It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themsel.pdf

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It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themselves in nature when they arise. a) Why would this be the case? b) If autotriploids are in fact highly sterile, how is it possible to maintain varieties like the Keizerskroon tulip and the Baldwin apple, which are known to be autotriploids? c) Describe how autotriploidy could arise in each of the following cases: cross- fertilization, self-fertilization, asexual reproduction. d) In humans, approximately 1% of ALL zygotes produced are autotriploids or autotetraploids, but such ploidy is inviablc (Kajii, T., and N. Niikawa, Cytog. Cell Genet. 18: 109, 1977; Pettenati, M. J., et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 24: 23, 1986). How might autotriploidy arise in such a zygote? Solution a) Autotriploids have a hard time establishing themselves in nature when they arise as they are highly sterile. This is due to disturbed alignment of homologous chromosomes in prophase I followed by altered segregation in anaphase I which in turn leads to uneven distribution of gametes. b) The autotriploid varieties like Keizerskroon tulip and Baldwin apple are maintained by vegetative propagation (clonal propagation) rather than sexual reproduction. c) CROSS FERTILIZATION: Autotriploidy arises by fusion of diploid and haploid gametes during sexual reproduction. The diploid gamete can come from autotetraploid or nondisjunction of chromosomes during anaphase in gametogenesis in a diploid parent. SELF FERTILIZATION: Non disjunction of chromosomes during megasporogenesis produces diploid gametes which then fuses with haploid gamete on self fertilization and give rise to autotriploid. ASXUAL REPRODUCTION: Consecutive DNA replication during S phase followed by arrest of cell division leads to formation of autotriploids during asexual reproduction. d) Fusion of diploid egg with haploid sperms forms autotriploid zygotes in human..

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SOMEONE HELP: Complete sentences, stating the differences and relationships between the two terms, and give specific examples where appropriate. 1. gene flow / genetic drift 2. sexual selection / artificial selection 3. ring species / biological species concept 4. hybrid inviability / temporal isolation 5. autopolyploidy / allopatric speciation 6. molecular clock / cladogram 7. gradualism / uniformitarianism 8. extreme thermophiles / viroids 9. HIV / Creutzfeld-Jakob disease 10. biofilm / microbial fuel cell Solution Q.No 1 Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution of biological species that takes place because of the change in the frequency of alleles in a population. These changes in the allele frequency in a population occur randomly. One very common example to describe the genetic drift would be that most of the human families have different number of boys and girls, as the X or Y alleles have been passed differently into the new generation from the parents. Although the X and Y alleles do not really contribute for the evolution, the frequency changes in other alleles would have a considerable effect for evolution. Gene flow is a process of evolution that takes place when genes or alleles move from one population to another. It is also known as the Gene Migration, and that could cause changes in the allele frequency as well as some variations in the gene pool of both populations. There are some good examples to support this phenomenon from humans regarding a developed immunity for malaria among new Western Africans after their parents mated with Europeans who initially had the immunity. It is interesting to notice that gene flow could take place between two species, as well. Q.No 2 Sexual selection enhances mating success or the number of copulations, while natural selection tends to produce well-adapted individuals to their environment. Sexual selection does not adapt the individuals to their environment. Unlike sexual selection, natural selection acts on traits which increase the fitness of members in a population. Certain adaptations have been derived from the sexual selection which could never have been arisen from natural selection alone (Ex: the neck of the giraffe, various plumages of most male birds etc.). Generally sexual selection depends on the success of one sex while natural selection depends on the success of both sexes in relation to the general condition of life. In most of the animals, certain traits related to their sexual selection process do not express their characteristics until the organism is able to mate, but naturally selected traits may occur at birth of the organism during the process of natural selection. Q.No 3 A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can interbreed with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two \"end\" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow between e.

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Ethical egoism is a form of..benefit-harm theory. divine Command theory.. psychological egoism. subjectivism Solution Ans:Ethical egoism is the idea that people have moral obligations only to themselves and that they ought to pursue their own ends exclusively. An ethical egoist would say that one has no duty to help others in need unless doing so happens to coincide with one\'s own needs. Because ethical egoism prescribes actions, it is distinct from psychological egoism (discussed in the previous selection by Joel Feinberg), which is a descriptive claim about the nature of people\'s motivations.Rachels provides several arguments both for and against ethical egoism. The first argument for ethical egoism is that we actually harm other people by looking out for their interests. For example, we may misinterpret their interests and bungle attempts at help, or we may intrude on other people\'s lives in ways that they dislike, or we may degrade others by offering them handouts. But this justification of egoism is premised upon the value of the general welfare precisely the thing that ethical egoism denies is important. Rather than claiming that only one\'s own interests matter, this argument states that paying attention to one\'s own interests is the most effective means to furthering the interests of everyone. It is thus an empirical claim about the best way to benefit people generally, not a normative claim about whose interests ought to count. A second argument for ethical egoism is that altruistic ethics (i.e., those that require one to help others even without benefit to oneself) requires one to sacrifice oneself for the benefit of others, and that were one to follow altruistic ethics one would have nothing to give one\'s projects, goals, and relationships. But those things are precisely what make life valuable; thus, altruistic ethics denies the importance of the very things that are valuable. Rachels dismisses this argument quickly because it is a false dichotomy; having obligations to others does not entail that one give up all of one\'s projects. So,Option A is correct..

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