Review Of Article On Arsenic Crisis In Bangladesh

Review of Article on Arsenic Crisis in Bangladesh
Summary: The people of Bangladesh were dying and getting ill from water. This water was provided through tube wells that were connected to an
underground aquifer. Such actions were taken on the 1980's, when many children died from diarrhea. This project facilitated the lives of many since
their people did not have to walk long distances and carry heavy jars full of water. Unfortunately, the water was not checked for arsenic. A
dermatologist believed the water from the tube wells contained arsenic but the British Geological Survey insisted it was safe. Today the tubewells are
known to have 50 micrograms of arsenic per liter. The article also explains some of the symptoms that could be experienced after 10 years of
consuming arsenic contaminated water, these include: black spots, conjunctivitis, bronchitis, diarrhea, etc. The Bangladesh government borrowed
money but has not yet taken action since they do not know how to solve this issue. The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee trained 160
volunteers to test the tubewells and identify the symptoms of arsenicosis. Many of their volunteers also made maps to inform people of safe
tubewells and ponds. 1. What was the purpose or point in writing this article? This article was written to inform people of the hardships poor countries
face and to encourage us to be more involved in issues that concern our health. In the article, The British Geological Survey reassure the villagers that
their water was safe, however, the water
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Effects Of Pesticides On The Environment
Over two–thirds of the plant (planet I assume?) is covered by it, and humans will die within 3 to 7 days without it. Water is the most precious resource
on the planet, but can also be taken for granted especially in first–world countries where it is always available at the faucet. This modern marvel of
having clean water so easily accessible is threatened by another modern invention, the application of pesticides. While pesticides have narrowed the
gap between actual yield and yield potential in our conventional crops, they are also a source of nontarget poisoning responsible for fish kills,
reproductive failures in birds, and human illnesses (Arias–Estevez et al, 2007). In fact, only about 0.1% of pesticides actually reach their targeted pest
(Pimentel, 1995). Most pesticide ends up in the environment where it is transported or degraded through volatilization, runoff into surface water and
groundwater, or taken up by nontarget organisms (van der Werf, 1996). The movement of pesticides into groundwater poses a grave threat to the
health of our communities. According to a 1999 USGS survey, around 50% of water samples collected from wells contained at least one pesticide
(Arias–Estevez et al, 2007). In Ohio, a well testing program started by the Water Quality Laboratory of Heidelberg College found that wells were
contaminated most frequently by atrazine and alachlor, albeit at very low levels and in less than 5% of wells (Baker, 1990). There is a need to
identify pesticide

MaharashtraвЂ™s maximum irrigation potential
Challenges faced by many countries in their struggle for economic and social developments are related to water (TAC, GWP 2000: 6) 2. India, too, is
a varied country in terms of water availability and Maharashtra is a peculiar State of it.
Maharashtra has uneven distribution of water resources. A large area is, therefore, water deficit whereas a small part is bestowed with abundance of
water. Maharashtra's physiography has constraints over the creation of surface water (SW) potential for irrigation purpose. At present, the area under
irrigation is 17.5 per cent out of total cultivable area 3. One study estimates that even after exploiting all feasible sites, maximum irrigation potential
created may reach up to 34 percent. This suggests ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In line with the policy, GSDA, following its emergence, was inclined towards executing systematic and scientific hydrogeological surveys for
exploration, assessment and development of GW sources in the State. The organisation began with scientific approach for strategic development and
appropriate policy formulation. During this first phase GSDA carried out considerable work pertaining to GW development. The core concept was
drilling of bore wells (BW) and hand pump installation to provide drinking water facility to rural population in view of source dependency. The
underlying objective was to provide potable and assured drinking water in every nook and corner of the State.
State resolved the issue of drinking water scarcity by initiating BW based hand pump programs. GSDA carried out drilling activities and drilled more
than 100,000 BWs. Similarly, GSDA recommended open dug wells (DW) to tap GW from shallowaquifer 5 that is replenishable under normal rainfall
conditions for irrigational purpose.
Consequently, the role of organisation as service provider helped tackle drinking water scarcity in the State, placating the impatient politicians. The
scientific survey by organisation helped in greater success of DWs in terms of GW availability. However, it became imperative for organisations to
modify their structure to suit the new roles, new attitudes and approaches in its functioning. GSDA, too, while performing the

Florida's Water Issues: Saltwater Intrusion
Florida's Water Issues – Saltwater Intrusion Saltwater intrusion leading to contaminated drinking water wells has long been feared in South Florida.
Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater.
Because saltwater has a higher mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. There are three primary mechanisms by
which saltwater contaminates the freshwater reservoir in the unconfined, surficial aquifers of the region: one, subsurface movement of seawater (lateral
large–scale intrusion), two, seepage of seawater from tidal canals and streams, and three, upward movement of connate saltwater (water remaining from
the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Among these events are the initial operation of the Northwest Well Field and a consequent reduction in pumping from the Hialeah–Miami Springs Well
Field, expansion of the Southwest Well Field, and changes in the delivery schedule of water to southern Dade County and Everglades National Park.
Chloride concentrations in water samples collected from existing monitoring wells in northeastern Dade County have indicated little, if any, inland
movement of the saltwater interface since 1984. The saltwater interface in northeastern Dade County is shown in approximately the same location with
differences due to more information being available and not to any perceived movement of the saltwater

Water Scarcity Is A Global Concern
Water scarcity is a global concern, and that means there's even a problem in our own backyard. While it may be difficult to put yourself in the shoes of
an African child struggling to find fresh water, it's important to understand that water scarcity affects everyone, even here in the United States. Water
covers approximately seventy percent of the Earth surface, but less than one percent of that is available for human use. The world must share this small
amount for agricultural, domestic, commercial industrial and environment needs. Across the globe, water consumption has tripled in the last fifty
years. Managing the supply and availability of water is one of the most critical natural resource issues facing the United States and... Show more content
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The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is working to preserve local waters. The U.S. Bureau is trying to prevent future shortage of water. If people do
not obey the law they will face the enforcement of fines. Global Warming is a concern that the decreasing water containment in Colorado Lake
Powell some of the Colorado Rivers are lower course near Baja, California that is now actually running dry. There are a lot of populations along the
land around Southwest bends of rivers face a threat to their drinking and irrigation water supply. The Canyons and Whitewater rapids are a vital
source of water for agricultural and urban areas in the southwestern desert lands in North America. The rivers are controlled by a system of dams and
reservoirs. Irrigation and municipal water supply about forty million people inside and out land that separates to adjacent rivers. Since the mid–20th
century, intensive water consumption has dried 100 miles of river that is no longer reaches the sea. In 1998 there was a heavy runoff of water
causing deficiency in water supply. Irrigation is a method of transporting water to crops in order to maximize the amount of crops produced. Many of
the irrigation systems in place do not use the water in the most efficient way. This causes more water than necessary to be used or not enough water to
ensure healthy crops. Tom Vilsack, U.S. agriculture secretary, said in an interview that

Analysis: Why California Groundwater Should Be Regulated
Why California Groundwater Should be Regulated
We have all heard that the drought in California is finally over but, if history repeats itself, we know that it will be back sooner rather than later. The
drought has taught us how Groundwater is used and who uses the most. Groundwater is water from below Earth's surface that fills empty spaces and
cracks in the rock. 30 million Californians rely on groundwater for their drinking water supply.
One of the biggest consumers of groundwater in our state are farmers. During a drought the farmers have to use wells to water their crops. The water
from these wells use garoundwater from Aquifers. Water in Aquifers provide 60% of California's groundwater in drought years. Because California
has been in a drought for the last 5 years, farmers have used and over used groundwater from wells. Over–pumping can compress soil and rocks
making them compact ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
33% of groundwater is supplied to households and businesses. Everyone in California uses groundwater for drinking, cleaning, laundry, bathing and
cooking. Without it we couldn't survive. Water on Earth is a finite source. Protecting and regulating groundwater means protecting our lives.
I know that in the pas California has not been monitoring or regulating pumped groundwater. But, in September 2014 in an article written by Melanie
Mason of the Los Angeles Times, "Gov. Jerry Brown signs historic groundwater managmenet legislation" she wrote, "Governor Jerry Brown signed a
trio of bills Tuesday establishing a framework for statewide regulation of California's underground water sources, marking the first time in the state's
history that groundwater will be managed on a large scale.
This is good news and will help but sources say it will take 50+ years to replenish our Aquifers. There are things we could all do to help conserve
groundwater and give the Aquifers a chance to fill up

An Analysis of Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers
Seawater intrusion is defined as the movement of seawater into freshwater aquifers which are generally made of ground water near the coast. An
interface or dispersion zone is the area where fresh water and seawater meet. Analytical models and numerical models as well as Mathematical
methods are used to find or to investigate solutions to this, as the seawater contaminates the fresh drinking water. The aim of this essay is to give an
account of two modelling approaches that describe what happens at the interface by discussing the models. As well as to discuss how tides may have
an impact on seawater intrusion. Ataie–Ashtiani, Volker and Lockington(1999:17) suggested that there is a direct relationship between the area of the
dispersion, the scale, the shape, the degree of the dispersion area, and parameters such as hydraulic conductivity, the comparative densities of the salt
and fresh water as well as the rate of discharge of the ground water. There is limited accuracy to the usage of the models as the models are limited by
assuming various situations. Altaie–Ashtiani et al (1999:18) gestates the rare occurrence of salt–water intrusion in ground water in two ways: the
sharp–interface approach and the disperse interface approach. The sharp–interface approach is the approach in which it should be assumed that the salt
water and fresh water are immiscible fluids which are separated by a sharp interface. This approach includes the diffusion and the effects of the
hydrodynamic

The Causes Of The Drought In California
The Drought in California has lasted about five years. California is an American state known for it agricultural industry and large cities. It is on the
West Coast near the Ocean as well. It is supposed to get both rain and snowfall throughout the year, but the drought has prevented as sufficient amount
from occurring.
The drought was caused by overuse and over extraction from water tables and freshwater sources for the commercial agricultural industry. The biggest
cause, however, was a high–pressure system near the coast diverting storms away from California because it cannot rain California is in a drought.
Due to this drought, many crops have dies leading to poverty for many farmers. People are lacking clean drinking water forcing the state to bring it in
from other states. Water tables are collapsing as well.
To mitigate loss of life close monitoring of dry woods needs to occur that way if a forest fire starts it can be put out easier, or the surrounding areas
can evacuate more effectively.
People are also shifting away from grass lawns to save water from being wasted on something purely for intrinsic value. They are also using less water
for washing dishes and showering to prevent the need for any more water extraction.
California is also importing more produce instead of growing it on their own to prevent malnourishment and supplement the lack of produce being
grown in state.
8. Hurricane/serious storm case study: discuss a serious hurricane or tropical storm. Where did it hit and what impact did it have? How did/could
weather monitoring mitigate loss?
Hurricane Katrina hit The United States and Canada. In the United States, it did the most damage in New Orleans, Louisiana. It also hit parts of
Florida, Georgia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Mississippi and Alabama.
It came onto land as a Category three hurricane with powerful windspeeds reaching more than 125 miles per hour.
New Orleans is a large city hit by Katrina with most the land being lower to sea level making It prone to flooding. It is also has the Mississippi river
flowing through it. There are many poverty–stricken neighborhoods usually in areas with more flooding.
Meteorologists were capable of predicting Hurricane Katrina

Groundwater Analysis : Groundwater Governance
This paper reviews the available groundwater governance literature with the specific aim of highlighting and critically examining the role of knowledge
in supporting "good governance" of groundwater resources including how knowledge co–generation/co–production may contribute to enhancing
cooperation/reducing conflict over managing shared resources. While reviews of global literature do exist, they have thus far only been used to make
generic recommendations on the importance of knowledge for groundwater governance, and have not been specifically examined the role of knowledge
in conflict management between different actors.
Governance is essentially a set of enabling framework and guiding principles through which institutions or set of institutions would exercise an
authority. In short it shows how the decision making of this entity is taking place and how these decisions are implemented (Rogers et. al, 2006). The
"good" groundwater governance could be described by the transparency of the decision–making process and its further effective implementation in
meeting the sustainable and equitable management of these resources. Although groundwater governance builds onto overall water governance, the
peculiarities of groundwater and the way in which it is formed, developed and exploited by different stakeholders requires specific governance
principles and analysis (Paul, 2015).
Often environmental issues need interdisciplinary approaches and analysis which may not be possible

Analysis Of The Scholarly Article ' Offshore Aquifers ' By...
In the scholarly article "Offshore Aquifers" by Renee Martin–Nagle, she discusses the discovery of fresh water sources being found in the ocean. Nagle
talks about the water shortage not only are an issue for California, but also the entire world. She talks about how there are two different types of
aquifers, recharging and non–recharging aquifers. Recharging aquifers are aquifers are linked with the surface and receive its water reserves from
rainwater, streams, rivers, and runoff. They are commonly found close to the surface. They are more susceptible to over–use and pollution.
Non–recharging aquifers are usually found deep beneath the surface, and porous rocks, buried beneath a solid layer of sedimentary limestone or
dolomite rock. The water found in the non–recharging aquifers arrives there because it gets trapped there when tectonic plates shift, and sea levels
where much lower 20,000 years ago when the Siberian land bridge allowed humans to travel from Asia to the Americas. Nagle also discussed both
pro's and con's of extracting the water from the ocean. It will not be an easy task because while the United States is fighting a water shortage,
attempting to mine the water from the ocean could cause huge irreversible damage to the ecosystem of the ocean and pollution to the environment. If
the drilling is not done very carefully, the entire water supply could be contaminated. Nagle discusses that the underwater drilling would be comparable
to drilling oil

High Plains Aquifer
The High Plains aquifer was formed from erosion and transporting materials of sands, clay, and gravel from the Rocky Mountains from stream
flows. This aquifer provides water for uses of irrigation and drinking water for eight of the fifty states which are South Dakota, Texas, Nebraska,
Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Kansas, and Wyoming. Since this aquifer spans over a vast area, it is considered the largest in the United States.
Also, because this aquifer passes through eight different states, each state has a different policy about how each said state should handle the
conservation of the ground water that provides water to nearly 2.3 million people, and because it covers such a large area over agricultural land, most
of the water is used in irrigating the crops for 30 percent of the United States (Dennehy, 2013). The discrepancies between the eight states the aquifer
overlies causes huge problems involving the depletion of the groundwater source if certain measures are not taken to sustain the livelihood of The High
Plains Aquifer (Mann, 2009).
The High Plains Aquifer's main source of recharging comes from precipitation at a low rate below .30 inches in parts of Texas, but over 5 inches in
some parts of the other eight states within the aquifer's territory including Kansas and Nebraska (Dennehy, 2013). The issues with in managing the...
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This study was instated directly from congress because it was finally realized how important The High Plains Aquifer because of how much of this
water is used in the irrigation of crop production in the United States. Now, as a result of this study each state has to report the changes in the levels
of the water and how much remains in storage in each state every two years, not only to Congress, but to be recorded on the USGS website for public
access (McGuire,

North and Central Florida Springs Essay
Introduction Groundwater is the largest and most available usable source of drinking water in the state. There is a vast and mysterious system of
caves and natural springs in North Central Florida. The cave system within the aquifer is one of the most amazing parts. The caves are remarkable in
many ways. They are among the deepest and longest in the world, let alone the U.S. Another amazing aspect of the system is the purity of the water.
The springs collectively produce billions of gallons of crystal clear water per day. The whole system stems from theFlorida Aquifer that rests under the
entire state. When most people think of Florida, they think of the weather and the beaches, but its the springs and the whole water ... Show more content
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The thousands of tourists and residents that enjoy these springs are a very good reason to protect and cherish them. The recreation is not as
important to preserve as the quality and amount of drinking water that the springs produce. The joy that the springs give so many people and the
revenue they could generate are valid reasons to be concerned about their condition and their future. The labyrinth of caves has been a favorite of
cave divers for more than 40 years. The diving can be quite dangerous though. Without proper precaution and safety measures divers can very well
get lost or trapped in the caves. In the last 40 years or so, about 300 divers have died in the caves. Communities have always been based around the
springs. Everyone from the Native Americans to the settlers would have used the springs for food and water. These springs made life in Florida
possible and their importance and heritage needs to be remembered and appreciated. Small communities like Ichetucknee are completely dependent on
their spring for their way of life. The spring and surrounding community are a cultural landmark. When the springs become endangered, the
communities and the small town way of life for North and Central Florida become endangered. Ichetucknee Springs are endangered, just as many
across the state are. Chemicals and waste from Lake City, a town 15 miles away are showing up in trace amounts in the spring. The

The Floridan Aquifer
The Floridan Aquifer
Water is an endless cycle that repeats itself but doesn't necessarily remain drinkable. Rain feeds vegetation, evaporation occurs, and then returns to
rivers, streams, and lakes and may seep into rocks and caves underground through limestone and into aquifers. It may take many years before it
reaches the surface. Water is a valuable resource that people tend to mishandle and take for granted. Explorers have dove into the paths underground
to trace paths of water that flow deep under homes, streets, cities, and pastures only to surface a dirty and contaminated pond. Inside these deep paths
explorers have found tires, oil barrels and chemical containers that most people are unaware of. Over 8 billion gallons of water ... Show more content on
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Homeowners that water grass may require large amounts of fertilizer that contribute to high levels of nitrates in the aquifer, a major source of drinking
water. Water containing nitrates contribute to algae growth and can endanger plants and wildlife in the springs. Lawns with landscaping with
non–native plants may also require daily watering and frequent pesticides to keep them healthy and disease–free. Nearly half of all water withdrawn for
our supply is used only to water lawns and landscaping. Population increase in Florida has led to more to transforming rural areas and uninhabited land
into housing, shopping centers, and buildings. Pavement and roads prevent rainwater absorption into the aquifer and increase run–off of chemicals and
other waste. Agriculture also requires chemicals to kill insects and thus absorbed into the ground into our drinking water. Dairy farms produce a lot of
animal waste along with the pesticides and chemicals used to maintain the livestock and irrigation that also enter our supply of drinking water. BMP, or
best management practices, include water conservation. Humans have a major impact on water contamination and should use caution so that our water
is preserves. Contribution efforts on our part are reducing the water usage for lawn care and fertilizers, indoor water

SCI207 WEEK 2 QUIZ Essay
Question : 1
Which of the following is an environmental concern of genetically engineered crops mentioned in your text?
Genetically modified crops lead to larger applications of toxic herbicides and insecticides. The genetic modification of crops increases soil erosion
while decreasing soil fertility. Genetic engineering is less precise than traditional methods of crossbreeding. CORRECT Genes from genetically
modified crops may transfer to non–genetically modified crops. INCORRECT All of the above are environmental concerns of genetically engineered
crops.
2. Question :
What is the central theme of "The first green revolution" section in Chapter 3.1 of your text? The green revolution ... Show more content on
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None of the above are the central theme. Question 4. Question :
Which of the following statements summarizes the water situation in China that was discussed in your text
China has been able to avoid major water shortages due to its construction of the Three Gorges Dam, which provides electricity and agricultural water
throughout China. Due to the water–rich Yangtze River Basin, China has been able to provide clean water to much of the highly populated region,
even in the face of growing population. CORRECT Due to its large population, China is experiencing water shortages that have significantly decreased
numerous wildlife populations. In the face of a growing population, China has begun to use desalination techniques to provide ample clean water to its
people and agricultural soils. All of the statements about water in China are true. Question 5. Question :
Which of the following is not an environmental impact of conventional agriculture expressed in your text?
: CORRECT Agricultural practices improve wildlife habitats and lead to increased species populations in farming communities. Agricultural practices
can lead to significant air quality concerns through the emission of ammonia, nitrous oxide, methane, and other potentially dangerous gases. Poor soil
management can lead to biological, chemical, and physical degradation, which can in turn negatively alter the activity of

The Floridan Aquifer : The Principal Source Of Water Supply
The Floridan Aquifer extends through several southeastern U.S. states and is one of the most productive kart landscape in the country. The Floridan
aquifer system consists primarily of limestone rocks of high permeability, and is separated into two principal hydro–stratigraphic zones consisting of
the Upper Floridan Aquifer (UFA) and the Lower Floridan Aquifer (LFA). The upper Floridan aquifer is the principal source ofwater supply in most of
north and central Florida: "The Upper Floridan aquifer generally consists of the Ocala Limestone and the dolomite and dolomitic limestones of the
upper one–third of the Avon Park Formation" (OReilly, et al. 2002). The LFA consists of "alternating beds of limestone and dolomite, and is
characterized ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Karst System Sediment Transport System and Response
Mahler & Lynch studied the sediment transport response of springs to two storm events: one following a wet season and the other following a dry
season. They describe the temporal changes in total suspended solids (TSS), mineralogy, and particle size distribution. Concentrations of suspended
sediment peaked 14 to 16 hours after rainfall, and the bulk of the sediment (approximately 1 metric ton in response to each storm) discharged within
24hour after rainfall. TSS consisted of dolomite, calcite, quartz, and clay. Sediment in karst is detrimental to aquifer permeability, wells, pumps, and
spring esthetics. Sediment can act as a vector for nutrients, contaminants, or bacterial transport.
Mahler & Lynch focused on "temporal changes in geochemical characteristics of particulates discharging from a major karst spring in response to
precipitation, and relate them to sediment source and potential for contaminant transport" (Mahler et al. 1998). The karst aquifer investigated was the
Barton Springs segment of the Edwards aquifer in central Texas. Hourly samples for sediment and water analyses were collected from an orifice of
Main Springs following two high–intensity storm events and one drawdown (nonstorm) event. Suspended sediment samples were

Hydrologic Cycle Essay
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE The hydrologic cycle is a constant movement of water above, on, and below the earth's surface. It is a cycle that replenishes
ground water supplies. It begins as water vaporizes into the atmosphere from vegetation, soil, lakes, rivers, snowfields and oceans–a process called
evapotranspiration. As the water vapor rises it condenses to form clouds that return water to the land through precipitation: rain, snow, or hail.
Precipitation falls on the earth and either percolates into the soil or flows across the ground. Usually it does both. When precipitation percolates into
the soil it is called infiltration when it flows across the ground it is called surface run off. The amount of precipitation that infiltrates, versus the ... Show
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The voids are spaces between grains of sand, or cracks in dense rock. All water beneath the land surface occurs within such void space sand is
referred to as underground or subsurface water. Subsurface water occurs in two different zones. One zone, located immediately beneath the land
surface in most areas, contains both water and air in the voids. This zone is referred to as the unsaturated zone. Other names for the unsaturated
zone are zone of aeration and vadose zone. The unsaturated zone is almost always underlain by a second zone in which all voids are full of water.
This zone is defined as the saturated zone. Water in the saturated zone is referred to as ground water and is the only subsurface water available to
supply wells and springs. Water table is often misused as a synonym for ground water. However, the water table is actually the boundary between
the unsaturated and saturated zones. It represents the upper surface of the ground water. Technically speaking, it is the level at which the hydraulic
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. The water level found in unused wells is often the same level as the water table. AQUIFERS An aquifer is
a saturated geologic formation that will yield a usable quantity of water to a well or spring. Ground water occurs in aquifers under two conditions:
confined and unconfined. A confined aquifer is overlain by a confining bed, such as an impermeable layer of clay

Florida Aquifer System
Next we will discuss the Florida Aquifer System. There are many factors that contribute to the storage and movement of ground water, porosity and
permeability are the two most important elements to this equation (Lutgens, 2012.) Porosity is the volume of open space between rock or sediment and
permeability is the ability for a fluid to pass through (Lutgens, 2012.) Rock and sediments that allow groundwater to travel freely are called aquifers.
These aquifers are natural resources that exist underneath the earths surface to store water. In the case of Florida's aquifer system the system is
considered to be one of the most productive in the world (USGS, n.d.) In its entirety, the aquifer system "underlies an area of about 100,000 square miles

The Hazards Of The Abandoned Mining
Abandoned Mining
This hazard is important because rain, snow or wind will move materials from the abandoned place and would contaminate aquifers through their
recharge zone. It is important to first solve the use and dispose of chemical elements exposed in a mine before abandoning it.
Ore deposits
Very often, the presence of certain elements, such as mercury, arsenic or radioactive elements, are concentrated in an area close to the aquifers and
represent a hazard. When drilling claystone is easy to find high emissions of radiation and it is possible to read it through electrical registers inside the
well like Gamma Ray, Spontaneous Potential, and Resistivity.
Waste
Several hazards for the aquifers come from solid and liquid residues ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is the authorities' competency to authorize the industry activities. Villa–Pinzon, Cundinamarca, a small town less than one hundred miles from
Bogota, is located in the Bogota River Valley. A leather industry used to use titanium to improve its manufacturing processes; after the process was
finished, the water used was poured to the Bogota River, contaminating the river's water. There are aquifers that recharge from the Bogota River's water.
Agriculture
If the agriculture industry has advanced technological methods, that itself is a hazard for aquifers because the water used in the process could be
contaminated with chemical products such as pesticides, insecticides or organic residues and after could go to the recharge zone for one or more
aquifers. Discriminated fumigation with glyphosate to eradicate illegal plantations contaminates stream waters which could contaminate aquifers
through recharge zones.
Over exploitation
Aquifers have a recharge area and a discharge limit, both dependent on the natural hydrogeological and hydrological conditions. These conditions are
based on the aquifers geometry, extension and rock type among other characteristics. When the pumping amount overrides the limit and the recharge
area is not providing enough water to supply, there is a risk of overexploitation and contamination of the aquifer.
Risk management
Due to failing projects to provide a sustainable source of drinkable water to

Hydrogeological Desktop Study Essays
Proposal for Field Investigation:
Assessment of Permits for water Extraction Establishment of Managed Aquifer recover (MAR) System
1. Introduction 2.1. Managed Aquifer Recovery Systems
As reported by the South Australian local government of Charles Sturt (2012), Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) or ManagedAquifer Recharge
(MAR) is essentially the deliberate storage of surface water (i.e. in the form of stormwater, treated effluent etc) within aquifers. This process is used
where water is pumped into aquifers for future usage. Furthermore, MAR systems avoid the need for expensive above ground water tanks, or reservoirs
which are subject to significant water evaporation (Charles Sturt, 2012).
As reported by the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is also proposed to locate an MAR 2km from the coast roughly in the middle of the study area. This MAR will inject tertiary treated sewage water
into all three aquifers to prevent salinity intrusion that is occurring in that vicinity.
As discussed above, we have an initial water balance from a previous study of the Study Area, and we have some new parameters to enter into our
assessment, namely the proposal to extract 2 ML/d from the reservoir, and 5 ML/d from the river.
We must also note that the proposed MAR does not specify how much water would be injected, and the proposed permits assessed below do not
stipulate the quality of water required. If the permits below require high quality water, (i.e. better than tertiary treated effluent), the following
assessment may be inaccurate.
3.4. Water Balance – Reservoir
The initial water balance suggests that the water balance for the reservoir (i.e. the net change in water in storage) was 10450 ML / Year, and one of
the proposed industrial plants is seeking a permit to extract 1825 ML / Year from the reservoir.
We can see that the figures above are yield a decrease in the net change in water volume in storage in the reservoir, however there is still a significant
amount of water in the reservoir throughout the year (8625

Analysis On The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System
The integrated geophysical, remote sensing, isotopic and geochronologic and modelling studies on the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System have come
up with the following findings and recommendations:
1–Geophysical studies:
Based on the integration of gravity, magnetic, and borehole data the structural trends, uplifts and sedimentary cover affecting theaquifer behavior have
been conducted. The area of the NSAS is affected by several structural trends in different directions; the most prominent directions are NE–SW, N–S,
E–W, and NW–SE. The dominant NE–SW trend is associated with the Pelusium and Qattara mega shears.
The sedimentary cover shows a northward increase from less than 0.5 km in northern Sudan and southern Egypt to more than 6 km at the Mediterranean
coast. The sediments thickness shows a shallowing of the basement rocks along the east–west trending Uweinat–Aswan basement uplift which may
impede the south to north groundwater flow and replenishment from the recharge areas in the south.
The NE–SW trending Pelusium mega shear cuts the Precambrian rocks and continues upward in the sedimentary cover; it formed deep structural
controlled basins along its zone, which were filled by high thick sediments of relatively high hydraulic conductivities extending from the Kufra Basin
in Libya and Chad to the northern part of Dakhla Basin in Egypt. This zone could provide a preferred groundwater flow pathway from the Kufra to the
Dakhla Basin.
2–Climatically (GRACE & CLM4.5):

Groundwater Samples Were Collected And Reported By Sultan...
Groundwater samples were collected and reported by Sultan et al. (2011) from Sinai for isotopic analyses of H and O from open and productive wells
tapping three types of aquifers: (1) fractured basement, (2) Nubian Sandstone unconfined aquifer cropping out at the foothills of the basement outcrops,
and (3) alluvial. They believed that the unconfined and alluvial aquifers fed by a fractured basement aquifer through discharging into the overlying
sediments. The ОґD and Оґ18O isotopic compositions of the groundwater samples from the unconfined Nubian Sandstone aquifers in the recharge
areas cropping out at the foothills of the basement outcrops are somewhat depleted (ОґD: –22.7 to –32.8вЂ°; Оґ18O: –4.47 to –5.22вЂ°) compared to
those from fractured basement outcrops (ОґD: –19.9 to –23.2вЂ°; Оґ18O: –3.77 to –5.05вЂ°) and those from alluvial aquifers (ОґD: –22.7 to
–23.4вЂ°; Оґ18O: –4.53 to –5.01вЂ°), but they are less depleted than those reported from the Gulf of Suez (Sturchio et al., 1996). The isotopic
compositions of the samples from the fractured basement and alluvial aquifers are similar to those of average modern precipitation from Al Arish and
Rafah (Fig. 3). The unconfined aquifer shows a mixing between fossil waters of the Western Desert, formed in pluvial period, and modern precipitation
deposited in dry and warm climatic conditions (Sultan et al., 1997, 2011).
6.3.6. EASTERN DESERT
Hydrogen and oxygen show a wide range of isotopic ratios for Eastern Desert groundwater samples, which

Water Changes In Madagascar
Introduction Madagascar is a famous colorful cartoon movie for all kids since many years. It is a peaceful green island with the most beautiful
mixture of lots of plants and all types of animals are found and nowhere else in the world does it show more than in the movie. Of course, many
people perhaps think this African island should is pure paradise. The reality is way different from what the movie portrays. Around 50% of the full
population lives below poverty level according to a UNDP Human development poverty indicator. This country is entirely dependent on agriculture.
Of course, water plays a leading role in our daily life. Climate change and global warming in the recent years are becoming serious issues which
Madagascar faces today,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We endorse safety at work for both the workers and the individuals who will benefit from the new source of water. Many of the drillers on this unit
have skills in hang dug wells. However, they are working with modern, small–scale rigs provided by donors. These, machines can dig to around
150–200 feet. The machinery is very efficient and in this zoning of Madagascar will do a great job. They can be moved with ease and allow work
to happen instantly. While the machines drill through dirt and rock, casing is installed to keep the hole from collapsing. The next step is a concrete
base is constructed around the small casing (a few feet in diameter) and is left to set up from night to morning. Once the concrete pad is dry, the
pump instrument is correctly lowered into the hole and a hand pump is linked. The unit prepares notes of how much water discharges and safeguards
if it is safe to drink. Due to these new wells being closed airtight, the water stays clean and can be depleted without any

Aquifer In Texas
An aquifer is a permeable rock underground that bears water, this water can be collected through wells for people to use and drink. Within Texas
there are 23 different aquifers, but for Central Texas we tend to favor Edwards Aquifer and due to this many problems have arisen for the aquifer and
its inhabitants. We will first discuss the history of Edwards Aquifer, the reasons behind the current issue concerning the aquifer including what species
are endangered and why, and lastly what solutions are being set forth.
As early as the 18th century and possibly even before then, Edwards Aquifer was used as a place marker and for domestic human use. Native
American tribes including Comanche, Apache, and Tonkawa had been living beside the spring fed... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By plans of their cities, I mean where they might expand next or if they want to increase the pumping of water in the area from Edwards Aquifer.
What many people do not know is that the species in Edwards Aquifer are beneficial to them from their roles in the environment. Each animal has a
role that when put together will all the other roles in the ecosystem, it creates equilibrium and gives the aquifer the potential to survive. With these
species gradually coming closer to extinction, an imbalance is created in the ecosystem that allows for the possibility of other species to thrive that
might harm the aquifer. If the situation were to continue as it has been, then we will lose the beneficial animals, the aquifer, and would have to deal
with the problem of the new species and of finding a new water source. In the end, no one would win, everyone would be a lost and then pressure
would possibly be put on another aquifer and then the same problem could

Techniques of Rain Water Harvesting to Increase Ground...
RAIN WATER HARVESTING AND ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE OF GROUND WATER RAJASTHAN CONTEXT by Dr. S. K. GUPTA
Scientist 'D' Central Ground Water Board Western Region, Jaipur
Rain water harvesting and Artificial recharge of ground water
Rainwater harvesting is the technique of collection
and storage of rain water at surface or in subsurface aquifer, before it is lost as surface run off or as
evaporation.
The artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding that under natural conditions
of replenishment utilizing suitable civil construction techniques.
Identification of Area
Areas where availability of ground water is inadequate in lean months. Areas where groundwater levels ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Check Dam, Cement Plug, Nala Bund
A series of small bunds are made across selected nala sections such that the flow of surface water in the stream channel is impeded and water is
retained on pervious soil/rock surface for longer period. Nala bunds are constructed across bigger nalas of second order streams in areas having
gentler slopes. A nala bund acts like a mini percolation tank.
Horizontal Section of Nala Bund
Vertical Section of Nala Bund
Site Characteristic and Design Guidelines
The total catchment of the nala should normally be between 40 to 100 Hectares. The rainfall in the catchment should be 25 m). Aquifer is over lain by
impervious thick clay beds. Injection well can be with or without assembly. The Injection well with assembly should have screen in the potential
aquifer at least 3–5 m below the water level. The injection well without assembly is filled with gravel to provide hydraulic continuity so that water is
directly recharged into the aquifer.

п‚§ п‚§
The injection well without assembly is very costeffective. The efficiency is very high and rate of recharge goes even up to 15 1ps at certain places.
Vertical Shaft with Injection Well
Rainwater Harvesting Structure, Collectorate Building, Jaipur
Lateral Recharge Shaft
пЃ±
Ideally suited for areas where permeable sandy horizon is within 3 meter

The Distribution And Mobilization Of A Groundwater Aquifer
Geochemistry plays an important role the distribution and mobilization of As in groundwater aquifer. To find the influence of geochemical processes of
As mobilization in groundwater of the study area, the correlation matrix among As and various physio–chemical parameter are given in Table 4.
Pearson correlation matrices show that various physio–chemical parameters pairs of groundwater samples have a significant positive correlations such
as TDS–EC (r = 1.000), TDS–Na (r = 0.587), TDS–Ca (r = 0.624), EC– Na (r = 0.617), EC–Ca (r = 0.618), Na–Ca (r = 0.564), and K–Mn (r = 0.566)
respectively. Similarly some pairs have also shown significant negative correlation such as Mg2+–HCO3– (r = 0.590), well depth–Mn (r = 0.518). The
concentration of As in groundwater has insignificantly negative correlated to Fe (r=–0.260), Cl– (r=–0.081) and SO42– (r=–0.062), while As has
insignificantly positive correlated to Mn (r=0.185), NO3–( r=0.111), HCO3– (r=1777), pH (r=0.226), Na+ (r=0.223), K+ (r=0.227), Ca2+ (r=0.262)
and Mg2+ (r=0.199). In this study, an insignificant positive correlation between As and Mn has observed, while an insignificant negative correlation
between As and Fe has existed in groundwater aquifer (Table 4). This finding is in good agreement with the earlier correlation matrix analysis of
arsenic by Ohno et al. (2005) and Reza and Jean (2012) in the fine–grained core sediment samples in northwestern Nawabganj district, Bangladesh
where they reported no

The Denver Basin Aquifer Framework
Denver Basin Aquifer
The Denver Basin aquifer framework is a noteworthy wellspring of water for South Metro Denver. The system extends from Colorado Springs in the
south to Greeley in the north, from the foothills close to Golden in the west, toward the eastern fields close to Limon, is a surface locale of around
6,700 square miles. It joins four aquifers: the Dawson, Denver, Arapahoe, and Laramie–Fox Hills. Each aquifer has different water quality, profundities,
and water availability (CFWE, 2002).
Describe the source of the groundwater, that is, where is the rainfall and snowmelt that feeds the aquifer coming from, and what are the best estimates
of the travel time from the source to the point of withdrawal.
The Denver Basin has a semi arid atmosphere in which potential yearly evaporation is around five times greater than yearly precipitation. Most of the
precipitation that falls on the land surface either runs off in streams, is evaporated from the surface of the soil, or is consumed by vegetation.
Although this may be the case, a little part of the precipitation more often than not diffuses downwards and recharges the groundwater system. In the
Denver Basin, a lot of the recharge happens in the highland areas between stream channels in the higher southern part of the basin. Precipitation is
more prominent here, and the porous soils derived from the Dawson Arkose allow deep permeation. Recharge here can happen on a local and a
regional scale. Locally, water moves

Aquifer Depletion
The High Plains Aquifer encompasses approximately 174,000 square miles and stretches from Texas to South Dakota (Fig. 1). This aquifer is also
known as the Ogallala Aquifer due to the geologic formation that it lies above. The development of this aquifer along with glacial till produced
through the retreat of glaciers during previous ice ages, has yielded a very productive region for farming. The High Plains Aquifer is a valuable
natural resource for farmers within the area, but several factors have caused the depletion of this aquifer. Some of the factors that have caused the
depletion include a slow rate of recharge, the overlying formation, and heavy pumping within the aquifer. For an aquifer to recharge quickly, the
overlying formation must consist of a permeable and porous lithologic unit. These rock units will allow for water to easily pass through them and into
the underlying aquifer for storage. Much of the sediment that makes up the aquifer consists of sand, silt, and gravel that were derived from runoff of
the Rocky Mountains. Recharge is from precipitation, infiltration, and groundwater flow through the porous and permeable overlying lithologic unit to
the aquifer. The High Plains Aquifer is situated within a semiarid climate producing a slower rate of recharge. Much of the Ogallala is located within an
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Ogallala Aquifer also supplies millions of people in the Midwest drinking water, so the depletion of this natural resource would have dire
consequences. As advances in technology progress, a change in the genetics of the crops within the High Plains might result in a plant that requires a
smaller amount of water to flourish. These technologic advances and environmentally friendly practices could have drastic, positive effects on the
groundwater storage within the Ogallala

Human Impact On The Water Cycle
1. What are the most considerable impacts that you make? Some of the biggest impacts that humans make on the water cycle are direct, indirect,
cumulative, and induced impacts. A direct impact would be the fact that we rely on the consumption of fresh water for sustenance and maintaining
personal hygiene. An indirect impact would be that our food is grown using chemical inputs, (including "natural" chemicals & fertilizers), which results
in the discharge of chemicals and nutrients that leach into groundwater, and underground aquifers. A cumulative impact would be the combined impact
of our past, present, and future on the environment. And lastly an induced impact, such as a lake that increases in toxicity due to a landfill that was
created. With this in mind, the most considerable impacts that I personally make would be; i.) The direct impact from consuming water (retrieved from
a fresh water supply – usually sourced from underground aquifers, or natural fresh water springs.) ii.) The indirect impact from consuming electricity
(15% of which is sourced from hydroelectric dams in the state of California.) iii.) The cumulative impact of the total amount of water that I have used,
use now, and will need to sue in the future. And, iv.) The amount of water depletion from those underground aquifers and fresh water supplies due to
the aforementioned impacts.
2. How might it change your life if you were to reduce your impacts? What would you

California Groundwater Depletion : An Ever Increasing Issue
Jeffrey Dotson
McCarthy
Period 6
12 April 2017
Main Claim: The state of California must prevent groundwater overuse by regulating groundwater use, making regulation telling farmers when and
how to water crops, and improving aquifer water levels with new innovative technologies.
California Groundwater Depletion: An Ever Increasing Issue The state of California may run out of groundwater in as little as ten years. California is
dependent on groundwater, and without it, it would be thrown into a statewide water crisis. So far, people do not know about this problem or do not
care or believe in it. The state of California must prevent groundwater overuse by regulating groundwater use, making regulations telling farmers when
and how to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some people say that if California were to stop using groundwater water prices would go up, and people do not want to pay for higher water prices.
Unfortunately, water prices would go up, but this is the price we have to pay for not regulating groundwater use for the last fifty years. Most likely,
when we would put new laws into effect, we would not totally discard groundwater, but groundwater would be a lesser percentage of the total plan.
Also, this plan would help make us more conscientious about our groundwater use. Maybe it would cost a little more money, but is that more important
than our aquifers having water for later generations? Groundwater depletion is becoming a growing risk, and if the Californian government does not do
anything about it, it could become a disaster.
With our water aquifers running out of water fast and our farmer pumping out water as quickly as they can, our aquifers will not be able to replenish
themselves fast enough to survive the constant water use, and if the Californian government were to just implement a law regulating how much water
these farmers use, the state of California may be one step closer to solving the problem of groundwater depletion. Currently, when a farmer digs a well
in California, they have no limitations on how much water they use nor do they have to tell anybody how much groundwater they use (Pool). In
California, farmers use eighty percent of the state 's groundwater, and without the

Sinkholes: The Floridian Aquifer System
Along with the numerous natural disasters that humans face in their environment, sinkholes are becoming a more prominent and frequent force to
reckon with. Sinkholes are not a new phenomenon, but due to human activity, these concavities are becoming increasingly common. If humans
continue to abuse underlying aquifer systems then the influx of sinkhole occurrences will rise. Since sinkholes are naturally occurring hydrogeological
systems, the only way to minimize damage caused by this detriment is to respect and conserve water. We can counter that the Floridian Aquifer will
not deplete anytime soon, but we need to become realistic regarding the impact we apply on this delicate water mechanic. It is easy for humans to
misuse their local resources ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During the extremely mild winters in Florida, there is a concern that nursery crops may be lost due to occasional freezing temperatures. To prevent
this from happening, farmers will draw warm ground water from the aquifer and spray crops to form insulating coats of ice, which ensures the crop's
safety. Due to the importance of crop protection, during longer periods of freezing weather, farmers will pump for prolonged periods. If excess
pumping is required, the surrounding area can become overwhelmingly succumb with over–collapse sinkholes. In 2010, Craig Pittman, Tampa Bay
Times, reported a community devastation linked to farmers abusing their pumping

California Water Plan Update: A Case Study
The state of California relies on groundwater that is obtained from either alluvial or fractured rock aquifers. The alluvial aquifers are characterized by
having fine grained sediments, sand and/or gravel that contains water stored within the pore space (California Department of Water Resources
California's Groundwater Update 2013: A Compilation of Enhanced Content for California Water Plan Update 2013). Fractured rock aquifers store
much less water and are made of impermeable granitic, metamorphic, volcanic, or sedimentary rocks that hold groundwater within the fractures or void
spaces. Typically, the fractured rock aquifers are in mountainous and foothill areas (California Department of Water Resources California's Groundwater
Update 2013: A Compilation of Enhanced Content for California Water Plan Update 2013).... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From the groundwater basins it is estimated that 16,500 TAF of groundwater are extracted annually, which accounts for 38% of thewater supply in the
state (California Department of Water Resources California's Groundwater Update 2013: A Compilation of Enhanced Content for California Water Plan
Update 2013). Despite the number of basins in the state, each basin is somewhat unique but, have been classified into the Central Valleyaquifer system,
the coastal aquifers, the Northern California basin–fill aquifers, and the eastern Sierra Nevada and the California Desert aquifers (California
Department of Water Resources California's Groundwater Update 2013: A Compilation of Enhanced Content for California Water Plan Update 2013).
In Figure 1, the location of the major groundwater basins and subbasins in California have been identified as the areas shaded in

Nubain Aquifer: Questions
ummary and reasoning behind questions In this article Nubian Aquifer is talked about, along with the experiments that were conducted using
uncommon isotopes in attempts to uncover the mysteries that have long since surrounded the passage of water. Nubain Aquifer is essentially an
ancient water supply that traverses underground in the Sahara Desert and stretches all the way to North Eastern Africa. Although the Nubain Aquifer
happens to be one of the oldest water supplies in the world, it still manages to replenish itself rapidly to this day and continues to function properly.
Over the years questions have arisen about the Nubain Aquifer primarily because the passage of water persists to flourish even after having been
around for such a long time. Experiments Physicists conduct experiments in relation to the Nubain Aquifer by using a rare radioactive isotope called
Krypton 81. The radioactive isotope is used in attempts to reveal the inner workings of the old water supply. The isotope was utilized in a number of
different ways. "Their first success was in distilling these elusive isotopes, krypton 81,... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, the previously used isotope gave incorrect results when I came to the Aquifer. Up until recently Krypton 81 was deemed unusable
because it was too difficult to obtain. It's only as of late that physicists have become successful in becoming able to slow down atoms. It took over a
decade for the physicists involved to be able accomplish such a feat. The slowing of atoms was made possible by using "the same laser–based
techniques that were pioneered by the current energy secretary, Steven Chu, in the 1980s...." This was done by using "lasers to pinpoint the frequency
at which atoms oscillate. When Krypton 81 atoms go through a laser attuned to them, they glow brightly and slow down, giving scientists an easier
target to

The Drilling Sites Will Be Located Near The Ogallala Aquifer
One of the things that the commission need to keep in mind while deciding will be that the drilling sites will be located near the Ogallala Aquifer. This
is one of the biggest aquifers in the world which means polluting the aquifer could have a large impact on hundreds of people's drinking water. The
commission has assured the community that they have used better equipment to protect the pipes so they do not leak. However, the members of the
community have little to no faith after seeing how filthy the water still is that's in the ground. However, with the new equipment the oil company has
promised to use the Nebraska residents might feel safer (Hayden). Along with dirty water, community members all over the country have concerns that
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the key factors in solving the problem would be to put in place much stricter regulations for companies to follow. If the government made
companies work in a more responsible they would have to pay more attention to where they are drilling, leading to less drilling sites in
neighborhoods or close to people's homes. The regulations on zoning could cause a chain reaction of problem solvers, if the fracking wells start to
be farther away from homes the water that people are drinking will less likely be contaminated. For Oklahoma there are not yet regulations on
where to frack like other states. Drilling is taking place on what is called "basement" rock, this is believed to be the cause of the tremblors. This is
just one place where a little change in law can be a big change for a community. Another easy solution would be regulating the chemicals companies
are allowed to use, the chemical cocktails used are commonly filled with acids, detergents and poisons that are not regulated by federal laws. Natalie
Starkey, a writer for The Guardian, writes to explain that even areas that are not prone to earthquakes may still experience them due to drilling.
Companies have denied having any ties to the rising number of quakes. The earthquakes that will appear will be very dangerous in most cases. The
lack of regulation can be tied back into this issue since there are no laws on where companies can

The Conservation And Recycling Of Water
Currently California has a terrible water problem, which is causing many people to cease watering in excess all across the state. The reason
California has water problems is that we are emptying our underground aquifers during a drought that has been going on and many people are still
wasting water on their own personal opportunities. There are many options toward either ending or surviving the water issue, such as the idea of
war to take the water that California needs to survive. Another is to build a pipeline from a place with extra rainfall annually that California can
syphon off for usage. Another is the option to conserve water across the state and to reuse water as much as possible to minimize excess water
usage. The most viable of these solutions is the conservation and recycling of water. By conserving and recycling water there is no waste, only
recycled water for cleaning dishes, watering plants, and washing houses and cars. The only foreseeable problem is that the process cannot be
monitored and people are only held by honesty and a promise to do what they can to conserve water, but the conservation of water seems to be the
most affordable, quickly enacted, and can be done by most families. Also the other options require a higher amount of financial support to begin and
continued maintenance, large spans of time to orchestrate, and would need a lot of manpower. With the option of water conservation time, money, and
manpower is not as high of a needed factor when

Persuasive Essay On Fracking
For the past six weeks, I have been doing research about fracking and it's effects on the community and nature. I have spent hours researching and
doing experiments to come to a conclusion. I would like to share my findings with you to make sure this county is informed about the process, as I
know they might not necessarily be. I believe that Fracking should not continue in Ohio. Although it brings jobs to the country, and bring us domestic
fuel, it is becoming a health hazard to bio life, which is very important.
Fracking (formal name hydraulic fracturing), is the process of which million of gallons of water are pumped a mile underground to get methane out
of pockets in the shale. Fracking fluid is a mixture of chemicals and water pumped underground through supposedly safe wells. The oil companies
actually doing the fracking say that the wells are completely safe. However, only 50% of the fracking fluid is brought out of the wells. The rest of it is
left underground and never retrieved. This can contaminate the ground we farm on an the water we drink.. Fracking affects everyone around the wells,
though it may be indirectly. It can affect someone by giving them millions of dollars for land or contaminating their drinking water. Some
environmentalists believe that this can contaminate water in the aquifer, a mile above the shale.
The composition of fracking fluid has not been released to the public. No one knows what is in the fluid, but people have predicted. It is thought

Population Growth in South Florida and Salt Water Intrusion
Introduction
Rapid population growth in South Florida has significantly increased the demand for water and the strain on the fresh groundwater supplies has
triggered more saltwater intrusion to the Biscayne aquifer. Saltwater intrusion has been one the main contaminant that continues to endanger the
Biscayne aquifer. It has occurred as a result of the followings: the over–pumping by wells, the construction of drainage canals, and the lowering of the
water table by drought. Ongoing efforts by South Florida water agencies to protect the aquifer from saltwater intrusion include groundwater
monitoring, water management and conservation.
The Biscayne Aquifer
An aquifer is defined as underground layers of rock saturated with water that can be brought to the surface through natural springs or by pumping.
Named after Biscayne Bay, the Biscayne aquifer is a coastal, unconfined aquifer because its top portion is the water table and it merges with the floor
of Biscayne Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Underlies an area of approximately 4000 square miles, the Biscayne aquifer's maps out from the southern tip
of the state northwest along a wavy line to south Palm Beach County. The cross–section of the aquifer resembles a wedge and its gets deeper as it gets
closer to the eastern coast. The Biscayne aquifer is the primary source of freshwater to most of South Florida (Dade, Broward and part of Palm Beach
counties). Furthermore, water from the aquifer is pumped through pipeline to the

The Need for Groundwater Extraction Regulation
Groundwater is used primarily for irrigating farmland; and secondarily, for consumption and industrial use. Aquifers, unconsolidated subterranean
layers which hold water, are rapidly dwindling, and groundwater depletion is quickly growing to become a major problem for farmers and the public at
large. Reserves close to ground level are rapidly drying up and due to technological roadblocks, extracting water from deeper reserves is not yet
financially feasible. The problem is especially severe in California, which represents around 20% of all groundwater withdrawal in the United States
(Famiglietti, LA Times). A lack of water for agriculture would directly lead to diminished food production and indirectly lead to requiring food imports
from outside the state. Groundwater resources are an unregulated public resource and despite any innovative breakthrough in extraction techniques, the
only sustainable, long–term solution is to enforce limits on extraction. Regulation of how much groundwater can be extracted from an aquifer in a set
period of time; along with incentives to obtain water from alternative sources is the ideal solution to address the perennially growing challenge of
groundwater depletion in California.
This regulatory effort must begin in politics but it needs to spread to society as well – only when people realize the consequences of over–extraction
will they even consider ceasing doing so. This solution is not based primarily in science and technology, and is

Geological Characteristics of Aquifers
Aquifers allow for individuals to be able to get ground water from wells and other water sources. Aquifers consist of saturated rocks that allow for the
passage of water through the small open spaces between them (Lutgen & Tarbuck 2011). This is of great importance when looking and analyzing an
aquifer for its ability to be used. There are particular geological characteristics that aquifers and the land around them must possess in order for
them to be usable. Porosity of the aquifer is immensely important as the holes in aquifers such as sandstone and fractured limestone, need to be big
enough to allow water to flow through (Lutgen & Tarbuck 2011). However, although the permeability of the aquifer and the ground is very
important, the holes that allow water to go through in order for the aquifer to be useful cannot exceed a particular size either. If the aquifer is too
permeable, too much water will flow through too quickly, and the well that uses the aquifer will dry out; this is because the rate at which the water
is being used is faster than the rate at which the water can be replaced (Lutgen & Tarbuck 2011). The numbers of small pores in between the aquifers
are important for filtering the water as well. The smaller the holes in the aquifers are, the more bacteria that can be filtered therefore preventing these
bacteria from reaching and endangering people. However, the size needs to be big enough for the water to flow through so that the water does not clog
and have

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