It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themsel.pdf
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It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themselves in nature when they arise. a) Why would this be the case? b) If autotriploids are in fact highly sterile, how is it possible to maintain varieties like the Keizerskroon tulip and the Baldwin apple, which are known to be autotriploids? c) Describe how autotriploidy could arise in each of the following cases: cross- fertilization, self-fertilization, asexual reproduction. d) In humans, approximately 1% of ALL zygotes produced are autotriploids or autotetraploids, but such ploidy is inviablc (Kajii, T., and N. Niikawa, Cytog. Cell Genet. 18: 109, 1977; Pettenati, M. J., et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 24: 23, 1986). How might autotriploidy arise in such a zygote? Solution a) Autotriploids have a hard time establishing themselves in nature when they arise as they are highly sterile. This is due to disturbed alignment of homologous chromosomes in prophase I followed by altered segregation in anaphase I which in turn leads to uneven distribution of gametes. b) The autotriploid varieties like Keizerskroon tulip and Baldwin apple are maintained by vegetative propagation (clonal propagation) rather than sexual reproduction. c) CROSS FERTILIZATION: Autotriploidy arises by fusion of diploid and haploid gametes during sexual reproduction. The diploid gamete can come from autotetraploid or nondisjunction of chromosomes during anaphase in gametogenesis in a diploid parent. SELF FERTILIZATION: Non disjunction of chromosomes during megasporogenesis produces diploid gametes which then fuses with haploid gamete on self fertilization and give rise to autotriploid. ASXUAL REPRODUCTION: Consecutive DNA replication during S phase followed by arrest of cell division leads to formation of autotriploids during asexual reproduction. d) Fusion of diploid egg with haploid sperms forms autotriploid zygotes in human..
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Chapter 7 notes
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes in cells from diploid to haploid, forming four haploid gametes from one diploid cell. This occurs through the processes of independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization, which contribute to genetic variation and allow for evolution. Meiosis produces either sperm cells in males through spermatogenesis or egg cells in females through oogenesis, where the cytoplasm unequally divides. Sexual reproduction then involves the union of haploid gametes from two parents to form a diploid zygote, resulting in offspring that are genetically different from the parents.
7 THE CELLULAR BASISOF INHERITANCEFigure 7.1 Each of u.docx
7 | THE CELLULAR BASIS
OF INHERITANCE
Figure 7.1 Each of us, like these other large multicellular organisms, begins life as a fertilized egg. After trillions of cell
divisions, each of us develops into a complex, multicellular organism. (credit a: modification of work by Frank Wouters;
credit b: modification of work by Ken Cole, USGS; credit c: modification of work by Martin Pettitt)
Chapter Outline
7.1: Sexual Reproduction
7.2: Meiosis
7.3: Errors in Meiosis
Introduction
The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic characteristic of all living things. In kind means that the offspring of any organism
closely resembles its parent or parents. Hippopotamuses give birth to hippopotamus calves; Monterey pine trees produce
seeds from which Monterey pine seedlings emerge; and adult flamingos lay eggs that hatch into flamingo chicks. In kind
does not generally mean exactly the same. While many single-celled organisms and a few multicellular organisms can
produce genetically identical clones of themselves through mitotic cell division, many single-celled organisms and most
multicellular organisms reproduce regularly using another method.
Sexual reproduction is the production by parents of haploid cells and the fusion of a haploid cell from each parent to form
a single, unique diploid cell. In multicellular organisms, the new diploid cell will then undergo mitotic cell divisions to
develop into an adult organism. A type of cell division called meiosis leads to the haploid cells that are part of the sexual
reproductive cycle. Sexual reproduction, specifically meiosis and fertilization, introduces variation into offspring that may
account for the evolutionary success of sexual reproduction. The vast majority of eukaryotic organisms can or must employ
some form of meiosis and fertilization to reproduce.
7.1 | Sexual Reproduction
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction
• Describe the three different life-cycle strategies among sexual multicellular organisms and their commonalities
Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. The fact that most
eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals, it is the only mode of reproduction.
Chapter 7 | The Cellular Basis of Inheritance 153
And yet, scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual reproduction. On the surface, offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent may appear to be more advantageous. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat,
offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. There is also the obvious benefit to an organism that can
produce offspring by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of reproduction do not require
another organism of the opposite sex. There is no need to expend energy finding or a.
MyOriginalWrittenBooksample.pdf
I tried to write my own book. It is not yet complete, but I hope you learn something on the concept of reproduction.
Cytoplasmic inheritance and intragenomic conflict
Genomic conflict-It arises when genes inside a genome are not transmitted by the same rules
Genes that cause such genomic conflict are called selfish genetic elements (also selfish DNA, ultra-selfish genes, genetic parasites) and can be harmful to the individual.
So selfish gene can be defined as stretches of DNA (genes, fragments of genes, noncoding DNA, portions of chromosomes, whole chromosomes, or sets of chromosomes) that act narrowly to advance their own interests—in other words, replication at the expense of the larger organism.
Here it also presented about what is genomic conflict, types of it, cytoplasmic inheritance, its relation with genomic conflict, ABC model, Molecular mechanism of CMS, Pollen hypothesis, ATP hypothesis, etc.
Parasexuality in Fungi
Sex and sexuality are very common words in biology but para-sexuality is a little bit uncommon, several organisms in general and fungi in particular have the pleasure of sexuality to bring variations by beside sex. This PPT explores the beauty of para-sexuality for the academic fraternity.
Parasexual cycle
The parasexual cycle in fungi involves plasmogamy, karyogamy, and occasional haploidization, but these events are not linked to specific life cycle stages. It allows for genetic recombination through mitotic crossing over of diploid nuclei and sorting of new haploid strains, though less frequently than true sexual cycles. The parasexual cycle in Aspergillus nidulans specifically involves the formation of heterokaryotic mycelium through nuclear fusion, multiplication and crossing over of diploid nuclei, occasional haploidization, and production of genetically distinct haploid strains. It has importance for genetic mapping, strain improvement, and increasing biodiversity.
HETEROTHALLISM & PARASEXUALITY IN FUNGI.
Blakeslee discovered heterothallism in Mucor fungi in 1904. He observed that some isolates could reproduce sexually (forming zygospores), while others required contact with a different isolate to do so. This led to the definitions of homothallism (self-fertile) and heterothallism (requires opposite mating type). Heterothallism can be physiological (same thallus) or morphological (separate thalli). Parasexuality allows genetic recombination in fungi through heterokaryon formation and mitotic crossing over rather than meiosis.
Polyembryony
Polyembryony is the phenomenon of two or more embryos developing from a single fertilized egg. Due to the embryos resulting from the same egg, the embryos are identical to one another, but are genetically diverse from the parents.
Recommended
Chapter 7 notes
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes in cells from diploid to haploid, forming four haploid gametes from one diploid cell. This occurs through the processes of independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization, which contribute to genetic variation and allow for evolution. Meiosis produces either sperm cells in males through spermatogenesis or egg cells in females through oogenesis, where the cytoplasm unequally divides. Sexual reproduction then involves the union of haploid gametes from two parents to form a diploid zygote, resulting in offspring that are genetically different from the parents.
7 THE CELLULAR BASISOF INHERITANCEFigure 7.1 Each of u.docx
7 | THE CELLULAR BASIS
OF INHERITANCE
Figure 7.1 Each of us, like these other large multicellular organisms, begins life as a fertilized egg. After trillions of cell
divisions, each of us develops into a complex, multicellular organism. (credit a: modification of work by Frank Wouters;
credit b: modification of work by Ken Cole, USGS; credit c: modification of work by Martin Pettitt)
Chapter Outline
7.1: Sexual Reproduction
7.2: Meiosis
7.3: Errors in Meiosis
Introduction
The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic characteristic of all living things. In kind means that the offspring of any organism
closely resembles its parent or parents. Hippopotamuses give birth to hippopotamus calves; Monterey pine trees produce
seeds from which Monterey pine seedlings emerge; and adult flamingos lay eggs that hatch into flamingo chicks. In kind
does not generally mean exactly the same. While many single-celled organisms and a few multicellular organisms can
produce genetically identical clones of themselves through mitotic cell division, many single-celled organisms and most
multicellular organisms reproduce regularly using another method.
Sexual reproduction is the production by parents of haploid cells and the fusion of a haploid cell from each parent to form
a single, unique diploid cell. In multicellular organisms, the new diploid cell will then undergo mitotic cell divisions to
develop into an adult organism. A type of cell division called meiosis leads to the haploid cells that are part of the sexual
reproductive cycle. Sexual reproduction, specifically meiosis and fertilization, introduces variation into offspring that may
account for the evolutionary success of sexual reproduction. The vast majority of eukaryotic organisms can or must employ
some form of meiosis and fertilization to reproduce.
7.1 | Sexual Reproduction
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction
• Describe the three different life-cycle strategies among sexual multicellular organisms and their commonalities
Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. The fact that most
eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals, it is the only mode of reproduction.
Chapter 7 | The Cellular Basis of Inheritance 153
And yet, scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual reproduction. On the surface, offspring that are genetically
identical to the parent may appear to be more advantageous. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat,
offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. There is also the obvious benefit to an organism that can
produce offspring by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of reproduction do not require
another organism of the opposite sex. There is no need to expend energy finding or a.
MyOriginalWrittenBooksample.pdf
I tried to write my own book. It is not yet complete, but I hope you learn something on the concept of reproduction.
Cytoplasmic inheritance and intragenomic conflict
Genomic conflict-It arises when genes inside a genome are not transmitted by the same rules
Genes that cause such genomic conflict are called selfish genetic elements (also selfish DNA, ultra-selfish genes, genetic parasites) and can be harmful to the individual.
So selfish gene can be defined as stretches of DNA (genes, fragments of genes, noncoding DNA, portions of chromosomes, whole chromosomes, or sets of chromosomes) that act narrowly to advance their own interests—in other words, replication at the expense of the larger organism.
Here it also presented about what is genomic conflict, types of it, cytoplasmic inheritance, its relation with genomic conflict, ABC model, Molecular mechanism of CMS, Pollen hypothesis, ATP hypothesis, etc.
Parasexuality in Fungi
Sex and sexuality are very common words in biology but para-sexuality is a little bit uncommon, several organisms in general and fungi in particular have the pleasure of sexuality to bring variations by beside sex. This PPT explores the beauty of para-sexuality for the academic fraternity.
Parasexual cycle
The parasexual cycle in fungi involves plasmogamy, karyogamy, and occasional haploidization, but these events are not linked to specific life cycle stages. It allows for genetic recombination through mitotic crossing over of diploid nuclei and sorting of new haploid strains, though less frequently than true sexual cycles. The parasexual cycle in Aspergillus nidulans specifically involves the formation of heterokaryotic mycelium through nuclear fusion, multiplication and crossing over of diploid nuclei, occasional haploidization, and production of genetically distinct haploid strains. It has importance for genetic mapping, strain improvement, and increasing biodiversity.
HETEROTHALLISM & PARASEXUALITY IN FUNGI.
Blakeslee discovered heterothallism in Mucor fungi in 1904. He observed that some isolates could reproduce sexually (forming zygospores), while others required contact with a different isolate to do so. This led to the definitions of homothallism (self-fertile) and heterothallism (requires opposite mating type). Heterothallism can be physiological (same thallus) or morphological (separate thalli). Parasexuality allows genetic recombination in fungi through heterokaryon formation and mitotic crossing over rather than meiosis.
Polyembryony
Polyembryony is the phenomenon of two or more embryos developing from a single fertilized egg. Due to the embryos resulting from the same egg, the embryos are identical to one another, but are genetically diverse from the parents.
4.2 & 10.1 meiosis
Meiosis is the process by which diploid cells undergo two cell divisions to produce four haploid cells or gametes. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange genetic material through crossing over, introducing genetic variability. Errors during meiosis can result in aneuploidy, causing genetic disorders like Down syndrome if the wrong number of chromosomes end up in reproductive cells.
Heterokaryosis and Parasexuality
Heterokaryosis is the co-existence of genetically different nuclei in a common cytoplasm. It plays a major role in variability and sexuality in fungi. Heterokaryosis can arise through mutation, anastomosis (fusion of hyphae), or inclusion of dissimilar nuclei in spores after meiosis in heterothallic fungi. Parasexuality is a form of genetic recombination in fungi achieved through mitotic crossing over and haploidization without meiosis. The parasexual cycle involves the establishment of heterokaryosis, formation of heterozygous diploids through nuclear fusion, occasional mitotic crossing over during diploid multiplication, and eventual haploidization through aneuploidy. This process
polyploid Breeding
This document discusses polyploidy breeding. It defines polyploidy as having three or more sets of chromosomes, which can occur naturally or through induction. There are various ways polyploids can originate, such as somatic doubling during mitosis, non-reduction during meiosis producing unreduced gametes, or polyspermaty fertilization. Polyploidy has been used in crop improvement by creating autopolyploids through doubling chromosome sets within a species, or allopolyploids by hybridizing between species. Examples of naturally occurring polyploids include wheat and strawberry. Both natural and artificial polyploids can provide benefits like overcoming hybridization barriers and increasing stress tolerance.
REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction involves mitosis and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. It has advantages like rapid reproduction but lacks genetic variation. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis and fusion of gametes from two parents. It produces offspring with genetic variation through processes like independent assortment and crossing over during meiosis I. This variation allows populations to adapt to changing environments. The document then describes the stages of meiosis and compares it to mitosis. It also outlines the major stages of sexual reproduction like gametogenesis, fertilization, development, and birth.
Cytoplasmic Inheritance.pdf
Cytoplasmic Inheritance or Extra Nuclear Inheritance Or Maternal Inheritance or Organellar Inheritance
Cytoplasmic inheritance and extra chromosomal inheritance
the cytoplasmic inheritance is in which cytoplasm contain self replicating hereditary material of cytoplasm formed of DNA and this DNA govern many specific characters in plants and animals.
cytoplasmicinheritence-200703130538 (1).pdf
In 1950 Dr. Sangers and his colleagues suggested the possible role of cytoplasm in
certain cases of inheritance .
Example – in Chlamydomonas inheritance of certain characters is controlled by the
non-chromosomal genes.
• The cytoplasm in such cases contains self-perpetuating hereditary particles
formed of DNA. These may be mitochondria, plastids or foreign organisms etc.
• The total self-duplicating hereditary material of cytoplasm is called plasmon and
the cytoplasm units of inheritance are described as plasmagenes.
• Plasmagenes are located in DNA present in mitochondria and in chloroplast.
Autopolyploidy
This document summarizes autopolyploidy, which is the presence of more than two genomic sets of chromosomes derived from a single species. Key points include:
- Autopolyploids are produced through chromosome doubling within a species, such as through meiotic errors or chemical treatment. This results in organisms with 3, 4, 5, etc. copies of the genome.
- Higher ploidy levels like triploids and tetraploids are often sterile due to challenges in chromosome pairing during meiosis. However, some plants widely used as crops are autopolyploids.
- Identification of autopolyploids is based on observing multivalent chromosome pairing. Random chromosome segregation patterns
sources of genetic variation bot.pptx
Genetic variation arises from mutation, including point mutations and chromosomal mutations. Point mutations involve changes to single nucleotides, and can be transitions, transversions, or frameshift mutations. Chromosomal mutations involve changes to chromosomes, such as deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations. Polyploidy is another source of genetic variation, where organisms have more than two complete sets of chromosomes. Autopolyploidy occurs when extra chromosome sets are derived from a single species, such as through errors in mitosis or meiosis, or genome duplication through chemicals like colchicine. Autopolyploids can show increased size and variable fertility.
Presentation on Natural Allopolyploidy in Brassica spp
Natural allopolyploidy occurs in Brassica species. The genus Brassica includes both diploid and polyploid species, with three ancestral species - B. nigra, B. oleracea, and B. campestris. These species evolved through dysploidy and gave rise to allotetraploid species like B. carinata, B. juncea, and B. napus through hybridization and chromosome doubling. The relationship between Brassica species is explained by the Brassica triangle model, which shows that the allotetraploid species originated from the three ancestral diploid species. Allopolyploidy in Brassica has contributed to evolution and improved
Wide Hybridization (1) (2).pptx
This document discusses wide hybridization or distant hybridization, which involves crossing individuals from different plant species or genera. It describes the history and objectives of distant hybridization, as well as the types (interspecific, intergeneric), features, barriers, techniques to overcome barriers, applications in crop improvement, and limitations. Examples are provided of successful interspecific hybrids like Nerica rice and Triticale wheat-rye hybrids created using embryo rescue after intergeneric crosses. Barriers to distant hybridization include failure of zygote formation, zygote development, seedling development, and hybrid breakdown.
Morphogenesis, organogenesis, embryogenesis & other techniques
The document describes the process of somatic embryogenesis. It involves 7 key steps:
1) Induction of embryogenesis from explant tissue on media supplemented with auxin
2) Development of somatic embryos through globular, heart, and torpedo stages of growth
3) Maturation of embryos with the formation of root and shoot meristems and cotyledons
4) Conversion of mature embryos to plantlets through germination on auxin-free media
Factors like explant type, growth regulators, and genotype influence the process. Somatic embryos differ from zygotic embryos in lacking a seed coat and having greater potential for propagation but weaker plantlets.
Meiosis
Meiosis produces haploid gametes from diploid cells for sexual reproduction. It involves two nuclear divisions and results in four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. This ensures genetic variation between offspring, which is the raw material for evolution. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair and may exchange genetic material through crossing over. The homologous chromosomes then separate, followed by the second meiotic division where sister chromatids separate, resulting in four haploid cells each with a unique combination of genes.
Biol102 chp24-spr10-100211101157-phpapp02
This document discusses speciation and the origin of new species. It describes microevolution within populations and macroevolution above the species level. Several mechanisms of speciation are covered, including allopatric speciation driven by geographic isolation and sympatric speciation occurring without isolation. Reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between species are classified as prezygotic or postzygotic. Alternative concepts for defining species are also reviewed, and evidence for speciation patterns from the fossil record, morphology, and molecules is presented.
Biol102 chp24-spr10-100211101157-phpapp02
This document discusses speciation and the origin of new species. It describes microevolution within populations and macroevolution above the species level. Several mechanisms of speciation are covered, including allopatric speciation driven by geographic isolation and sympatric speciation occurring without isolation. Reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between species are classified as prezygotic or postzygotic. Alternative concepts for defining species are also introduced, focusing on morphology, ecology, and phylogeny.
Cytogenetics of apomixis by Suneel kr Gautam
This document discusses apomixis, which is asexual reproduction that occurs without fusion of male and female gametes. It classifies apomixis into two major types - sporophytic and gametophytic. Gametophytic apomixis is further divided into apospory and diplospory. It also discusses criteria for detecting apomixis, cytology of apomicts including megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis, examples of apomixis in some plant species, and advantages of apomixis for plant breeding. Finally, it provides a brief introduction to cytogenetics as the study of relationships between genes and chromosomes.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION.pptx
This document discusses animal reproduction, including both sexual and asexual reproduction. It defines reproduction as the way organisms continue their species through mating and producing offspring. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, while asexual reproduction requires only one parent and produces genetically identical clones. The document outlines different types of asexual reproduction like binary fission, fragmentation, budding, and parthenogenesis. It also describes the mechanics of fertilization, whether internally like oviparity, viviparity, and ovoiviparity, or externally.
Summary ch 5
This document summarizes key points about cell and nuclear division:
1) In sexual reproduction, gametes are haploid with one set of chromosomes, while the zygote formed from their fusion is diploid with two sets. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from two sets to one set before fertilization.
2) All human body cells are diploid except gametes, which are haploid.
3) Cancer results from uncontrolled cell division which can be caused by carcinogenic agents like asbestos, radiation, or certain viruses. Genetic factors may also contribute to cancer risk.
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
Asexual reproduction in amoeba occurs through binary fission. The amoeba cell divides through mitosis to form two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell is an exact clone of the parent cell. Binary fission allows for rapid multiplication of amoeba in favorable environmental conditions. The contractile vacuole acts to regulate the amoeba's water content through osmosis, as the cell takes in more water than its surroundings. It repeatedly swells and bursts to expel excess water from the cell.
SOMEONE HELP Complete sentences, stating the differences and relati.pdf
SOMEONE HELP: Complete sentences, stating the differences and relationships between the
two terms, and give specific examples where appropriate.
1. gene flow / genetic drift
2. sexual selection / artificial selection
3. ring species / biological species concept
4. hybrid inviability / temporal isolation
5. autopolyploidy / allopatric speciation
6. molecular clock / cladogram
7. gradualism / uniformitarianism
8. extreme thermophiles / viroids
9. HIV / Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
10. biofilm / microbial fuel cell
Solution
Q.No 1
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution of biological species that takes place because of the
change in the frequency of alleles in a population. These changes in the allele frequency in a
population occur randomly. One very common example to describe the genetic drift would be
that most of the human families have different number of boys and girls, as the X or Y alleles
have been passed differently into the new generation from the parents. Although the X and Y
alleles do not really contribute for the evolution, the frequency changes in other alleles would
have a considerable effect for evolution.
Gene flow is a process of evolution that takes place when genes or alleles move from one
population to another. It is also known as the Gene Migration, and that could cause changes in
the allele frequency as well as some variations in the gene pool of both populations. There are
some good examples to support this phenomenon from humans regarding a developed immunity
for malaria among new Western Africans after their parents mated with Europeans who initially
had the immunity. It is interesting to notice that gene flow could take place between two species,
as well.
Q.No 2
Sexual selection enhances mating success or the number of copulations, while natural selection
tends to produce well-adapted individuals to their environment. Sexual selection does not adapt
the individuals to their environment. Unlike sexual selection, natural selection acts on traits
which increase the fitness of members in a population. Certain adaptations have been derived
from the sexual selection which could never have been arisen from natural selection alone (Ex:
the neck of the giraffe, various plumages of most male birds etc.). Generally sexual selection
depends on the success of one sex while natural selection depends on the success of both sexes in
relation to the general condition of life. In most of the animals, certain traits related to their
sexual selection process do not express their characteristics until the organism is able to mate,
but naturally selected traits may occur at birth of the organism during the process of natural
selection.
Q.No 3
A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can interbreed
with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two \"end\" populations in
the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow
between e.
Explain the DSM is and how it defines a psychological disorder. P.pdf
Explain the DSM is and how it defines a psychological disorder. ***PSYCHOLOGY
Solution
Diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM) describes about the mental health disorders.
Psychologists differentiate the mental disorders based on the principles of DSM. DSM-V defines
the present condition of psychological, biological dysfunction in an individual is due to
disturbances in emotional, social, behavioural mental functioning/condition of an individual..
Ethical egoism is a form of..benefit-harm theory. divine Command theo.pdf
Ethical egoism is a form of..benefit-harm theory. divine Command theory.. psychological
egoism. subjectivism
Solution
Ans:Ethical egoism is the idea that people have moral obligations only to themselves and that
they ought to pursue their own ends exclusively. An ethical egoist would say that one has no
duty to help others in need unless doing so happens to coincide with one\'s own needs. Because
ethical egoism prescribes actions, it is distinct from psychological egoism (discussed in the
previous selection by Joel Feinberg), which is a descriptive claim about the nature of people\'s
motivations.Rachels provides several arguments both for and against ethical egoism. The first
argument for ethical egoism is that we actually harm other people by looking out for their
interests. For example, we may misinterpret their interests and bungle attempts at help, or we
may intrude on other people\'s lives in ways that they dislike, or we may degrade others by
offering them handouts. But this justification of egoism is premised upon the value of the general
welfare precisely the thing that ethical egoism denies is important. Rather than claiming that only
one\'s own interests matter, this argument states that paying attention to one\'s own interests is
the most effective means to furthering the interests of everyone. It is thus an empirical claim
about the best way to benefit people generally, not a normative claim about whose interests
ought to count. A second argument for ethical egoism is that altruistic ethics (i.e., those that
require one to help others even without benefit to oneself) requires one to sacrifice oneself for
the benefit of others, and that were one to follow altruistic ethics one would have nothing to give
one\'s projects, goals, and relationships. But those things are precisely what make life valuable;
thus, altruistic ethics denies the importance of the very things that are valuable. Rachels
dismisses this argument quickly because it is a false dichotomy; having obligations to others
does not entail that one give up all of one\'s projects.
So,Option A is correct..
More Related Content
Similar to It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themsel.pdf
4.2 & 10.1 meiosis
Meiosis is the process by which diploid cells undergo two cell divisions to produce four haploid cells or gametes. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange genetic material through crossing over, introducing genetic variability. Errors during meiosis can result in aneuploidy, causing genetic disorders like Down syndrome if the wrong number of chromosomes end up in reproductive cells.
Heterokaryosis and Parasexuality
Heterokaryosis is the co-existence of genetically different nuclei in a common cytoplasm. It plays a major role in variability and sexuality in fungi. Heterokaryosis can arise through mutation, anastomosis (fusion of hyphae), or inclusion of dissimilar nuclei in spores after meiosis in heterothallic fungi. Parasexuality is a form of genetic recombination in fungi achieved through mitotic crossing over and haploidization without meiosis. The parasexual cycle involves the establishment of heterokaryosis, formation of heterozygous diploids through nuclear fusion, occasional mitotic crossing over during diploid multiplication, and eventual haploidization through aneuploidy. This process
polyploid Breeding
This document discusses polyploidy breeding. It defines polyploidy as having three or more sets of chromosomes, which can occur naturally or through induction. There are various ways polyploids can originate, such as somatic doubling during mitosis, non-reduction during meiosis producing unreduced gametes, or polyspermaty fertilization. Polyploidy has been used in crop improvement by creating autopolyploids through doubling chromosome sets within a species, or allopolyploids by hybridizing between species. Examples of naturally occurring polyploids include wheat and strawberry. Both natural and artificial polyploids can provide benefits like overcoming hybridization barriers and increasing stress tolerance.
REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction involves mitosis and produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. It has advantages like rapid reproduction but lacks genetic variation. Sexual reproduction involves meiosis and fusion of gametes from two parents. It produces offspring with genetic variation through processes like independent assortment and crossing over during meiosis I. This variation allows populations to adapt to changing environments. The document then describes the stages of meiosis and compares it to mitosis. It also outlines the major stages of sexual reproduction like gametogenesis, fertilization, development, and birth.
Cytoplasmic Inheritance.pdf
Cytoplasmic Inheritance or Extra Nuclear Inheritance Or Maternal Inheritance or Organellar Inheritance
Cytoplasmic inheritance and extra chromosomal inheritance
the cytoplasmic inheritance is in which cytoplasm contain self replicating hereditary material of cytoplasm formed of DNA and this DNA govern many specific characters in plants and animals.
cytoplasmicinheritence-200703130538 (1).pdf
In 1950 Dr. Sangers and his colleagues suggested the possible role of cytoplasm in
certain cases of inheritance .
Example – in Chlamydomonas inheritance of certain characters is controlled by the
non-chromosomal genes.
• The cytoplasm in such cases contains self-perpetuating hereditary particles
formed of DNA. These may be mitochondria, plastids or foreign organisms etc.
• The total self-duplicating hereditary material of cytoplasm is called plasmon and
the cytoplasm units of inheritance are described as plasmagenes.
• Plasmagenes are located in DNA present in mitochondria and in chloroplast.
Autopolyploidy
This document summarizes autopolyploidy, which is the presence of more than two genomic sets of chromosomes derived from a single species. Key points include:
- Autopolyploids are produced through chromosome doubling within a species, such as through meiotic errors or chemical treatment. This results in organisms with 3, 4, 5, etc. copies of the genome.
- Higher ploidy levels like triploids and tetraploids are often sterile due to challenges in chromosome pairing during meiosis. However, some plants widely used as crops are autopolyploids.
- Identification of autopolyploids is based on observing multivalent chromosome pairing. Random chromosome segregation patterns
sources of genetic variation bot.pptx
Genetic variation arises from mutation, including point mutations and chromosomal mutations. Point mutations involve changes to single nucleotides, and can be transitions, transversions, or frameshift mutations. Chromosomal mutations involve changes to chromosomes, such as deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations. Polyploidy is another source of genetic variation, where organisms have more than two complete sets of chromosomes. Autopolyploidy occurs when extra chromosome sets are derived from a single species, such as through errors in mitosis or meiosis, or genome duplication through chemicals like colchicine. Autopolyploids can show increased size and variable fertility.
Presentation on Natural Allopolyploidy in Brassica spp
Natural allopolyploidy occurs in Brassica species. The genus Brassica includes both diploid and polyploid species, with three ancestral species - B. nigra, B. oleracea, and B. campestris. These species evolved through dysploidy and gave rise to allotetraploid species like B. carinata, B. juncea, and B. napus through hybridization and chromosome doubling. The relationship between Brassica species is explained by the Brassica triangle model, which shows that the allotetraploid species originated from the three ancestral diploid species. Allopolyploidy in Brassica has contributed to evolution and improved
Wide Hybridization (1) (2).pptx
This document discusses wide hybridization or distant hybridization, which involves crossing individuals from different plant species or genera. It describes the history and objectives of distant hybridization, as well as the types (interspecific, intergeneric), features, barriers, techniques to overcome barriers, applications in crop improvement, and limitations. Examples are provided of successful interspecific hybrids like Nerica rice and Triticale wheat-rye hybrids created using embryo rescue after intergeneric crosses. Barriers to distant hybridization include failure of zygote formation, zygote development, seedling development, and hybrid breakdown.
Morphogenesis, organogenesis, embryogenesis & other techniques
The document describes the process of somatic embryogenesis. It involves 7 key steps:
1) Induction of embryogenesis from explant tissue on media supplemented with auxin
2) Development of somatic embryos through globular, heart, and torpedo stages of growth
3) Maturation of embryos with the formation of root and shoot meristems and cotyledons
4) Conversion of mature embryos to plantlets through germination on auxin-free media
Factors like explant type, growth regulators, and genotype influence the process. Somatic embryos differ from zygotic embryos in lacking a seed coat and having greater potential for propagation but weaker plantlets.
Meiosis
Meiosis produces haploid gametes from diploid cells for sexual reproduction. It involves two nuclear divisions and results in four haploid daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. This ensures genetic variation between offspring, which is the raw material for evolution. During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair and may exchange genetic material through crossing over. The homologous chromosomes then separate, followed by the second meiotic division where sister chromatids separate, resulting in four haploid cells each with a unique combination of genes.
Biol102 chp24-spr10-100211101157-phpapp02
This document discusses speciation and the origin of new species. It describes microevolution within populations and macroevolution above the species level. Several mechanisms of speciation are covered, including allopatric speciation driven by geographic isolation and sympatric speciation occurring without isolation. Reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between species are classified as prezygotic or postzygotic. Alternative concepts for defining species are also reviewed, and evidence for speciation patterns from the fossil record, morphology, and molecules is presented.
Biol102 chp24-spr10-100211101157-phpapp02
This document discusses speciation and the origin of new species. It describes microevolution within populations and macroevolution above the species level. Several mechanisms of speciation are covered, including allopatric speciation driven by geographic isolation and sympatric speciation occurring without isolation. Reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between species are classified as prezygotic or postzygotic. Alternative concepts for defining species are also introduced, focusing on morphology, ecology, and phylogeny.
Cytogenetics of apomixis by Suneel kr Gautam
This document discusses apomixis, which is asexual reproduction that occurs without fusion of male and female gametes. It classifies apomixis into two major types - sporophytic and gametophytic. Gametophytic apomixis is further divided into apospory and diplospory. It also discusses criteria for detecting apomixis, cytology of apomicts including megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis, examples of apomixis in some plant species, and advantages of apomixis for plant breeding. Finally, it provides a brief introduction to cytogenetics as the study of relationships between genes and chromosomes.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION.pptx
This document discusses animal reproduction, including both sexual and asexual reproduction. It defines reproduction as the way organisms continue their species through mating and producing offspring. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes, while asexual reproduction requires only one parent and produces genetically identical clones. The document outlines different types of asexual reproduction like binary fission, fragmentation, budding, and parthenogenesis. It also describes the mechanics of fertilization, whether internally like oviparity, viviparity, and ovoiviparity, or externally.
Summary ch 5
This document summarizes key points about cell and nuclear division:
1) In sexual reproduction, gametes are haploid with one set of chromosomes, while the zygote formed from their fusion is diploid with two sets. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from two sets to one set before fertilization.
2) All human body cells are diploid except gametes, which are haploid.
3) Cancer results from uncontrolled cell division which can be caused by carcinogenic agents like asbestos, radiation, or certain viruses. Genetic factors may also contribute to cancer risk.
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE
Asexual reproduction in amoeba occurs through binary fission. The amoeba cell divides through mitosis to form two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell is an exact clone of the parent cell. Binary fission allows for rapid multiplication of amoeba in favorable environmental conditions. The contractile vacuole acts to regulate the amoeba's water content through osmosis, as the cell takes in more water than its surroundings. It repeatedly swells and bursts to expel excess water from the cell.
SOMEONE HELP Complete sentences, stating the differences and relati.pdf
SOMEONE HELP: Complete sentences, stating the differences and relationships between the
two terms, and give specific examples where appropriate.
1. gene flow / genetic drift
2. sexual selection / artificial selection
3. ring species / biological species concept
4. hybrid inviability / temporal isolation
5. autopolyploidy / allopatric speciation
6. molecular clock / cladogram
7. gradualism / uniformitarianism
8. extreme thermophiles / viroids
9. HIV / Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
10. biofilm / microbial fuel cell
Solution
Q.No 1
Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution of biological species that takes place because of the
change in the frequency of alleles in a population. These changes in the allele frequency in a
population occur randomly. One very common example to describe the genetic drift would be
that most of the human families have different number of boys and girls, as the X or Y alleles
have been passed differently into the new generation from the parents. Although the X and Y
alleles do not really contribute for the evolution, the frequency changes in other alleles would
have a considerable effect for evolution.
Gene flow is a process of evolution that takes place when genes or alleles move from one
population to another. It is also known as the Gene Migration, and that could cause changes in
the allele frequency as well as some variations in the gene pool of both populations. There are
some good examples to support this phenomenon from humans regarding a developed immunity
for malaria among new Western Africans after their parents mated with Europeans who initially
had the immunity. It is interesting to notice that gene flow could take place between two species,
as well.
Q.No 2
Sexual selection enhances mating success or the number of copulations, while natural selection
tends to produce well-adapted individuals to their environment. Sexual selection does not adapt
the individuals to their environment. Unlike sexual selection, natural selection acts on traits
which increase the fitness of members in a population. Certain adaptations have been derived
from the sexual selection which could never have been arisen from natural selection alone (Ex:
the neck of the giraffe, various plumages of most male birds etc.). Generally sexual selection
depends on the success of one sex while natural selection depends on the success of both sexes in
relation to the general condition of life. In most of the animals, certain traits related to their
sexual selection process do not express their characteristics until the organism is able to mate,
but naturally selected traits may occur at birth of the organism during the process of natural
selection.
Q.No 3
A ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can interbreed
with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two \"end\" populations in
the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential gene flow
between e.
Similar to It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themsel.pdf (20)
Cytoplasmic inheritance and extra chromosomal inheritance
Cytoplasmic inheritance and extra chromosomal inheritance
Presentation on Natural Allopolyploidy in Brassica spp
Presentation on Natural Allopolyploidy in Brassica spp
Morphogenesis, organogenesis, embryogenesis & other techniques
Morphogenesis, organogenesis, embryogenesis & other techniques
SOMEONE HELP Complete sentences, stating the differences and relati.pdf
SOMEONE HELP Complete sentences, stating the differences and relati.pdf
More from archigallery1298
Explain the DSM is and how it defines a psychological disorder. P.pdf
Explain the DSM is and how it defines a psychological disorder. ***PSYCHOLOGY
Solution
Diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM) describes about the mental health disorders.
Psychologists differentiate the mental disorders based on the principles of DSM. DSM-V defines
the present condition of psychological, biological dysfunction in an individual is due to
disturbances in emotional, social, behavioural mental functioning/condition of an individual..
Ethical egoism is a form of..benefit-harm theory. divine Command theo.pdf
Ethical egoism is a form of..benefit-harm theory. divine Command theory.. psychological
egoism. subjectivism
Solution
Ans:Ethical egoism is the idea that people have moral obligations only to themselves and that
they ought to pursue their own ends exclusively. An ethical egoist would say that one has no
duty to help others in need unless doing so happens to coincide with one\'s own needs. Because
ethical egoism prescribes actions, it is distinct from psychological egoism (discussed in the
previous selection by Joel Feinberg), which is a descriptive claim about the nature of people\'s
motivations.Rachels provides several arguments both for and against ethical egoism. The first
argument for ethical egoism is that we actually harm other people by looking out for their
interests. For example, we may misinterpret their interests and bungle attempts at help, or we
may intrude on other people\'s lives in ways that they dislike, or we may degrade others by
offering them handouts. But this justification of egoism is premised upon the value of the general
welfare precisely the thing that ethical egoism denies is important. Rather than claiming that only
one\'s own interests matter, this argument states that paying attention to one\'s own interests is
the most effective means to furthering the interests of everyone. It is thus an empirical claim
about the best way to benefit people generally, not a normative claim about whose interests
ought to count. A second argument for ethical egoism is that altruistic ethics (i.e., those that
require one to help others even without benefit to oneself) requires one to sacrifice oneself for
the benefit of others, and that were one to follow altruistic ethics one would have nothing to give
one\'s projects, goals, and relationships. But those things are precisely what make life valuable;
thus, altruistic ethics denies the importance of the very things that are valuable. Rachels
dismisses this argument quickly because it is a false dichotomy; having obligations to others
does not entail that one give up all of one\'s projects.
So,Option A is correct..
Evolutionary theorists believe the need to belong is at the ________.pdf
Evolutionary theorists believe the need to belong is at the _________ level of analysis. a. Human
nature. b. Individual nature. c. Individual differences. d. Sex differences uniqueness.
Solution
Answer:-Optuin A (Human Nature)
Explanation :-Evolutionary theorists believe the need to belong is at the Human Nature evel of
analysis..
Describe the differences among dominance, incomplete dominance, codo.pdf
Describe the differences among dominance, incomplete dominance, codominance, and
overdominance.
Solution
Dominant character: A character that expresses itself even in the heterozygous state in F1
generation is known as a dominant character. With such a character, the F2 ratio is a 1:2:1 and
F1 is a 3:1 ratio in case of mono hybrid cross.
Incomplete dominance: It is also known as incomplete or partial or a semi dominant condition ,
where none of the alleles are dominant or recessive over the other. This condition is
characterised where the F1 heterozygous do not show a single colour/ trait relative to one parent,
but express a phenotype that is intermediate to both the parents. For eg: if a red flower plant of
Mirabilis jalapa is crossed with the white ones, then the F1 will not be red or white but pink in
colour. In case where the pink F1 is crossed to obtain F2 a ratio of 1:2:1 is obtained with
red:pink:white in both genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
Codominance : the co dominant alleles do not have a a dominant or recessive effect from one
another. Here, the heterozygous genotype gives rise to a phenotype that is very much different
from either of the parents. This can very well be seen in the ABO blood grouping system . The
chemical glycoproteins are controlled by three alleles out o which two IA and IB are co
dominant where as i is recessive to the other two at the ABO locus. The IAIA and IAi
individuals produce type A blood, and IBIB and IBi individuals produce type B blood, but IAIB
individuals show modifications on their blood cells and thus show type AB blood, so the IA and
IB alleles are said to be co-dominant.
Overdominance : this is the condition where the heterozygote phenotype does not lie in the range
of any of the homozygotes. For eg the sickle cell anaemic condition in humans. The individual
with this effect will have a partial resistance to malaria but the homozygotes do not show any
such kind of effects..
Describe 3 ideas or techniques that describe how to make a web page .pdf
Describe 3 ideas or techniques that describe how to make a web page more accessible.
Solution
Please follow the data and description :
Increase the Accessibility of Various Websites :
In the stream of networking and computers the word accessibility is to be considered so as to
increase the availability. The Internet is an incredible resource and it has opened up exciting new
possibilities.
Some of the ideas or the techniques used to increase the accessibility are :
a) Text/Font for the display :
It is to be taken care that the text used is to be legible and can be understandable for every age
group and the people with sight defects.
b) Content :
The author needs to provide a text alternatives for any of the non text content so that it can be
changed into other forms by the people as needed such as large print, Braille, symbols or simpler
language.
c) Links/References :
Many hesitate to provide the links and the references for the data that they share as to make the
blog/site more helpful. But it is a bad idea as the people generally tend to search for knowledge
that are beyond their expectations so as to make the high readability over other sites. So it is a
good idea to make the links and the references available for the readers or the users.
d) Appearance :
To make the site more and more effecttive car needs to ben taken during the selection of the
themes and the colors so that the site looks attractive and makes teh reader to approach the same
link again and again so that they could be comfortable in making the knowledge.
Hope this is helpful..
Consider this C++ BankAccount class with the following public member.pdf
Consider this C++ BankAccount class with the following public member functions.
/* Constructs an object to represent a bank account.
*
* Parameter:
* double initial_balance -- the starting balance of the account
* /
BankAccount(double initial_balance);
/* Adds a certain amount the balance of the account.
*
* Parameter:
* double amount -- the amount to add to the balance
*
* Returns:
* nothing
*/
void deposit(double amount);
/* Subtracts a certain amount from the balance of the account.
*
* Parameter:
* double amount -- the amount to subtract from the balance
*
* Returns:
* nothing
*/
void withdraw(double amount);
/* Gets the balance of the account.
*
* Parameters:
* none
*
* Returns:
* double -- the balance of the account
*/
double get_balance();
(a) Which are the accessor function(s)?
(b) Which are the mutator function(s)?
(c) Create an object to represent a checking account with a starting balance of $1500.
(d) Provide a fragment of C++ code to perform this sequence of actions on the checking
account: deposit $100, print the balance, withdraw $250.
Solution
a) accessors
get_balance()
b) mutators
void deposit(double)
void withdraw(double)
c) BankAccount acc(1500.0);
d) acc.deposit(100.0)
acc.get_balance();
acc.withdraw(250.0).
Compared with the interior, which of the following changes is usually.pdf
Compared with the interior, which of the following changes is usually not associated with
edges? More light increased wind speeds decreased humidity decreased diurnal temperature
fluctuations all of the above are associated with edges of forests.
Solution
A forest edge or woodland edge is the transformation zone (ecotone) from an region of forest or
woodland to meadow or other open capacity is known as forest edges..
Both influenza virus and (IFV), and Measles Virus (MV) are enveloped.pdf
Both influenza virus and (IFV), and Measles Virus (MV) are enveloped viruses with class I
fusion glycoproteins. Experimental exposure to low pH (5.5) buffer will inactivate IFV, but not
MV. Based on this information, What can you infer about the entry pathways and mechanism of
two viruses?
Solution
Entry of virus in the host membrane includes a number of steps.
The entry pathway of Influenza virus is influenced by a fusion protein termed as hemagglutinin.
It is a trimeric glycoprotien present in multiple copies in the membrane envelope of influenza
virus. The structure of hemagglutinin contains a receptor binding sites, fusion peptide, a
metastable structure motif, and the transmembrane domain.
For the entry of IFV the first step involves the recognition of the host cell receptor molecules ,
terminal sialic acid by hemagglutinin. The attachment is multivalent in nature as the multiple
copies of trimetric hemagglutinin gets attached with the receptors on the membrane and triggers
endocytosis of the IFV. The virus is trapped in endosome and moves via a unidirectional
pathway towards nucleus of the host cell. At this position the pH of the endosome become acidic
and induces a dramatic conformational change in hemagglutinin to insert the fusion protein into
the host membrane (nucleus). It induces a juxtaposition of the two membrane and forms a fusion
pore that allows the release of the genome segment in the of the IFV. The genome then
undergoes translation in host cells and thus develop protein and in turns shows symptoms of
disease.
At low pH the hemagglutinin of IFV undergoes a conformational change which results in
exposure of a hydrophobic segment of the molecule which is crucial to expression of viral fusion
activity and thus inactivate the entry of the virus. For optimal expression of fusion activity the
virus must bound to the target membrane before exposure to low pH.
In case of measles virus (MV), like other paramyxoviruses (those which have single stand RNA
which are used as template for mRNA synthesis), for the fusion both the fusion protein (F) and
hemagglutinin (H) are required. These proteins are found on the viral surface in a regular array
of tightly packed spikes H tetramers and F timers. H proteins recognizes the receptors on the
target membrane as well as help the F protein in the fusion process which involves the insertion
of hydrophobic fusion peptide in the cell membrane. Unlike IFV, MV uses single protein , the
regulator of complement activation CD46 as its main receptors. CD46 is a type 1 transmembrane
protein which is expressed in four isoform. MV enters a cell by pH independent membrane
fusion at the cell surface. Binding of the H protein is believed to induce conformational change
of the H protein as well as that of the F proteins. The hydrophobic fusion peptide inside the F
protein is then exposed and inserted into the plasma membrane of the target cell. The structural
changes of the F protein then induce fusion of vir.
Are the structures present in the organisms or not Amswer Yes or No.pdf
Are the structures present in the organisms or not? Amswer Yes or No.
Structure
Claim
Squid
Earthworm
Grasshopper
Starfish
Lamprey
Triploblastic
Eucoelomate
Deuterostome
Limbs
External Ear
Reproduction Dioecious
Lungs
Dorsal Nerve Cord
Amniotic Egg
Placenta
Gall Bladder
Endoskeleton
Lobed Liver
Bony Skeleton
Swim bladder
Metanephric Kidney
3 Semicircular canals
Rectal Gland
Larynx/Syrinx
Tetrapod limbs
Double loop circulatory system
Feathers/hair
Homeothermic
Synapsid skull
Bony Operculum
Muscular Gizzard
Mammary Glands
Waterproof Skin
Closed Circulatory System
Claim
Squid
Earthworm
Grasshopper
Starfish
Lamprey
Ventricles
Keratin on Digits
4 Chambered Heart
Diaphragm
Radial Cleavage
Paired Kidney
Ridges in stomach
Spiral valve
Lungs honeycombed
Bilateral Symmetry
Heterodont Dentition
Vas deferens present
Egg Isolecithal
Rotational Cleavage
Pharyngeal/branchial pouches
Enucleated Red Blood Cells
Calcareous shells
Cranial nerves present
Structure
Claim
Squid
Earthworm
Grasshopper
Starfish
Lamprey
Triploblastic
Eucoelomate
Deuterostome
Limbs
External Ear
Reproduction Dioecious
Lungs
Dorsal Nerve Cord
Amniotic Egg
Placenta
Gall Bladder
Endoskeleton
Lobed Liver
Bony Skeleton
Swim bladder
Metanephric Kidney
3 Semicircular canals
Rectal Gland
Larynx/Syrinx
Tetrapod limbs
Double loop circulatory system
Feathers/hair
Homeothermic
Synapsid skull
Bony Operculum
Muscular Gizzard
Mammary Glands
Waterproof Skin
Closed Circulatory System
Claim
Squid
Earthworm
Grasshopper
Starfish
Lamprey
Ventricles
Keratin on Digits
4 Chambered Heart
Diaphragm
Radial Cleavage
Paired Kidney
Ridges in stomach
Spiral valve
Lungs honeycombed
Bilateral Symmetry
Heterodont Dentition
Vas deferens present
Egg Isolecithal
Rotational Cleavage
Pharyngeal/branchial pouches
Enucleated Red Blood Cells
Calcareous shells
Cranial nerves present
Solution
Structure Clam Squid Earthworm Grasshopper Starfish Lamprey Triploblastic Yes yes Yes
Yes Yes No Eucoelomate Yes Yes Yes No No No Deuterostome No No Yes Yes Yes No.
3. When and what was the first operating system which integrated sec.pdf
3. When and what was the first operating system which integrated security into its core function?
Solution
1)Multics was the first operating system used to integrate security as its core functions.
2)planning and development for Multics started in 1964, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
3)In 1970 GE\'s computer business including Multics was taken over by Honeywell.
4)Virtually all modern operating systems are heavily influenced by Multics.
Write an SQL statement to answer the question.Primary keys are( BO.pdf
Write an SQL statement to answer the question.
Primary keys are( BOLD and italicized) and attributes with the same names in different tables
are foreign keys.
Doctors(doctorId, doctorName, specialty)
Patients(patientId, patientName, sex, patientBalance, numberOfVisits)
Records(doctorId, patientId, date, diagnosis, visitCost)
1. For each doctor, list doctor identifier, doctor name and the total number of visits that were
administered by the doctor.
Solution
Answer:
select d.doctorId, d.doctorName, sum(p.numberOfVisits) from Doctors d, Patients p, Records r
where d.doctorId = r.doctorId and r.patientId = p.patientId group by d.doctorId, d.doctorName;.
You are running the Windows installation setup for Windows Vista on .pdf
You are running the Windows installation setup for Windows Vista on a computer. When you
are prompted to input username information, what fields are presented? (Choose three.)
A. Username
B. Password
C. Retype password
D. Computer name
Solution
A, B, and C. You are prompted to enter a username, to enter a password, to retype your
password, and to enter an optional password hint..
1.Based on current fossil evidenceSelect onea. whales were lik.pdf
1.Based on current fossil evidence:
Select one:
a. whales were likely fully aquatic before they evolved peg-like teeth or baleen
b. evolution of baleen forced whales to become fully aquatic
d. a and c are correct
e. b and c are correct
2.Evolution occurs when:
Select one:
a. individuals in a population change in response to the environment
b. the average value of trait in a population changes from one generation to the next
d. Neither a or b is correct
3.New mutations:
Select one:
b. are necessary for natural selection to cause evolutionary change
c. are rare in a population
d. a and b are correct
e. all are correct
4.One important feature that links extinct organisms such as Pakicetus and Indohyus to cetaceans
is:
Select one:
a. the shape of a bone in the middle ear
c. the lack of hindlegs
d. peg-like teeth
5.The fluke of a whale and the fluke of a shark:
Select one:
a. are homologous traits
b. arose through convergent evolution
c. are the result of natural selection
d. b and c are correct
Solution
1.(b)evolution of baleen forced whales to become fully aquatic.
2. (b) evolution occurs when 1. Organisms produce more offspring than actually survive.,2.
Every organism must struggle to survive.,3. There is variation within a species.,4. Some
variations allow members of a species to survive and reproduce better than others.,5. Organisms
that survive and reproduce pass their traits to their offspring, and the helpful traits gradually
appear in more and more of the population.
3. (e) mutations are random with respect to their effects on fitness, necessary for natural selection
to cause evolutionary change and are rare in a population.
4..
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the normal probabi.pdf
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the normal probability distribution?
A) Positively-skewed
B) Bell-shaped
C) Symmetrical
D) Mean Mode and median are all equal
Solution
Positively-skewed is NOT a characteristic of the normal probability distribution
A) Positively-skewed
Characteristics of normal probabiity ditribution
1. The mean, median, and the mode are equal
2. It is Symmetrical
3. It is bell shaped.
Which addresses do Physical layer devices—such as repeaters and hubs.pdf
Which addresses do Physical layer devices—such as repeaters and hubs—examine in order to
make forwarding decisions?
A. Physical
B. Logical
C. Host
D. None of the above
Solution
Which addresses do Physical layer devices such as repeaters and hubsexamine in order to make
forwarding decisions?
ans : 4. none of the above.
What structure of the femur fits in the acetabular fossa Which Is s.pdf
What structure of the femur fits in the acetabular fossa? Which Is superior to the other: the
greeter electric notch or the lesser sciatic notch? The distal end of the tibia articulates with
which tarsal? The pelvic outlet spans the distance between the _____ of the left and right os
coxa.
Solution
2. Head of the femur is spherical and articulate with the acetabulum of the pelvic bone. 3. The
sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments links the each pelvic bone to the sacrum and
coccyx.these convert two notches on the pelvic bone into greater and lesser sciatic notches. So
grater sciatic notche is superior and lesser sciatic notche is inferior in position. 4. Lower surface
and medial malleolus of tibia articulates with talus to form a large part of ankle joint. 5. Pelvic
outlet distance between the inferior border of the body of the pubis, and inferior ramus of the
pubis on left and right is coxa..
What is HIPAA Why was it passed What arc the potential benefits to .pdf
What is HIPAA? Why was it passed? What arc the potential benefits to health care
organizations by complying with HIPAA standards? What arc the potential drawbacks?
Solution
HIPAA stands for Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act.
It was passed in 1996. It does the following:
Provides the ability to transfer and continue health insurance coverage for millions of American
workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs;
Reduces health care fraud and abuse;
Mandates industry-wide standards for health care information on electronic billing and other
processes; and
Requires the protection and confidential handling of protected health information
HIPAA was passed as it gave Congress a way to mandate the establishment of Federal standards
for the privacy of individually identifiable health information. When it comes to personal
information that moves across hospitals, doctors’ offices, insurers or third party payers, and State
lines, our country has relied on a patchwork of Federal and State laws. Under the patchwork of
laws existing prior to adoption of HIPAA and the Privacy Rule, personal health information
could be distributed—without either notice or authorization—for reasons that had nothing to do
with a patient\'s medical treatment or health care reimbursement. For example, unless otherwise
forbidden by State or local law, without the Privacy Rule patient information held by a health
plan could, without the patient’s permission, be passed on to a lender who could then deny the
patient\'s application for a home mortgage or a credit card, or to an employer who could use it in
personnel decisions. The Privacy Rule establishes a Federal floor of safeguards to protect the
confidentiality of medical information. State laws which provide stronger privacy protections
will continue to apply over and above the new Federal privacy standards.
Health care providers have a strong tradition of safeguarding private health information.
However, in today’s world, the old system of paper records in locked filing cabinets is not
enough. With information broadly held and transmitted electronically, the Rule provides clear
standards for the protection of personal health information.
There are many benefits to healthcare organizations for complying with HIPAA standards.
There are huge benefits of reducing paper in health care. There are alo benefits of standardizing
data, especially for the coordination of insurance benefits and payments. Also, this will make
health plan–specific reporting and filing requirements for hospitals and health care providers
unnecessary. Easier to maintain patients\' personal health information in a secure and
confidential manner.
HIPAA privacy rule also has a lot of benefits.
The HIPAA Privacy Rule has helped to create a culture of compliance within many healthcare
organizations. With the ever-changing environment of healthcare regulations, compliance is
imperative. This enabled different organizations to buil.
what are the similarties and difference between bacterial growth .pdf
what are the similarties and difference between bacterial growth and apical growth of
microorganisms
what are the similarties and difference between bacterial growth and apical growth of
microorganisms
Solution
Bacteria multiply by way of binary fission;it is a process in which each parent bacterium divides
into two daughter cells of same sizes.Bacteria growth follows in three phases,the lag phase when
cells adapt to new environment,log phase marking exponential growth and stationary phase when
nutrients get depleted.
Fungi,are capable of reproducing both sexually and asexually.They develop by branching and
fragmentation,while yeasts replicate through budding.Sexual reproduction happens when
specialized cells,gametes,unite to form a unique spore.Spores may also be produced on the tip of
hyphae asexually.Fragmentation takes place when cells of the hyphae split off to form a different
fungus.A single fungus cell may divide in two to form a new fungus in a process termed as
budding.Fungal hyphae extend continuously at their extreme tips, where enzymes are released
into the environment and where new wall materials are synthesised.The rate of tip extension can
be extremely rapid up to 40 micrometres per minute.It is supported by the continuous movement
of materials into the tip from older regions of the hyphae.So,fungal hypha is a continuously
moving mass of protoplasm in a continuously extending tube.This unique mode of growth -
apical growth which is the hallmark of fungi,and it accounts for much of their environmental and
economic significance.Apical growth enables fungi to extend into fresh zones of substrate.This is
especially important for growth on complex,insoluble polymers such as cellulose,because the
enzymes released from hyphae have a limited rate of diffusion.These enzymes create zones of
substrate erosion around the hyphae,but the tips can grow continuously out of these nutrient-
exhausted zones.For this reason,fungi are the major decomposers of organic matter and also are
efficient in capturing mineral nutrients in mycorrhizal associations.Apical growth gives
penetrating power.Hyphal tips can penetrate plant cell walls and insect cuticle,making fungi
important as plant and insect pathogens,and as the major degraders of physically hard materials
such as wood..
What are some examples of analog data What about digital dataS.pdf
What are some examples of analog data? What about digital data?
Solution
Analogue data use values that change very smoothly.
A good example of this is an analog clock. An analogue clock shows the time with a smoothly
moving seconds hand. The change is continuous.
Sound is also a good example of analog data.
Also, the electrical signal wave through a wire is an example of analog data.
Digital data is discrete data that is used to handle all sorts of digital media, including text,
graphics and audio. It only exists in two forms:
Some example of digital data:.
This problem is about Lebesgue Integration problem. Thank you fo.pdf
This problem is about \'Lebesgue Integration\' problem. Thank you for solving this problem..
Thanks a lot.. If lambda and mu are sigma-infinite and lambda
Solution
In mathematics, the integral of a non-negative function of a single variable can be regarded, in
the simplest case, as thearea between the graph of that function and the x-axis. The Lebesgue
integral extends the integral to a larger class of functions. It also extends the domains on which
these functions can be defined.
Mathematicians had long understood that for non-negative functions with a smooth enough
graph—such ascontinuous functions on closed bounded intervals—the area under the curve
could be defined as the integral, and computed using approximation techniques on the region by
polygons. However, as the need to consider more irregular functions arose—e.g., as a result of
the limiting processes of mathematical analysis and the mathematical theory of probability—it
became clear that more careful approximation techniques were needed to define a suitable
integral. Also, one might wish to integrate on spaces more general than the real line. The
Lebesgue integral provides the right abstractions needed to do this important job.
The Lebesgue integral plays an important role in the branch of mathematics called real analysis
and in many other mathematical sciences fields. It is named after Henri Lebesgue (1875–1941),
who introduced the integral (Lebesgue 1904). It is also a pivotal part of the axiomatic theory of
probability.
The term Lebesgue integration can mean either the general theory of integration of a function
with respect to a general measure, as introduced by Lebesgue, or the specific case of integration
of a function defined on a sub-domain of the real line with respect to Lebesgue measure.
The integral of a function f between limits a and b can be interpreted as the area under the graph
of f. This is easy to understand for familiar functions such aspolynomials, but what does it mean
for more exotic functions? In general, for which class of functions does \"area under the curve\"
make sense? The answer to this question has great theoretical and practical importance.
As part of a general movement toward rigour in mathematics in the nineteenth century,
mathematicians attempted to put integral calculus on a firm foundation. The Riemann
integral—proposed by Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866)—is a broadly successful attempt to
provide such a foundation. Riemann\'s definition starts with the construction of a sequence of
easily calculated areas that converge to the integral of a given function. This definition is
successful in the sense that it gives the expected answer for many already-solved problems, and
gives useful results for many other problems.
However, Riemann integration does not interact well with taking limits of sequences of
functions, making such limiting processes difficult to analyze. This is important, for instance, in
the study of Fourier series, Fourier transforms, a.
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- 1. It is a fact that autotriploids have a hard time establishing themselves in nature when they arise. a) Why would this be the case? b) If autotriploids are in fact highly sterile, how is it possible to maintain varieties like the Keizerskroon tulip and the Baldwin apple, which are known to be autotriploids? c) Describe how autotriploidy could arise in each of the following cases: cross- fertilization, self-fertilization, asexual reproduction. d) In humans, approximately 1% of ALL zygotes produced are autotriploids or autotetraploids, but such ploidy is inviablc (Kajii, T., and N. Niikawa, Cytog. Cell Genet. 18: 109, 1977; Pettenati, M. J., et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 24: 23, 1986). How might autotriploidy arise in such a zygote? Solution a) Autotriploids have a hard time establishing themselves in nature when they arise as they are highly sterile. This is due to disturbed alignment of homologous chromosomes in prophase I followed by altered segregation in anaphase I which in turn leads to uneven distribution of gametes. b) The autotriploid varieties like Keizerskroon tulip and Baldwin apple are maintained by vegetative propagation (clonal propagation) rather than sexual reproduction. c) CROSS FERTILIZATION: Autotriploidy arises by fusion of diploid and haploid gametes during sexual reproduction. The diploid gamete can come from autotetraploid or nondisjunction of chromosomes during anaphase in gametogenesis in a diploid parent. SELF FERTILIZATION: Non disjunction of chromosomes during megasporogenesis produces diploid gametes which then fuses with haploid gamete on self fertilization and give rise to autotriploid. ASXUAL REPRODUCTION: Consecutive DNA replication during S phase followed by arrest of cell division leads to formation of autotriploids during asexual reproduction. d) Fusion of diploid egg with haploid sperms forms autotriploid zygotes in human.