, but botanists make no such
distinction. A general scientific term for fungi is mycota, from the Greek word for mushroom,
mykes, and the study of these organisms is called mycology.
Because they lack chlorophyll, fungi are unable to manufacture food out of the raw materials around
them ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only a small portion of those that live on land is normally visible. Most of the fungus, a complex
network of hyphae, grows underground, near the surface. The visible parts of fungi vary greatly in
size. Some are so tiny that they cannot be seen without the aid of magnification. Others are quite
large. Some mushrooms reach diameters of 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 centimeters) and heights of 10
to 12 inches (25 to 30 centimeters). Bracket fungi that are 15 inches (38 centimeters) in diameter are
fairly common; and mushrooms called puffballs have been known to grow to 60 inches (152
centimeters) in diameter.
Although fungi are distributed worldwide, the distribution of a specific species is limited by
temperature and moisture conditions of an area coupled with the available food supply. The best
temperature for most fungi to thrive is from 68° to 86°F (20° to 30°C). Some types of fungi,
however, do perfectly well at tem– peratures as high as 120°F (48°C), while a fairly large number of
them do well at freezing temperatures, 32°F (0°C) or below.
The reproduction of fungi can be either sexual or asexual. Sexual reproduction, as with other
organisms, involves the fusion of two nuclei when two sex cells unite. This joining produces spores
that can grow into new organisms. Asexual reproduction is by fragmentation, cell division, or
budding. The simplest process is direct fragmentation, or breaking up, of the fungus body, the
thallus. Each of the

Oryzae Pathogens
Known more commonly as the pathogenic fungus causing rice blast, M. oryzae was formerly known
as Magnaporthe grisae. M. oryzae is the formal name given to isolates associated with rice blast.
(Couch and Kohn 2002). Couch and Kohn discovered a difference of several base pairs in three loci
between M. grisae and M. oryzae. Couch and Kohn also found the two species were incapable of
interbreeding in the laboratory.
M. oryzae is an ascomycete belonging to a relatively new family, the Magnaporthaceae, which also
includes pathogens of other cereals. Only the anamorphic1 state has been found in rice fields, but
the teleomorph2 can be produced in culture with a pair of isolates having opposing mating types.
The fungus most often presents as diamond–shaped lesions on leaves but is also found on stems,
peduncles, panicles, seeds, and has even been detected on roots (TeBeest et al 2007). These
diamond–shaped lesions appear with a white to gray center and brown to reddish brown borders
(2016). Retrieved from http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r682100611.html. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Perithecia are normally globose to subglobose and brown to black with a glabrous surface. Each
unitunicate3 ascus holds eight ascospores with the apical ring present. Ascospores are hyaline and
fusiform, taper at both ends with three septa, and contain haploid nuclei. The mycelium of M.
oryzae is septate with haploid nuclei (Luo and Zhang 2013, TeBeest et al

Isolation And Identification Of Seed Borne Fungi
Isolation and identification of Seed–Borne Fungi in Green gram Seeds A.J.Deshmukh1,
A.N.Sabalpara2, V.A. Patil3 and V.P. Prajapati4
1 & 4 Asst. Professor, College of Agriculture, NAU, Waghai
2. Director of Research & Dean PG Studies, NAU, Navsari
3 Asst. Research Scientist, NARP, NAU, Navsari
Email:amol_deshmukhnau@yahoo.co.in
Abstract An experiment was undertaken to isolate and identify the seed borne fungi of Green gram.
Seed samples of three Green gram varieties were collected from Pulse research station, NAU,
Navsari. PDA plating method was employed for the isolation of the fungi and cultural, microscopic
study was adopted for the identification. Altogether nine fungi were found in association Viz., M.
phaseolina, A. alternata, C. capsici, N. sphaerica, Chaetomium sp., Aspergillus sp., R. oryzae, sterile
aseptate and sterile septate fungus with all the three variety seed lots.
Keywords : Seed–Borne Fungi, Green gram, cultural, morphological study
Introduction
Green gram (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek) is one of the most important pulse crop of the arid and
semiarid tropics (Chen et al., 1987). It is an excellent source of easily digestible protein. Several
factors are responsible for low production of Green gram. Among them, diseases play an important
role (Nene, 1980; Pal, 1996). Many fungal pathogens, some of which are seed transmitted, often
reduce the germination ability or kill the infected plants or substantially reduce the productive
capacity. However,

Copper Release Essay
METHODS AND APPROACH
A. Research Objective #1: Determine the Rate and Amount of Copper Release from Treated Wood
by Fungal Exposure to Four Copper Tolerant Brown–Rot Fungi
Introduction. In this objective, rate and amount of copper release will be measured while fungus is
growing on copper–based treatments. The working hypothesis is that the selected four brown–rot
fungi (Postia placenta, Serpula lacrymans, Gloeophyllum trabeum, Fibroporia radiculosa) have
different copper removal degrees in ACQ and CCA treated wood. I will test my working hypothesis
by using the experimental approach of measurement of copper release. Fungus growth will be
conducted on ACQ and CCA treatments, and percentage of copper release will be analyzed by
Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP). The rationale underlying this objective is that without the
analysis of copper release from treated wood, it is highly unlikely ... Show more content on
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For this, copper will be determined at the beginning of the study in treated samples which will be
reserved for ICP analysis. The samples which are exposed to fungus will be analyzed to determine
the percentage copper release after extraction. These exposed samples will be microwave–digested
depending on the AWPA standard A7 method (AWPA 2012b). For extraction, the samples (around
1g) will be weighed into a microwave digestion tube and nitric acid will be added on to that.
Digestion tubes will be sealed into digestion vessels and placed into a microwave oven for a pre–
programmed digestion sequence. After the digestion was complete, each vessel will be
quantitatively brought up to 100 ml volume with DI–water. The digested samples will be analyzed
using a Perkin Elmer Optima 2100 DV Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer (ICP)–OES to
determine percentage Cu release after bioremediation. The percent reduction of Cu in the treated
ground wood will be calculated based on the initial amount of Cu in the ground wood before

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Tinospora Pacidia
INTRODUCTION
Tinospora crispa, an herbaceous climber from the family Menispermaceae that commonly grows
wild in Asian countries including Malaysia. This indigenous climber plant known by various local
names like patawali, akar seruntun or akar patawali. Traditionally people used patawali to reduce
hypertension and glucose level in the blood, to treat fever, remedy for various ailments such as
cough, asthma, tooth and stomach aches. The medicinal potential values of Tinospora crispa have
been reported and approved by scientific studies. Besides its medicinal values, Tinospora crispa also
has insecticidal property towards Macrotermes gilvus.
Cercospora was a form genus of imperfect fungi with long slender spores that cause plant diseases,
and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Potential for damage is often more obvious where levels of humidity and rainfall are high. High
levels of disease can result from just a few infected plants since each spot produces numerous
conidia or spores. The spores can be dispersal by windborne and may also be spread by splashing
rain, irrigation water, insects, and human contact. This disease could be a potential thread in other
new areas with similar agro–ecology especially on Dioscoreophyllum, Rhigiocarya, Tinospora and
Menispermaceae crops.
MANAGEMENT, PREVENTION AND CONTROL
This disease can be managed by avoid overhead irrigation if it will result in prolonged leaf wetness
periods. Proper cutting and reduction of plant leaves reduce water drop on leaf surface especially by
dew and excess rain water.
Proper observance of planting distance allows sufficient sun light, air circulation and avoids disease
to move from one planting into next. Removal and proper disposal of infected plant leaves need to
be taken in order to avoid and controlling the spread of this disease. Where required to burn the
infected plant tissues when

Powdery Mildew Research Paper
Powdery mildew is cause by a biotrophic, obligate fungus Uncinula necator now known as Erysiphe
necator (Schw.) Burr (Sall, M. A. 1980). It is the most devastating and widespread disease of
grapevine in the world and causes the significant loss to grape yield and quality (Gadoury et al.
2012). This is the major grape vine disease causing significant yield reduction each year in
California, which is the top grape producing state in the United States (Gubler et al. 1999). This
disease infect all the commercially grown grape species, but the susceptibility differs with cultivars.
This disease first produces a chlorotic spot on the upper surface of leaf and the chorotic spot
produces whitish–gray powdery fungal growth on the upper surface of the leaf and other infected
plant parts. The white webby mycelium also produced on subsequent lower surface. This pathogen
affects all the green tissue such as leaf, branch, and fruits. The young fruits ... Show more content on
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Ascospores can be produced with the help of 0.1 inch of rainfall and temperature of about 500 F.
Ascospores are dispersed with the help of wind and primary infection takes place on the host.
Secondary infection occurs through conidia, which are produced on infected plant parts (lesion) and
dusty powdery growth appears on the surface with whitish mycelial growth. Conidia cause the
secondary infection throughout the growing season. Infection can takes place in the temperatures
from 590 F to 900 F, but the temperature from 680 to 770 F are optimum temperature for infection.
Fungus can overwinter as mycelia inside the dormant bud, which produced disease shoot after
breading bud. High relative humidity is conducive for conidia production, but rainfall is not good
for infection that reduces the infection by this pathogen (Carrol et al.

The Pollution Of Anti Pollum : The Dangers Of Plastics
Pollution is one of the world's leading problems. One contributing pollutant is plastic. One such
pollutant is plastic; which contributes to 40% of the oceans surfaces being contaminated, and makes
up 10% of the overall waste produced by humans (D'Alessandro). This problem of accumulating
plastic waste gradually increases with time as all plastic that has ever been produced is still around
in one way or another; for plastic takes between 450–1000 year to decompose ( Roth). Thankfully
the solution is a fungus. The process that should be used to break down plastic in mass quantities is
fungi mutarium. Fungi mutarium is a safe and efficient way to break down plastic. Harnessing the
rare fungus Pestalotiopsis Microspora, Austrian designer Katharina Unger developed a way for the
fungus to latch onto plastic to break it down. Within a few months, that mushroom is able to break
up the complex polymers that make up plastic (Lorch). This method is exceptionally faster, in
contrast to the centuries it would take to normally biodegrade a piece of plastic. A base is used to
cultivate the fungus, that base is agar. Agar is a seaweed–based gelatin that is natural and abundant.
Agar is safe to use and acts as a cultivation base for the fungus. Plastic is a challenging solid to
break down. Humans have only begun to produce this man made product within the past 70 years
(Design). Organisms today haven't yet to evolve the necessary biochemical functions to attach itself
onto plastic.

Ergot Fungus In The Crucible
Things like curry powder, allspice, and ground pepper are allowed to have up to four rodent hairs
per hundred grams. Unknowingly, or willingly, people put some of the worst things in their mouths.
Just like, in Arthur Miller's book , The Crucible ,people in Salem would put fungus, unknowingly,
into their food without knowing what it could do to them or if there was a cure for it. The only
explanation for the girls action in the Salem Witch Trials is fungus because the townspeople act
strangely,the cold weather causes fungus growth, and the ergot rye fungus was used in the process of
making dough.
When people say that fungus is the reason for the girl's actions, they are not being specific. There
are millions of food fungus' in the world, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Natalie Wolchover agrees saying that Salem "fell within an extreme cold spell that lasted from 1680
[to] 1730,"and that, that was considered "one of the chillest segments of the little ice age" (
Wolchover, "Did Cold Weather Cause the Salem Witch Trials"). The little ice age was a long period
of time where it was freezing cold,and food supply was ruined, as Emily Oster explains " the 'little
ice age' caused economic deterioration and food shortages"(Saxton, "What Caused The Salem Witch
Trials"). With the food dieing and not being able to produce more, it is likely that they use any food
they could scrounge up not caring whether or not it could harm them, or if it was healthy for

The Importance Of Mutualism Between Animal And Animal Species
It is a kind of positive interspecific interaction in which members of two different species favor the
growth and survival of each other and their association is obligatory.
Species A = (+)
Species B = (+)
In this interaction, the members have widely different requirements and so interdependent that they
cannot survive separately. It is an extreme type of symbiosis in which symbionts have permanent
and obligatory close contacts.
1.Mutualism between animal and animal species
Cleveland (1926) reported the presence of a multi flagellate protozoan – Trichonympha Campanula
as a symbiont in the intestine of white ant – termite.
The ant provides food and shelter to the protozoan which in turn secretes cellulase enzymes to digest
the cellulose of wood ingested by the ant. Cellulose is hydrolyzed to sugars which are used by both
the partners.
When the gut lining of Termite is ready for molting, Trichonympha undergoes encystment and are
passed out with molting.
To ensure infection, the ant eats its molt. Newly hatched termites lick the anus of the older termites
to ingest the symbiont.
About 11 families and 40 genera of flagellates have been reported from the intestine of termites.
Ant–aphid mutualism
Some kinds of ants pick up aphids or the aphids eggs from the surface of green plants and shelter
them inside their own nest. The ants use the digestive wastes of the aphids as their food while aphids
in return get nourishment from the rootlets of the plants ramifying through

C Gattii Research Paper
There is a risk of C. gattii in tropical areas and the Pacific Northwest. There are many factors that
contribute to this risk. How it is transmitted, environmental causes, locations of infection, and
prevention. It is important to understand the risk before traveling so you don't become infected. To
learn more about this risk we will look at areas in which the fungi exists, who's susceptible, and how
to keep from getting sick. Cryptococcus gattii is a fungus that lives in the soil associated with certain
trees and causes the infection C. gattii Cryptococcus's. In mild climates, the fungus survives in soil
and grows in tree bark. Douglas–firs carry the fungus. The fungus occurs in the top 15cm of the soil,
on trees, wood chips, mulch, and other natural "reservoirs." Fungus spores are aerosolized through
soil disturbance. (https://www.emlab.com/s/sampling/env–report–03–2012.html) The microscopic
fungus C. gattii can infect people after breathing it in from the environment. Cryptococcus's affects
the lungs or the central nervous system; mainly the brain and spinal cord. When the brain is infected
they call it cryptococcal meningitis. Both humans and animals can become infected after inhaling
airborne, dried yeast cells or spores from the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
gattii if they are in an area where the fungus is present in the environment. In New Zealand and
Australia healthy males and people of Australian aborigine ethnicity. In British Columbia, Canada
the disease is more likely to happen in people who have weakened immune systems by HIV/Aids,
cancer treatment, medications that weaken the immune system, have other lung conditions, are 50
years of age or older, or smoke tobacco. Scientists are learning why the fungus appears to affect
people in different areas of the world differently. There is no way to 100% prevent this infection and
most people breath in small amounts of this fungus everyday but never become

Fungus Research Paper
Fungus – Scientific name: Fungi
This forum discussion will be focusing on Mycelium and how it may be used in the
construction/building industry. Mycelium are large groups of hyphae, hyphae are the branching
filaments or clusters of single cells in a fungus that grow in a web like structure and is the main
vegetation part of the fungus. A hyphae is formed when a single female and male fungi fuse and the
spore germinates. The fruity or flowering part of the fungus is a mushroom. Fungus is a decomposer
and absorbs nutrients from the breakdown of the decomposed material by using its mycelium in a 2
stage process. The mycelium lives inside of decaying wood/logs, soil etc. The hyphae projects
enzymes into the decaying wood which works to break down the larger molecular structures or
polymers into smaller single molecule or monomers which the mycelium can easily absorb by
facilitated diffusion and active transport. The mycelium continues to spread searching for water and
food sources, when the food source, or a change in the environment changes like temperature drops
or humidity rises, the mycelium will be triggered to produce another mushroom, and they cycle
starts all over again with the mushroom producing more spores and releasing them with force in the
surrounding area.
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some scientist believe that due to the healing powers of mycelium and its ability to detox the earth
by breaking down the toxins and returning them into clean rich soil that they could possibly rid the
world of pollution. Some of the things they could do to rid the world of pollution is: clean up oil
spills, radiation spills, filter polluted water like rivers and streams, be used to develop new
antibiotics/medicines, speed up the reforestation by putting nutrients back into the soil, farmers
could use mycelium to ward off pests instead of

Whistling Tree Frog Research Paper
There is a deadly fungus called Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd for short, that has been wiping
out populations of frogs all across the world. Bd has caused dozens of extensions over the past four
decades and leaving behind very few survivors. Also in the 1980s the frogs faced a similar problem
with this chyrid fungus that wiped out four frog species. However, there are two frogs, the whistling
tree frogs and the alpine tree frog, that are doing better than scientists predicted.
The whistling tree frog does not have as many infected or dead frogs as scientists expected.
Researchers theorized that the frog has evolved slightly or those who were infected as juveniles
survived and became immune. Their habitat is also play a role in their

Superkingdom: Ascomycota?
Classification
Superkingdom: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Sordariomycetes Order: Hypocreales
Genus: Fusarium
Fusarium oxysporum
It is a anomorphic species,include both pathogenic and nonpathogenic strain
it is a chemoorganoheterotroph, meaning that it obtains its energy from chemicals (chemotroph),
uses organic substrates like lactate and acetate as electron donors (organotroph), and obtains it's
carbon from organic sources (heterotroph).
It is a saprophyte, or a heterotroph that can obtain nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing
organic matter).
Appearance mycelium is initially white but later becomes purple, They can also be hyaline (glass–
like, transparent), dark blue, or dark purple. F. oxysporum ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
oxysporum appears to be cosmopolitan .
Distribution maps show that this fungus has invaded North and South America, Europe, Africa,
Asia, and Oceania.
A ubiquitous soil fungus, the optimum soil temperature for root infection is 30°C or above but
infection through the seed can occur at temperatures as low as 14°C, although it grow optimally at
28°C .
It is pathogenic to humans,so the human body is a secondary habitat.
Map pic
Ecology and Pathogenesis
Fusarium oxysporum has many Formae speciales that exist as plant pathogens, which are
differentiated by host range, causing storage, root, stem, and fruit rot, as well as vascular wilt.they
are also important mycotoxin (toxic metabolite) producers. These various special forms infect
certain crops:
F. oxysporum f.sp. cubense – Banana wilt
F. oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum – wilt of cotton
F. oxysporum f.sp. batatas – wilt of sweet potatoes and stem rot
F. oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici – tomato wilt
F. oxysporum f.sp. asparagi – asparagus wilt

F. oxysporum f.sp. melonis – muskmelon and cantaloupe wilt
F. oxysporum f.sp. zingiberi – ginger

The Growth Of Eco Friendly And Reliable Methods For Our...
Introduction
During the course of human history, fungi has always been used as food and exploited to preserve
and ferment beverages and foods. By the twentieth century, we had learned to protect human health
by harnessing fung (immunosuppressive agents, anti–cholesterol statins and antibiotics), while
industries made us of fungi to support large scale production of acids, biosurfactants and enzymes.
In the 1980's, with the dawn of fresh nanotechnology, fungi had remained important by being able to
synthesize nanoparticles.
Nanoparticles or nanomaterials are materials including particles or constituents that are of nanoscale
proportions, or something that has been produced via nanotechnology. Biologically hazardous or
environmentally toxic reducing agents are normally associated in the nanoparticles chemical
synthesis. Today, the growth of eco–friendly and reliable methods for the production of
nanomaterials is a vital facet of nanotechnology. One such approach that has shown potential
beyond measure is centred on the use of biological micro–organisms, such as fungi for the
biosynthesis of these nanoparticles.
Fungi can invariably be used for the synthesizing of metallic nanoparticles from their salt, since
fungi contain enzymes and proteins as reducing agents. Should be cautious while handling them
during experiments, as some fungi are disease causing. Fungal biomass generally grows quicker
than that of bacteria in consistent conditions. While production of metal

Fun Guy Monologue
I will infect you huuummanns! Oh hello I am Fun–Guy I'm a Fungi I can cause many pains to your
body and also give you sickness. I like to infect places that are wet. The immune system will try to
attack me but usually fails. Suckers you can't attack me. Ha! Now its time to infect. I am going to try
and cause a unlucky person athletes foot. Now that I am giving them a rash they are going to notice
me and call a doctor for some anti–fungal meds. Boy I sure do hate that stuff. As the person who is
named John goes to the doctor I hear the doctor say" thats a pretty nasty fungus son." Yes, I the
fungus have finally made someone have "the nasties." Oh no, this is the time I should spread, Dr.
Dreadful is giving John anti–fungal medication. I have a plan. As he is thinking out loud the
unsuspected pinky toe is listening. Once Fun–Guy finishes his evil plan Pinky Toe tells the doctors
Pinky Toe that Fun–Guy's plan is to jump on Dr. Dreadful when he gives John the meds. Dr.
Dreadful has to wait for the anti–fungal meds to arrive and he sends John home. The medicine has
finally ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fun–Guy was inhaled and he was thrown down the esophagus. He had been inhaled into Dewey's
lungs. This was great news for Fun–Guy because he had gotten into a human. After a few days Fun–
Guy had caused serious problems to Dewey's chest. He heard Dewey shouting "dad this burn hurts
so bad and this rash is killing me." Now Fun–Guy knew that he had done his job and caused pain to
innocent humans, but he was satisfied because he had done his job. Now all he had to do was wait
for Dewey to cough and he would be inhaled again. Now that Fun–Guy's job was done he was able
to start exploring the area he was in. He saw that it was very dark and musty. He reached around his
moldy pockets and found a small flashlight. When he turned it on he saw that he was in an area of
plain pink. The area he was in was a very small and dull area inside of the left

General Biology Lab
Keva Harris
25 February 2016
Biology Lab 27–13 Survey of the Kingdom Fungi
Question 1: a. Are hyphae apparent?
Yes
b. Are the cells motile?
Yes
Question 2: a. How many species of mold are on the bread?
Five
b. Is pigment distribution uniformly in each mycelium? If not, where is the pigment concentrated in
each mold?
No, because the species is not all one color. Concentrated in the sporangium c. What is the adaptive
significance of spores forming on ends of apright filaments rather than closer to the protective
substrate?
It can spread and disperse easier.
Question 3: a. Is what structure is the dark pigment of Rhizopus concentrated? zygosporangium b. Is
Rhizopus reproducing sexually as well as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This happens when the conditions in the environment are good. When in they are in the diploid
stage, they mate, and the genes are combined for unique offsprings. The most adaptive offsprings
are most suited for survival. Therefore, the diploid state allows an adaptive advantage, but not the
haploid. 4. Compare and contrast the structure of a fungal mycelium with the structure of a
filamentous alga.
The biggest difference is that the fungal mycelium does not have the cytoplasm divided up into
individual cells. The cytoplasm is free to move around into all parts of the mycelium. You can
imagine how quickly the mycelium can distribute nutrients within itself. This allows the mycelium
to grow very quickly. Both are filamentous. 5. What is the advantage of maintaining a dikaryotic
condition rather than immediate nuclear fusion?
Some fungi have a dikaryotic (two nuclei in one cell) stage, more commonly known as a
heterokaryotic stage, because the fungus can wait for an opportune time to fuse the nuclei together
and grow. The fungus would not want to grow rapidly in the diploid stage unless it had adequate
food sources. This waiting will allow for maximum efficiency during its growth. 6. In fungi, the
only distinction between a spore and a gamete is function. Explain. In common parlance, the
difference between "spore" and "gamete" (both together called gonites) is that a spore will germinate
and develop into a thallus of

Propagation Methods By Seeds And Vegetative Methods
2.1.5. Propagation Methods Sapota is propagated by seeds and vegetative methods (Rajan and
Markose, 2007). Due to slow growing nature of seedlings vegetative propagation is widely used at
present which include air–layering, budding, grafting and rootstocks. In western India, air–layering
is a popular method, but it takes longer time and also has high mortality rate. Budding is practiced in
coastal regions of India. Most popular method of vegetative propagation in India is grafting which is
done by two methods viz., soft–wood grafting and approach grafting. In grafting, rootstocks play an
important role for rapid multiplication of desirable forms. Due to slow growing nature of seedling to
attain the graftable size, several rootstocks have been used for grafting namely Rayan or Khirni
(Manilkara hexandra), Adam's apple (Madhuca kauki), Mahua (Madhuca latifolia), Mee tree (Bassia
longifolia), star apple (Chrysophyllum cainito) and Miraculus fruit (Sideroxylon dulicifolium).
However, among them, Khirni has been found to be the best suitable one for sapota. 2.1.6.
Flowering and Fruiting From germination, the sapota tree normally takes five to eight years to bear
fruit. Economic yield can be obtained from seventh year onwards. There are two flowering seasons
(October–November and February–March) and two harvesting seasons (January–February and
May–June). The sapota trees generally yield fruits twice a year, though flowering may continue year
round. 2.2. Arbuscular

Cause And Effects Of Invasive Species
Invasive species are organisms that are not native to an ecosystem and cause harm to it. These
organisms are capable of bringing about a great deal of damage to the ecosystems they are foreign
to. This can range from disrupting the growth of the environment it has taken over to completely
decimating other species. The introduction of invasive species to new environments often involves
humans. The way that invasive species are introduced to a new environment varies greatly. Invasive
species may be introduced by something as simple as humans accidentally tracking species into a
new environment from the bottom of their shoes, or something bigger like destroying an ecosystem
to clear the land, forcing the species that lived there to flee to a new ecosystem that can be disrupted
by the presence of a new species.
In most cases, it is difficult to relocate an invasive species, so there must be a different method to
prevent the species from damaging their new ecosystems. By the time the damage is done, it is often
too late to reverse the damage and stop the spread of the invasive species. However, there may be a
way to cease the harm caused by invasive species using genetic modification.
One example of an invasive species is Xenopus laevis, or the African clawed frog. These frogs carry
a fungus called Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Chytrid fungus infects amphibians with
chytridiomycosis by attacking the part of a frog's skin that contains keratin. Frogs use their skin to

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