Running title Learning. 3NameUniversityProfessor.docx

Running title: Learning. 3
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Question 1:
In this particular video, it’s about learning and as a matter of
fact, it’s so much encouraging to learn how the animals do
survive and learn many adaptations skills that help them to
survive in the wilderness. The young animals learn from the old
ones (parents). It’s through learning that the human beings do
cohabitate and leave together in harmony, this applies when one
does understand the characters of the other person he gets to
leave in a way that will flexible for both people.
The most interesting part about this video is when the producer
states it clear that learning helps us in doing two great things in
the quest for survival among the many other ways. He says that
learning can help us anticipate the future from the past
experience. This is so true in that it’s through first getting to
understand who we were in the past is when we can get the

chance to anticipate what we can expect in the future. It’s
through learning that we are able to acquire new ideas.
Learning also helps us to control a complex and hard
environment that marks a new beginning. This is actually so
true in that a person is able to do an evaluation of the future
through first reflecting back on the few or much experiences
that he/she has encountered so as to know what he can do in the
future. This is through learning.
Question 2:
It's through discovering that the feline will have the capacity to
comprehend what to do. For this situation I will consider the
operant molding on the grounds that I learnt that dissimilar to
discipline preparing which holds up for the cat to do something
incorrectly and afterward reacts with an aversive, positive
preparing rather remunerates the feline’s great conduct.
Fundamentally, in positive preparing I will overlook awful
practices, and rather get my feline in the demonstration of doing
something great (scratching the RIGHT question) and after that
compensate it.
Felines will make sense of the coveted conduct of being in the
specific place that I need it to be going from my non-verbal
communication, verbal acclaim and treat (or most loved toy).
The all the more wrong practices my Kitty performs, the more
he realizes what won’t work. While doing this, I do comprehend
that this strategy depends on the feline learning without
summons or touching permitted, and works particularly well
with felines that abhor being constrained into position. A
strengthen in positive preparing, assists speak with the feline
and that is all in the operant molding.
References:
http://cats.about.com/od/amyshojai/a/Training-Cats-Using-
Behavior-Modification.htm

http://cats.about.com/od/amyshojai/a/Cat-Behavior-Terms-
Classical-Conditioning.htm
http://www.cat-world.com.au/pavlovs-cats
CHAPTER 7—LEARNING
I. Introduction
A.
Learning – involves the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or
responses from experience that
result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the
learner
1. Learning is based on experience
2. Learning produces changes in the organism
3. These changes are relatively permanent
Classical Conditioning – occurs when a neutral stimulus
produces a response after being paired
with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
II. Classical Conditioning: One Thing Leads to Another
A. The Development of Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s
Experiments
1.
Unconditioned stimulus (US) – something that reliably produces
a naturally occurring reaction

in an organism
2.
Unconditioned response (UR) – a reflexive reaction that is
reliably produced by an
unconditioned stimulus
3.
Conditioned stimulus (CS) – a stimulus that is initially neutral
and produces no reliable
response in an organism
4.
Conditioned response (CR) – reaction that resembles an
unconditioned response but is
produces by a conditioned stimulus
B. The Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition – the phase when the CS and the US are
presented together
2.
Second-Order Conditioning – when the US has acquired its
ability to produce learning from an
earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS
3. Extinction – the CS is presented without the US, resulting
in a decline of the learned response
4.
Spontaneous Recovery – the recovery of learned responding,
post-extinction, after a rest
period
5.

Generalization – the CR is observed even though the CS is
slightly different from the original
CS used during acquisition
6. Discrimination – the capacity to distinguish between similar
but distinct stimuli
C. Conditioned Emotional Responses: The Case of Little Albert
1. Trained to fear a white rat, which generalized to other
similar stimuli
2.
Bolstered Watson’s stance that learning and the environment are
more important than
genetics or personality in shaping behavior
D. A Deeper Understanding of Classical Conditioning
1. The Cognitive Elements of Classical Conditioning
a. Expectation is critical for learning
i. Conditioning is easier with an unfamiliar CS
ii.
Rescorla-Wagner model of conditioning – introduced a
cognitive component that
accounted for a variety of classical-conditioning phenomena
that were difficult to
understand from a simple behaviorist point of view
2. The Neural Elements of Classical Conditioning

a. The central nucleus of the amygdala is critical for
emotional conditioning
3. The Evolutionary Elements of Classical Conditioning
a. Conditioned food aversions
b. Conditioned food preferences
c. Biological preparedness
i. Common phobias may be related to danger in evolutionary
past
III. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcements from the
Environment
A. The Development of Operant Conditioning: The Law of
Effect
1. Satisfying things tend to be repeated and unpleasant things
are less likely to be repeated
2.
Instrumental Behaviors – requiring the subject to do something
(operate) to elements of the
environment
B. B. F. Skinner: The Role of Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Operant behavior has some impact on the environment
a.
Reinforcers increase the likelihood of behavior that led to the
stimulus or event that led to
it

i. Positive Reinforcement – a rewarding stimulus is presented
ii. Negative Reinforcement – an unpleasant stimulus is
removed
b.
Punishers decrease the likelihood of behavior that led to the
stimulus or event that led to
it
i. Positive Punishment – an unpleasant stimulus is
administered
ii. Negative Punishment – a rewarding stimulus is removed
2. Primary and Secondary Reinforcement and Punishment
a. Primary Reinforcers include food, comfort, shelter, etc.
b.
Secondary Reinforcers – derive their effectiveness from their
association with primary
reinforcers (e.g., money allows access to food, shelter, etc.)
3. Some Limiting Conditions of Reinforcement
a.
The Overjustification Effect – predicts that sometimes too much
external reinforcement
for performing an intrinsically rewarding task can undermine
future performance
C. The Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
1. Discrimination, Generalization, and the Importance of

Context
a.
Stimulus Control – a particular response only occurs when the
appropriate discriminative
stimulus is present
b.
Discriminative Stimulus – a stimulus that is associated with
reinforcement for a particular
behavior in a particular situation (e.g., key pecking in a Skinner
box)
2. Extinction – reinforcer is no longer presented following the
learned behavior
3. Schedules of Reinforcement
a.
Intermittent Reinforcement – only some of the responses made
are followed by
reinforcement
i. Intermittent reinforcement effect (resists extinction)
b.
Fixed interval (FI) schedule – reinforces are presented at fixed
time periods, provided
that the appropriate response is made
c. Variable interval (VI) schedule – a behavior is reinforced
based on an average time that
has expired since the last reinforcement

d.
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule – reinforcement is delivered after a
specific number of
responses have been made
e.
Variable ratio (VR) schedule – the delivery of reinforcement is
based on a particular
average number of responses
4. Shaping through Successive Approximations
5. Superstitious Behavior
a.
If idiosyncratic behaviors are reinforced they may be repeated
(e.g., wearing the same socks on a good day of basketball)
D. A Deeper Understanding of Operant Conditioning
1. The Cognitive Elements of Operant Conditioning
a. Tolman’s means-ends relationship
i.
Stimulus establishes an internal cognitive state and does not
directly evoke a
response
ii.
Latent learning – something is learned but it is not manifested
as a behavioral change
until sometime in the future
iii. Cognitive map – mental representation of the physical
features of the environment

2. The Neural Elements of Operant Conditioning
a. Pleasure/reward centers (tend to be dopaminergic)
i. Nucleus accumbens
ii. Medial forebrain bundle
iii. Hypothalamus
3. The Evolutionary Elements of Operant Conditioning
a. Some animals are predisposed to perform particular
behaviors
IV. Observational Learning: Look at Me
A. Observational Learning – learning that takes place by
watching the actions of others
B. Observational Learning in Humans
1. Model – someone whose behavior might serve as a guide for
others
2. Bobo doll experiments
C. Observational Learning in Animals
1. Mirror neurons and awareness of intentionality
D. Neural Elements of Observational Learning
1. Mirror Neurons

V. Implicit Learning: Under the Wires
learning that takes place largely without awareness of the
process or the products of information
A. acquisition
B. Habituation: A Simple Case of Implicit Learning
1.
A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a
stimulus results in a gradual
reduction in responding
C. Cognitive Approaches to Implicit Learning
1. Artificial grammar was used as part of an investigation of
implicit learning
D. Implicit and Explicit Learning Use Distinct Neural Pathways
1. Explicit - increased activity in prefrontal cortex, parietal
cortex, and hippocampus
2. Implicit - decreased activity in occipital cortex
CHAPTER 3—NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR
I. Neurons: The Origin of Behavior
A. Discovery of How Neurons Function

1. Neurons – cells in the nervous system that communicate with
one another to perform
information-processing tasks
2. Approximately 100 billion neurons in the brain
3. Neurons produce the underlying invisible physical
component of visible behavior
a. Neurons came in many shapes and sizes, and communicate
without touching
B. Components of the Neuron
1. Cell Body (Soma) – coordinates the information-processing
tasks and keeps the cell alive
2. Dendrites – receive information from other neurons and
relay it to the cell body
3. Axon – transmits information to other neurons, muscles, or
glands
a. Myelin Sheath – an insulating layer of fatty material around
the axon that speeds
conduction
b. The myelin sheath is composed of glial cells
a. Glial Cells – support cells found in the nervous system

(a) Clean up dead tissue, provide nutrients to neurons, and
provide myelin for axons
4. Synapse – the junction between one neuron’s axon and
another neuron’s dendrite or soma
a. Adults have between 100 and 500 trillion synapses
C. Major Types of Neurons
1. Sensory Neurons – receive information from the external
world and convey this information to
the brain via the spinal cord
2. Motor Neurons – carry signals from the spinal cord to the
muscles to produce movement
3. Interneurons – connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or
other interneurons
D. Neurons Specialized by Location
1. Purkinje cells carry mostly motor information from the
cerebellum to the rest of the brain and
spinal cord
2. Pyramidal cells carry all kinds of information from the
cerebral cortex
3. Bipolar cells carry visual information into the brain from
the retina

II. The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons: Information
Processing
A. Electric Signaling: Conducting Information within a Neuron
1. Communication within and between neurons proceeds in two
stages - conduction and
transmission, together referred to as electrochemical action
a. First the signal is received and may initiate electrical
conduction down the axon
b. Second, the signal travels chemically across the synapse to
the next neuron
2. Resting Potential – the difference in electric charge between
the inside and outside of a
neuron’s cell membrane
3. Charged molecules, or ions, flow across the cell membrane
differentially to set up the resting
potential
a. At rest there is a higher concentration of potassium (K
+) on the inside of the cell and
sodium (Na+) outside of the cell

b. The flow of ions across the cell membrane is controlled by
opening and closing channels
that are specific to each ion
4. The resting potential of a neuron is approximately -70
millivolts
5. Action Potential – an electric signal that is conducted along
the length of a neuron’s axon to
the synapse
6. Input must pass a threshold to activate an action potential
7. All-or-none, that is, an action potential’s strength remains the
same from the beginning to the
end and is not influenced by further changes in input strength
8. Refractory period – the time following an action potential
during which a new action potential
cannot be initiated
9. Bare segments of axon between sections of myelin are called
the nodes of Ranvier, which
causes action potential to “jump” (saltatory conduction) and
speeds conduction

B. Chemical Signaling: Transmission between Neurons
1. Neurotransmitters – chemicals that transmit information
across the synapse to a receiving
neuron’s dendrites
2. Receptors – parts of the cell membrane that receive
neurotransmitters and initiate or prevent
a new electric signal
a. Act like a lock-and-key system, where only certain
neurotransmitters can activate certain
receptors
3. The sending, or presynaptic neuron, releases
neurotransmitters into the synapse that are
received by the postsynaptic neuron
4. Neurotransmitters are cleared from the synapse when they are
finished binding to receptors
via three different processes
a. Reuptake – neurotransmitters are taken back into the
presynaptic neuron through

transporters
b. Enzymatic Degradation – enzymes can destroy the
neurotransmitter while still in the
synapse
c. Autoreceptors can also detect if there is too much
neurotransmitter being released and
signal the presynaptic neuron to stop the release
C. Types and Functions of Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine – neurotransmitter involved in a number of
functions, including voluntary motor
control
2. Dopamine – neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior,
motivation, pleasure, and
emotional arousal
3. Glutamate – major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in
information transmission
throughout the brain
4. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) – primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the brain

5. Norepinephrine – neurotransmitter that influences mood and
arousal
6. Serotonin – a neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of
sleep and wakefulness, eating,
and aggressive behavior
7. Endorphins – chemicals that act within the pain pathways
and emotion centers of the brain
D. How Drugs Mimic Neurotransmitters
1. Agonists – drugs that increase the action of a
neurotransmitter
2. l-dopa increases dopamine and helps treat Parkinson’s
disease
3. Prozac increases serotonin by blocking reuptake, which
helps treat symptoms of depression
E. Antagonists – drugs that block the function of a
neurotransmitter
1. MPTP destroyed dopamine-producing neurons
2. Propanolol blocks the beta receptors for norepinephrine in
the heart, which helps with stage
fright
III. The Organization of the Nervous System

A. Divisions of the Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – connects the central
nervous system to the body’s
organs and muscles
a. Somatic Nervous System – a set of nerves that conveys
information into and out of the
central nervous system
b. Autonomic Nervous System – a set of nerves that carries
involuntary and automatic
commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
a. Sympathetic Nervous System – a set of nerves that prepares
the body for action in a
threatening situation
b. Parasympathetic Nervous System – helps the body return
to a normal resting state
B. Components of the Central Nervous System
1. Spinal Cord coordinates breathing, pain, movement, and
other functions

a. Spinal Reflexes – simple pathways in the nervous system that
rapidly generate muscle
contractions
b. The spinal cord is divided into four regions, each
controlling a different part of the body
IV. Structure of the Brain
Generally, simpler tasks are controlled by “lower” regions and
complex functions by “higher”
regions
A. The Hindbrain – an area of the brain that coordinates
information coming into and out of the
spinal cord
a. Medulla – an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that
coordinates heart rate,
circulation, and respiration
a. Reticular Formation – cluster of neurons in the medulla that
regulates sleep, wakefulness,
and levels of arousal

b. Cerebellum (“little brain”) – large structure of the hindbrain
that controls fine motor skills,
coordination, and balance
c. Pons (“bridge”) – structure that relays information from the
cerebellum to the rest of the
brain
B. The Midbrain – above the hindbrain, it coordinates
orientation and movement in the
environment, and contributes to arousal
1. Tectum – orients an organism in the environment
2. Tegmentum – involved in movement and arousal, including
motor behavior (substantia nigra
and dopamine), motivation, and pleasure
C. The Forebrain – highest level of the brain, controlling
complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and
motor functions
1. Tectum – orients an organism in the environment
2. Cerebral Cortex – the outermost layer of the brain, visible to
the naked eye, and divided into

two hemispheres
3. Subcortical Structures – areas of the forebrain housed under
the cerebral cortex near the
very center of the brain
a. Thalamus – relays and filters information from the senses
and transmits the
information to the cerebral cortex
b. Hypothalamus (below thalamus) – regulates body
temperature, hunger, thirst, and
sexual behavior
i. Four Fs of behavior: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and mating
c. Pituitary Gland – the “master gland” of the body’s hormone-
producing system, which
releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands
in the body
d. Limbic System – a group of forebrain structures including the
hypothalamus, the
amygdala, and the hippocampus, which are involved in
motivation, emotion, learning,
and memory

e. Hippocampus – structure critical for creating new memories
and integrating them into
a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely
in other parts of the
brain
f. Amygdala – located at the tip of each horn of the
hippocampus, plays a central role in
many emotional processes, particularly the formation of
emotional memories
g. Basal Ganglia – a set of subcortical structures (including the
striatum) that directs
intentional movements
4. The Cerebral Cortex
a. Fitting a lot of cortex into small spaces
i. Gyri – smooth, raised surfaces of the cortex
ii. Sulci – indentations or fissures in the cortex
b. Function of the cortex in three levels
i. Separation of cortex into two hemispheres
(a) Each side is roughly symmetrical and controls many
functions on the opposite, or

contralateral, side of the body
(b) Commissures – bundles of axons that make possible
communication between
parallel areas of the cortex in each half, the largest being the
corpus callosum
ii. Functions of each hemisphere
(a) Each hemisphere has four lobes
(1) Occipital Lobe – a region in the back of the brain that
processes visual
information
(2) Parietal Lobe – located in front of the occipital lobe and
carries out functions
such as touch
(3) Temporal Lobe – located laterally and below parietal cortex,
is responsible for
hearing and language
(4) Frontal Lobe – behind the forehead, has specialized areas
for movement,
abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment

(b) Homunculus (“little man”) – rendering of the body in which
each part shown is in
proportion to the representation in the somatosensory (parietal)
or motor (frontal)
cortex
(c) Role of specific cortical areas
(1)Association Areas – areas of cortex that are composed of
neurons that help
provide sense and meaning to information registered in parts of
the primary cortex
D. Brain Plasticity
1. The brain is plastic: Functions that were assigned to certain
areas of the brain may be
capable of being reassigned to other areas
2. Extensive use of your hands (e.g., concert pianist) can result
in larger representations of
hands in the cortex than non-pianists
V. The Development and Evolution of Nervous Systems
A. Prenatal Development of the Central Nervous System
1. The nervous system is the first major bodily system to take
form in an embryo

a. After the third week of fertilization the nervous system goes
from a sphere with a ridge, to
a groove, to a neural tube
b. Fifth week the forebrain and hindbrain differentiate
c. Seventh week and later, forebrain expands into cerebral
hemispheres
2. Ontogeny – how the brain develops within an individual
3. Phylogeny – how the brain developed within a particular
species
B. Evolutionary Development of the Central Nervous System
1. Even the simplest animals have sensory and motor neurons
a. Single-celled protozoa have systems for sensing and
moving toward food
b. Invertebrates (e.g., jellyfish and flatworms) developed simple
nervous systems with
commissures and ganglia
2. Vertebrates developed differently than invertebrates
a. Vertebrates developed separate sensory and motor systems
b. Hierarchy developed in vertebrates
a. Higher parts of the brain developed to deal with more

complex behaviors than lower
parts of the brain
c. Different vertebrates have different levels of complexity in
the forebrain
a. Birds rely on a highly developed striatum
b. Mammals have a developed striatum and more developed
cerebral cortex
d. Primates’ brains, particularly humans, have evolved more
rapidly than other mammals,
partially because of gene mutations (changes in a gene’s DNA)
that resulted in adaptation
C. Genes and the Environment
1. Nature and Nurture
a. Either genetics or the environment played a major role in
producing particular behaviors,
traits, etc.
b. The interaction between nature and nurture determines
what humans do
2. What are Genes?

a. Gene – unit of hereditary transmission, built from DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
b. Chromosomes – strands of DNA wound around each other
in a double-helix configuration
c. Degree of Relatedness – the probability of sharing genes
(e.g., you share 50% of your
genes with each parent)
i. Monozygotic Twins (identical twins) – share 100% of genes
because they came from
one fertilized egg
ii. Dizygotic Twins (fraternal twins) – share 50% of genes
because they came from 2
fertilized eggs, just like other siblings
iii. Twin studies are often used to help determine the amount of
a behavior, trait, or
disorder that can be attributed to genes
d. Heritability – a measure of the variability of behavioral traits
among individuals that can be
accounted for by genetic factors

i. Calculated as a proportion and reported as a number from 0
to 1.0
ii. Heritability of .50 for intelligence tells us that 50% of
intelligence is accounted for by
genes, but not which genes might be controlling that 50%
iii. That heritability score is derived from a population, not
one person
iv. Heritability is dependent on the environment
v. Heritability is not fate; circumstances can change the
likelihood of behaviors or
pathologies
VI. Investigating the Brain
A. Learning about Brain Organization by Studying the
Damaged Brain
1. A lot of research about brain function has come from
examining deficits in behavior relative
to specific brain damage (e.g., Broca’s area)
2. The Emotional Functions of the Frontal Lobe
a. Phineas Gage’s accident, essentially separating his frontal
lobes from the rest of his brain,
resulted in an understanding that the frontal lobes are critical

for maintaining emotional
stability
3. The Distinct Roles of the Left and Right Hemispheres
a. Split-brain procedure – surgical severing of the corpus
callosum
b. Allowed understanding of how some behaviors are relegated
to only one hemisphere (e.g.,
language is usually handled in the left hemisphere)
B. Listening to the Brain: Single Neurons and the EEG
1. Electroencephalograph (EEG) – a device used to record
electrical activity in the brain, usually
detected by electrodes on the scalp
2. Patterns of activity from groups of neurons indicated sleep,
arousal, and certain perceptions
3. Recording from single neurons has shown us how cells in
some parts of the brain respond to
stimuli (e.g., occipital neurons, or feature detectors, respond to
dots or lines on a screen)
C. Brain Imaging: From Visualizing Structure to Watching the
Brain in Action

1. Neuroimaging Techniques – methods used to produce images
of living, healthy brain tissue
and activity
2. Structural Brain Imaging – Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT)
a. x-rays taken from many angles to produce a composite of the
different densities of the
brain
b. Often used to detect structural problems (e.g., tumors)
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – images that result from
brief but powerful magnetic
pulses being applied to the brain and interpreting how cells in
the tissue react to the pulses
4. Functional Brain Imaging – allows scientists to watch the
brain in action during some
behavior, based on increased blood flow in active regions
a. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
b. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL WELFARE SCIENCE,
14:124–137, 2011
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1088-8705 print/1532-7604 online
DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2011.551625
A Case Study Employing Operant
Conditioning to Reduce Stress of
Capture for Red-Bellied Tamarins
(Saguinus labiatus)
Yvonne Owen and Jonathan R. Amory
Centre for Equine and Animal Science, Writtle College,
Chelmsford,
Essex, United Kingdom
Traditional techniques used to capture New World monkeys,
such as net capture,
can induce high levels of acute stress detrimental to welfare.
Alternatively, training
nonhuman animals via operant conditioning to voluntarily
participate in husbandry
and/or veterinary practices is accepted as a humane process that
can reduce stress
and improve welfare. This study details the use of operant

conditioning using
positive reinforcement training (PRT) and target training to
train a family of
5 captive red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus) in a wildlife
park to voluntarily
enter a transportation box and remain calm for 1 min after 54
training sessions.
Observations of 2 unrelated net-capture processes provided
measures of locomotion
and vocalizations as indicators of stress behavior that were
compared with those
of the trained tamarins. Net-captured monkeys exhibited rapid
erratic locomotion
and emitted long, high-frequency vocalizations during capture
whereas the trained
tamarins exhibited minimal locomotion and emitted only 4 brief
vocalizations
(root mean square 35 dB) during capture. This indicates that the
use of PRT
considerably reduced potential for stress and improved welfare
during the capture
and containment of the tamarins.
The impact of husbandry practices, experimental procedures,
and environmental

conditions are being assessed in terms of stress and its impact
on the welfare
Correspondence should be sent to Jonathan R. Amory, Centre
for Equine and Animal Science,
Writtle College, Chelmsford, Essex, CM1 3RR, United
Kingdom. Email: [email protected]
ac.uk
124
REDUCING STRESS OF CAPTURE FOR TAMARINS 125
of nonhuman animals in captivity (Bassett & Buchanan-Smith,
2006; Honess
& Marin, 2006). While recognizing that animals in the wild
experience stress
as part of their struggle for existence, the Department for
Environment, Food
and Rural Affairs (Defra; 2008) states that zoos, in pursuit of
high standards
of animal welfare, must minimize such risks; this is particularly
highlighted in
relation to transport stress.
In nonhuman primates, stress relating to human-animal
interaction has been

reduced in laboratory settings using operant conditioning via
positive reinforce-
ment training (PRT) for procedures such as venipuncture in
rhesus macaques
(Macaca mulatta) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes; Coleman
et al., 2008;
Reinhardt, 2003). In common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus),
PRT has been
used to reduce behavioral stress indicators following urine
collection (Bassett,
Buchanan-Smith, McKinley, & Smith, 2003) and to accelerate
the collection
process (McKinley, Buchanan-Smith, Bassett, & Morris, 2003).
Likewise, PRT
incorporating target training has been recognized as a technique
for reducing
transportation stress in common marmosets (Prescott, Bowell, &
Buchanan-
Smith, 2005) and has also been used to train common
marmosets to participate
in homecage weighing (McKinley et al., 2003). Such use of PRT
meets the
stipulations of Defra (2004), who states that training should be
clearly defined

in relation to animal, keeper, and public safety and biased
toward providing a
net welfare benefit to the animal.
Nevertheless, in a survey of over half of UK laboratory and
breeding es-
tablishments that use and breed primates, Prescott and
Buchanan-Smith (2007)
found that training programs were not widely adopted. To date,
most studies have
involved laboratory-housed nonhuman primates (McKinley et
al., 2003; Prescott
et al., 2005; Prescott & Buchanan-Smith, 2007) with far fewer
published zoo-
based studies (Colahan & Breder, 2003; Savastano, Hanson, &
McCann, 2003).
This study was inspired by a real need in Paradise Wildlife Park
(PWP) in
Hertfordshire, United Kingdom, where the plan was to transport
a family of five
red-bellied tamarins, including a pregnant female, to a different
enclosure in
September 2008. The tamarins had previously been moved from
their enclosure

on three separate occasions. Each move had involved prolonged
net-capture
procedures resulting in stress indicators of atypical and frequent
high-pitched
“screaming,” rapid and erratic locomotion, and aggression from
the dominant
male. Therefore, training the tamarins to voluntarily enter and
remain calm for
1 min in a locked transportation box would avoid (to the benefit
of their welfare)
the stress of net capture. Activities included observational
studies followed by
the design, implementation, and evaluation of a PRT plan,
including individual
target training.
To ascertain whether PRT can reduce stress, physiological
and/or behavioral
measures of stress are required (Maestripieri, Hoffman,
Anderson, Carter, &
Higley, 2009). However, when studying timid animals, a sample
collection of
126 OWEN AND AMORY

physiological indicators of stress may itself induce stress and
thus confound
results, making behavioral measures of stress a requirement.
Behavioral indi-
cators such as quantitative measures of stress-induced
vocalizations in rodents
and animals on the farm (Moura et al., 2008; Sánchez, 2003)
and increased
locomotion in callitrichids (Barros, de Souza-Silva, Huston, &
Tomaz, 2004;
Bassett et al., 2003) have both been identified as noninvasive
measures of stress.
Nevertheless, analysis of vocalizations as an indicator of stress
is relatively
novel, particularly so within zoo collections. Indeed, Defra’s
(2008) analysis
of vocalizations is not listed as an assessment tool. Due to the
timid nature
of red-bellied tamarins, this study applied behavioral measures
of stress. These
included analysis of vocalizations during capture: the number,
nature, intensity,
and frequency of vocalizations as well as locomotion
observations. Data were

compared with the same measures taken for monkeys captured
using traditional
net-capture techniques.
METHOD
Behavioral observations were made by a single observer (Y.O.)
using instanta-
neous scan sampling. Training was conducted using operant
conditioning via
positive reinforcement and target training. This study was
approved by the
Writtle College Ethics Committee and complies with guidelines
for ethical
treatment of animals in applied animal behavior and welfare
research prepared
by the International Society for Applied Ethology Ethics
Committee (2002).
Study Tamarins
The animals in the study were a family of 5 red-bellied tamarins
including
Keira, a breeding female (5 years, 11 months old) believed to be
2 months
pregnant, and 4 males. Bruce (4 years old) was the dominant
male, followed by

adolescent offspring Tucker and Chan (1 year, 7 months old)
and Dominic, a
juvenile (7 months old). All tamarins were captive, mother
reared, and had not
experienced any form of training prior to this study.
Housing
The tamarins were housed in an enclosure with both indoor and
outdoor access.
The indoor enclosure (house) was approximately 0.91 m � 1.22
m � 1.22 m
positioned approximately 1.22 m from ground level, containing
a substrate of
wood shavings, one heat lamp, two tube radiators, two shelves,
and a nest box.
The outdoor enclosure had an irregular shape and was
approximately 3 m �
2.74 m; the height was 3.35 m with glass panels up to 2.13 m
and wire mesh
for the remaining height. Access between the house and outdoor
enclosures was
via an opening with PVC strip curtains.

Transport-Box Habituation
As the tamarins had previous negative experience with
transportation cages, a
transportation box was constructed for the purpose of the
training. The box
was made from marine wood (2400 � 2400, 61 cm � 61 cm)
with wire-mesh
windows on two end doors and a steel handle for carrying. All
tamarins could
be transported as a group in the box or, using a divider, they
could be separated
during transport if necessary.
At the end of Training Session 9, the box was placed on a shelf
containing
a small handful of Trio Munch (Special Diets Services) to allow
the tamarins
to habituate to the box prior to its use. The box was modified
after Training
Session 31 to include two windows on one side, as shown in
Figure 1, to facilitate
training.
Shaping Plan

The goal behavior was to have the tamarins voluntarily enter a
transportation
box and remain calm while confined for 1 min. A shaping plan
was developed
FIGURE 1 Modified transportation box.
128 OWEN AND AMORY
TABLE 1
Shaping Plan Showing Approximation Goals and the
Number of Training Sessions Required for All Five Tamarins to
Achieve Each Goal Together With the Cumulative Number of
Training Sessions Toward the Training Goal
No. Training Approximation Goal
No. of Training
Sessions Required
Cumulative Number
of Training Sessions
1 Accept hand-feeding with use of clicker and
stating name of tamarin

7 7
2 Hand-feeding with 3 s delay before reward 1 8
3 Move to and touch target with reward behind
target
4 12
4 Move and touch target with reward from
other hand
4 16
5 Touch target with reward delay of 3 s 1 17
6 Touch target inside box 9 26
7 Establish reward zones outside of box (failed) 3 29
8 Reestablish approximation goal six 2 31
9 Touch target inside box with doors half shut 3 34
10 Touch target inside box with doors three
quarters shut
6 40
11 Touch target inside box with side doors
closed

13 53
12 Remain calm within locked transportation
box for 30 s
4 57
Goal Remain calm within locked transportation
box for 1 min
3 60
Extended training until actual transportation
date
5 65
based on best practice training recommendations by Prescott
and Buchanan-
Smith (2007) and incorporating Colahan and Breder’s (2003)
planning stages; it
included 12 behavioral approximations toward the goal behavior
(Laule, Bloom-
smith, & Shapiro, 2003) as shown in Table 1.
TRAINING SESSIONS
Training sessions were less than 10 min in duration. Twenty-
five days were

available to train the tamarins; however, without advance
knowledge of how long
the training goal would take to achieve, training sessions were
initially scheduled
three times a day (Session A at 08:15, Session B at 09:45, and
Session C at
11:15) Mondays through Fridays. On occasion, some flexibility
of rewards or
materials was necessary. Where session goals were not met,
regression to a
previous session goal was required (Prescott et al., 2005).
At the beginning of each training session, notices were posted
requesting
silence of zoo visitors; an Olympus DM-20 digital voice
recorder was secured
to the enclosure door and activated. A commercial “clicker” was
used as the
primary bridge. Individual targets were constructed of wood in
different shapes;
where appropriate, holes were drilled to enable the tamarins to
hold the targets.

Food as a Training Reward
Behavioral observations were conducted to determine which of
the foods in
the animals’ normal diets were consumed first. These foods
were assumed to
be highly preferred foods and were used during training
sessions. The most
commonly used food rewards during training were apple or Mini
Marex (Special
Diets Services) soaked in apple juice and refrigerated overnight.
Other food
rewards used on occasion included melon, grape, pear, and Mini
Marex dipped
in marmoset gum.
Data Collection
During training, individual tamarins were required to achieve
the appropriate
approximation goal four consecutive times in a training session
to achieve a
maximum session score of 100%. When a session goal was not
achieved, a
score of 0% was given, and when goals were performed once,
twice, or three

consecutive times, scores of 25%, 50%, and 75%, respectively,
were given. Each
training session was documented and evaluated.
In addition to data collection from training sessions,
observations were made
of the net capture and containment of a single, unrelated female
red-bellied
tamarin (housed separately) for transportation to a zoo and of
the net capture and
containment of 5 common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) for
transportation to
another site. Capture duration was timed, locomotion activity
was observed, and
vocalizations were recorded for analysis as indicators of stress.
Vocalizations
emitted during the capture processes were recorded on an
Olympus DM-20
digital voice recorder, set at 44,100 Hz, 16 bit mono. The
number and nature of
vocalizations emitted during all capture processes were
quantitatively evaluated
to compare stress levels.
Data Analysis

Because this case study did not include a control group,
inferential statistics
could not be applied; thus, descriptive statistics (counts,
percentages, mean, and
mode) were used. The vocalization-sound files were computer
analyzed using
130 OWEN AND AMORY
Sound Forge 6.0 set to a standard Blackman-Harris algorithm
over a dB range of
�100 to 0 and a frequency range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. The
intensity and frequency
of calls emitted during 20 s of actual containment in a net and,
for the trained
tamarins, in the transportation box, were analyzed in terms of
minimum and
maximum recordings of amplitude (decibels) and frequency
(Hertz). In addition,
the root mean square (RMS) power of each recording was
compared to provide
a measure of sound intensity over time corresponding to the
loudness of the
sound perceived by human hearing (Sony, 2006).

RESULTS
Transport-Box Habituation
When the transportation box was placed in the outdoor
enclosure, all 5 tamarins
immediately investigated, located the food inside, and were
observed feeding
and playing in and around the box.
Training
The training goal was first achieved for all 5 tamarins during
Training Session 54
after a total of 9 hr of training, although training continued for
65 sessions to
meet the needs of PWP’s actual transportation date. Overall
scores for all the
training sessions combined ranged from 64% achieved by Bruce
(dominant male)
to 90% achieved by Dominic (juvenile male).
Training using individual targets enabled each tamarin to be
positioned in the
enclosure and in different sides of the transportation box.
Vocalizations during
training sessions were described as “chirps,” “chirrups,” and
“whistles” lasting

an average of 0.1 s and “trills” lasting an average 1.2 s. The
RMS power for all
calls during training was �29.2 dB.
Capture Duration
The duration of each capture process, and the average capture
duration time for
each monkey, is provided in Table 2.
Vocalizations During Capture
An overview of the nature, number, and duration of
vocalizations emitted per
capture process is provided in Table 3. During net capture, the
single net-captured
tamarin emitted both long calls �1 s (“screams”) and short calls
<1 s (“cheets”).
The 5 marmosets emitted short calls (“tsiks” and “chatters”),
whereas the trained
TABLE 2
Duration of Capture Processes
Capture Group

Total Duration
of Capture
(Seconds)
Average Capture Time
per Monkey
(Seconds)
Net capture of single S. labiatus (0.1.0) 263 263.0
Net capture of five C. jacchus (2.1.2) 217 43.4
Voluntary capture of five S. labiatus (3.1.1) 170 34.0
TABLE 3
Vocalizations Emitted From Monkeys During Capture Process
Capture Process
Number of
Long Calls
(�1 s)
Number of
Short Calls
(<1 s)

Average Number
of Short Calls
per Monkey
Average Number
of Calls When
Captured
Net capture of single
S. labiatus (0.1.0)
51 27 27 22
Net capture of five
C. jacchus (2.1.2)
0 237 49.4 10
Voluntary capture of five
S. labiatus (3.1.1)
0 176 36.0 4
tamarins emitted short calls (“chips”) lasting 0.1 s. During
actual transportation
to a new enclosure, the trained tamarins did not emit any
vocalizations; once

released, the tamarins were observed eating within 60 s.
The single net-captured tamarin struggled in the net for 20 s,
emitting long
calls throughout, whereas each of the marmosets was contained
in the net
for an average of 2 s, emitting short calls. Conversely, the
trained tamarins
voluntarily entered the transportation box, emitting only four
short calls over
6.5 s. Waveforms of these vocalizations are provided in Figure
2. Spectrum
analysis of vocalizations recorded for each capture process are
provided in
Table 4, which illustrates that net-captured monkeys emitted
more intense and
higher frequency calls.
Behavior During Captures
During net capture of the single tamarin, brief periods of
stationary locomotion
were observed when she hid in the enclosure furniture. When
the net approached,
tamarin locomotion was erratic, involving bouts of rapid
locomotion at speeds

difficult to track visually. Several collisions with enclosure
glass and furniture
132 OWEN AND AMORY
FIGURE 2 Waveforms of vocalizations during actual capture. 1
D Net capture of single
S. labiatus. 2 D Net capture of single C. jacchus. 3 D Voluntary
capture of five S. labiatus.
TABLE 4
Spectrum Analysis of Vocalizations During Capture in Net and
Voluntary Capture in
Box Showing Decibels (Db) at Frequency (Hz) and Root Mean
Square (RMS) Power
Capture Process
Minimum Recording
(dB at Hz)
Maximum Recording
(dB at Hz) RMS Power
Net capture of single
S. labiatus (0.1.0)

�84 dB at 8,542 Hz �26 dB at 4,246 Hz �12.5 dB
Net capture of five
C. jacchus (2.1.2)
�100 dB at 8,895 Hz �37 dB at 6,186 Hz �17.4 dB
Voluntary capture of five
S. labiatus (3.1.1)
�88 dB at 2,213 Hz �48 dB at 905 Hz �35.0 dB
were observed. During net capture of the 5 marmosets,
individuals were observed
running, leaping, and changing direction almost effortlessly,
only pausing briefly
when the net was not near. Fleeing locomotion was difficult to
track visually.
Marmosets not targeted with the net exhibited huddling
behavior or hid. During
evasive locomotion, multiple collisions occurred against the
enclosure glass
and furniture, and falling from heights was observed. During
capture of the

trained tamarins, individuals were observed leaping between
branches to access
the transportation box, followed by minimal location in the box
(walking or
stationary).
DISCUSSION
This study demonstrated that operant conditioning could be used
to train the
study animals to voluntarily enter a transportation box and
remain calm while
confined for 1 min. As a result, the trained tamarins did not
undergo net capture
when relocated to their new enclosure. Data comparison
indicated that training
did reduce the study animals’ potential for stress during capture
compared with
the traditional net-capture process.
During capture, marked differences in vocalizations between the
trained
tamarins and the net-captured monkeys were identified.
Vocalizations from net-
captured monkeys were louder and of higher frequency than
those of the trained

tamarins. Although no data exist to link higher frequency
vocalizations of red-
bellied tamarins with stress and no direct comparison can be
made between
species, high-frequency vocalizations have been established as
reliable indicators
of mental or physical distress in pigs (Sus scrofa; Dűpjan,
Schőn, Puppe,
Tuchscherer, & Manteuffel, 2008; Puppe, Schőn, Tuchscherer,
& Manteuffel,
2005) and have been documented as an indicator of bovine
stress during branding
(Watts & Stookey, 1999).
The long “scream” calls (Figure 3) emitted from the single
tamarin during
net capture were comparable in frequency to calls recorded in a
laboratory
FIGURE 3 Spectrogram of tamarin “scream” call. a D Coates
and Poole (1983). b D
This study.
134 OWEN AND AMORY
experiment by Coates and Poole (1983). They observed that

screams were
emitted only in stressful situations and directed at humans. The
similarity of
vocalizations recorded in this study suggests that the net
capture was a stressful
experience.
Vocalizations of the common marmosets also indicated that
their net capture
was a stressful experience. Their loud series of brief,
descending “tsik” calls
emitted during capture are comparable to the fear response for
their species
(Lazaro-Perea, 2001). Conversely, vocalizations of the trained
tamarins enclosed
in the box indicated that they did not experience the same levels
of stress ex-
perienced by net-captured monkeys. Their vocalizations most
closely resembled
unidirectional “seep” calls in response to mildly disturbing
stimuli (Coates &
Poole, 1983). Their vocalizations, however, were of lower
frequency; further
research is required to ascertain whether they are indeed
comparable “seep”

calls or to identify the implications of this difference (Figure
4).
Unlike the net-captured monkeys, the trained tamarins did not
display in-
creased locomotive stress behavior, nor did they collide with
enclosure furniture
or fall from height. Conversely, the rapid and erratic locomotion
of monkeys
undergoing net capture indicated a stress response and is
believed to have had
potential to negatively impact on their welfare.
The introduction of the transportation box within the enclosure
at the end of
Training Session 9 resulted in instant interest by the entire
group who rapidly
(<10 s) investigated and played in and around the box. This
supports research
by Hardie and Buchanan-Smith (2000), who identified that, in
51.2% of trials,
S. labiatus touched nonthreatening novel items in <1 min when
placed >1 m
from the enclosure floor.
A number of practical challenges were encountered and

addressed throughout
the training. For example, additional doors were added to the
front of the trans-
portation box to accommodate the trainer’s hand and the targets.
As food rewards
were taken from the tamarins’ daily diet, on occasion, a highly
preferred food
was used, which resulted in tamarins squabbling and stealing
the food reward
of others. In addition, as only heterozygous female tamarins are
trichromats
(Osorio, Smith, Vorobyev, & Buchanan-Smith, 2004),
distinctive, individually
FIGURE 4 Spectrogram of tamarin “seep” call. a D Coates and
Poole (1983). b D This
study.
shaped targets were used instead of color-coded targets.
Although individual
target training was not necessary to train the tamarins to
voluntarily participate
in their capture, the decision to include this was one of “future-

proofing” for
welfare reasons where individuals could be separated out, or
captured/contained,
for future veterinary and/or husbandry purposes.
Shapiro, Bloomsmith, and Laule (2003) emphasize that in
assessing the
benefits of training, potential trainers want to know how long it
takes to shape a
behavior and what effects are experienced by the primates. The
training goal for
this case study was achieved in 54 training sessions, equating to
9 hr of training
for 5 tamarins. To our knowledge, there are no published
articles documenting
the use of operant conditioning on S. labiatus; consequently,
direct comparison
of results cannot be made. However, Savastano et al. (2003)
describe PRT of
6 other Saguinus spp. within 10 single-species groups to
establish less invasive
husbandry techniques. The number of training sessions required
to establish
hand-feeding varied considerably across the groups, taking from
1 to 20 sessions

to complete. This indicates marked differences in training time
investment re-
quired between different groups of tamarins and across species.
Similarly, in this
study, there were clear differences between the training scores
achieved between
individuals, the reasons for which are not known. As all 5
tamarins were required
to achieve approximation goals four consecutive times in a
training session
prior to progression, this affected the total number of training
sessions required.
Furthermore, individual target training added complexity where
tamarins were
required to recognize and respond to their unique target. This is
also believed
to have increased the number of training sessions required.
It is possible that a different trainer and/or group of tamarins
may realize
a difference in time investment toward their training goal, as
demonstrated by
Savastano et al. (2003). It can also be argued that net captures
are relatively

quick and in no way compare with the time investment needed
to train nonhuman
primates. However, as highlighted by McKinley et al. (2003),
Reinhardt (2003),
Prescott and Buchanan-Smith (2007), and others, PRT can be
employed to
facilitate a range of husbandry, welfare, and veterinary
procedures for captive,
nonhuman primates to whom we have a duty of care.
The results from this study indicate that using operant
conditioning with PRT
considerably reduced potential for stress during capture for the
trained tamarins,
indicating a net welfare benefit—perhaps especially so for
Keira, the breeding
female who was pregnant at the time of capture.
CONCLUSION
Operant conditioning using PRT is recognized as a humane and
valuable tool
that can be used to reduce anxiety, distress, and fear in primates
and can
136 OWEN AND AMORY

facilitate husbandry, veterinary, and laboratory procedures over
more traditional,
stressful methods. This case study demonstrated that it was
possible to use
operant conditioning to train a family of five S. labiatus to
voluntarily enter
a transportation box and remain calm for 1 min. Where net-
captured monkeys
exhibited rapid and erratic locomotion and emitted long, high-
frequency calls
during capture, the trained tamarins exhibited minimal
locomotion and emitted
only four, brief, low-frequency vocalizations. The tamarins’
calls indicated a
reduction in their perceived stress and, therefore, an
improvement in their welfare
while undergoing a relocation process.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the staff at Paradise Wildlife Park who enabled this
research, in
particular Lynn Whitnall (Director), Gary Watts (Head Keeper
of Primates),
and Steve Goodwin (Deputy Head Keeper of Primates).

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PSY112 (Online) Syllabus – Dr. D. Blank Page 1
Final Paper
You are required to write an in-depth critique paper (no longer
than 6 pages, single-spaced) of a journal article (theoretical
and/or empirical studies) on a course-related topic, which is of
interest to you. Your choice of a journal article requires your
instructor’s approval. You can find relevant articles by
searching the PsycINFO and/or the PsycArticles database.

Your final paper should be a review or critique of an academic
or professional journal article in psychology published within
the last 5 years. The structure of the paper should be as follows:
1. Cite the Journal Article
Example: Arnett, J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why
American psychology needs to become less American. American
Psychologist, 63, 602-614.
II. Summary of the Journal Article [1 page]
III. Critique/Review [3 – 4 pages]
[This is primarily opinion-based, but you are also expected
to demonstrate your knowledge of psychology by using the
concepts and terms covered in the textbook. Citing references is
encouraged but not required.]
IV. Implications for Psychology [1 page]
[What may be the potential relevance of this article on the field
of psychology? In other words, comment/discuss the extent to
which the constructs and/or findings in the article apply to
society/cultures/nations/communities/individuals.]
This course requirement is intended to supplement your learning
of the course content and to enhance your ability to apply the
concepts learned.
You will be given the opportunity to have your written critique
read by other members of the class sometime during the latter
part of the semester. Thus, your paper will be accessible online
for other students to evaluate using the Student Grade Form.
(This form is available on our course’s Blackboard site). Other
students in the course, including your instructor, will then
provide feedback/comments to your paper. Details about this
requirement will be discussed in the course of the semester.

my topic is application of operant conditioning in puppy
training. it is talking about operant conditioning
and behavior training.

Running title Learning. 3NameUniversityProfessor.docx

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