Biopesticide (2).pptx .This slides helps to know the different types of biop...
quinoa crop introduction by siddique ahmad ( agriculture university of peshwar
1. INTRODUCTIONTO QUINOA CROP
Botanical name: Chenopodium quinoa Wild.
Family:Chenopodiaceae
Common names. English: quinoa, quinua; Quechua: : quinua. kiuna (Ecuador,
Peru. Bolivia): Aymara jiura (Bolivia); Mapuche: quinhua (Chile): Chibcha : suba
(Colombia)
IMPORTANCEIN PAKISTAN:
Quinoa is an innovative crop and an emerging crop
of Pakistan. Its scientific name is Chenopodium quinoa. It
belongs to family amaranthaceae sub family
chenopodiaceae. Its crop height is about 1-2 meter. It has
been introduced in Pakistan in 2008 with the help of
USDA. It is originated in the Andean region of Peru,
Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Chile and was
domesticated 3,000 to 4,000, years ago, for human
consumption. The crop yield in Andean region is 3 t/ha to
5 t/h .The Food and Agriculture Organization of United
Nation declared 2013 to be the international year of
quinoa. It is considered as a super food due to its vital
nutritional profile. If we look at its nutritional profile it
contains 64% carbohydrate and 13% water. It also
contains high amount of protein which is almost 17 to 21
percent as compare to rice and wheat which contain 3%
and 13%, respectively. It is believed that this protein is
2. superior in quality as compare to soybean, wheat and
barley. It contains soluble fiber that is why it is a
detoxifying agent and eliminates wastes from the body. It
has also a good combination of amino acids like lysine and
sulphur. In addition, it also contains calcium, magnesium,
potassium, phosphorus manganese and vitamin A and E
are all requirement of human being.
The most important feature of this crop is that it is a
halophyte and easily grows in saline soil. As we know 1/3rd
of our land is salt affected so it can be very important for
Pakistan. It is also drought tolerant and easily survives
under high temperature. It has low input/nutrient
requirement for full crop and only need 3 to 4 irrigation. It
is climate resilient crop. It has potential to grow under
marginal land and has ability to grow under low rain fall
areas, it can also grow in high altitude areas of Pakistan
like Hunza valley and Chillas. It is more economical to
grow due to its high demand in developed countries.
Luckily this crop acclimatizes to conditions of Pakistan and
its growing season is oct to march. Since its introduction,
its production is increasing day by day. Plant can grow at
relative humidity from 44 to 88 percent and soil ph ranges
3. from 6 to 8.5.It can tolerate temperature ranges from -4 to
380C.The optimum temperature for it is 12 to 20c.
Initially, it was grown in areas of Faisalabad, Chakwal and
Sheikupura, Haripur, and Hazara, at that time its 1kg seed
price was 3000 rupees. Now more than 100 acres is under
cultivation of this crop and recently price of 1kg seed is
600 rupees. Its production is 2.5 ton per hectare and more
than 8 ton of biological mass used as a fodder, biofuel and
vegetable. Now Pakistan is exporting its seed. From a
single panicle, we can get 200 grams of seed so it could
become a highly valuable crop in Pakistan as it generates
more profit than any other cash crop.
It has over 120 color verities, but red, white and black are
more common. Apart from colour all verities are very
similar and can be used in the same recipes. Nutritional
differences are miniscule.
It has many health benefits. Its grain can be grounded to
make floor. Grains used for making food, biscuit, bread,
sauces, pasta, cakes and juices. In European countries, it is
also popped just like popcorn. Saponins present in plant is
used for making detergent, shampoo, beer, toothpaste
pesticides and antibiotics.it can also be used in making
4. different kinds of salads.it can also be used in local sweet
dishes like halva and kheer as a substitute of wheat and
rice.
It is also called as pseudo cereal because it is used as
alternate of cereal and replace wheat as well as rice. It is
also gluten free so can be a substitute of wheat. It is also
useful during pregnancy. Due to its more industrial status
it is need of the hour to increase its cultivation for
economic stability of country. As we know world
population is increasing day by day. So, to meet the
demands of increasing population we would have to
develop better genotypes. For this purpose, plant breeders
would have to pay it under consideration to develop better
genotypes having high yield to cope with food security.
Recently genome of quinoa was translated in 2017 by
researcher in Saudi Arabia. So it’s a massive breakthrough
for contemporary researchers to know more about it using
new techniques and information. Initial yield trials have
already been started at University Agriculture Faisalabad
and barani institute Chakwal for its acclimatization.
5. USES:
Quinoa is a highly nutritious food. The nutritional quality of this
crop has been compared to that of dried whole milk by the Food and
6. Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. The protein
quality and quantity in quinoa seed is often superior to those of more
common cereal grains (Table 1). Quinoa is higher in lysine than wheat,
and the amino acid content of quinoa seed is considered well-balanced
for human and animal nutrition, similar to that of casein.
Quinoa is used to make flour, soup, breakfast cereal, and alcohol. Most
quinoa sold in the United States has been sold as whole grain that is
cooked separately as rice or in combination dishes such as pilaf.
Quinoa flour works well as a starch extender when combined with
wheat flour or grain, or corn meal, in making biscuits, bread, and
processed food.
Seed coats (pericarp) are usually covered with bitter saponin
compounds that must be removed before human consumption.
Saponins may also be toxic to fish. Deresination (removal of the
pericarp and the saponins by mechanical or chemical means) does not
affect the mineral content of the seed (Johnson and Croissant, 1990).
The marketable seed is usually white in color. The leaves are
frequently eaten as a leafy vegetable, like spinach. Seed imported from
7. growers in South America is sold in the United States in health-food
stores and gourmet food shops at high prices.
Quinoa grain has a lower sodium content and is higher in calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, copper, manganese, and
zinc than wheat, barley, or corn .The determination of the mineral
content from Colorado quinoa trials showed a similar relationship, but
differences from other grains were less conspicuous.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE:
8. The parts of Chenopodium quinoa used as human
food include the grain, the young leaves up to where ear
formation begins (the protein content of the ear is as much
as 3.3 percent in the dry matter) and, less frequently, the
young ears. The plants nutritional value is considerable:
the content and quality of its proteins are outstanding
because of their essential amino acid composition (lysine,
arginine, histidine and methionine); its biological value is
comparable to casein and it is especially suitable for food
mixtures with legumes and cereals.
Of the Andean grains, C. quinoa is the most versatile from
the point of view of culinary preparation: the whole grain,
the uncooked or roasted flour, small leaves, meal and
instant powder can be prepared in a number of ways.
There are numerous recipes on about 100 preparations,
including tamales, huancaína sauce, leaf salad, pickled
quinoa ears, soups and casseroles, stews, torrejas pastries.
sweets and desserts and soft and fermented, hot and colts,
beverages, as well as breads, biscuits and pancakes, which
contain 15 to 20 percent of quinoa flour.
The whole plant is used as green fodder Harvest residues
are also used to feed cattle, sheep, pigs, horses and poultry.
The leaves, stems and grain have medicinal uses and the
properties attributed to it include cicatrization, anti-
inflammation, analgesia against toothache and as a
9. disinfectant of the urinary tract. It is also used in the case
of fractures and internal haemorrhaging and as an insect
repellent.
Its production potential is good. Because of this, its
cultivation is spreading to other countries. With adequate
soil preparation, fertilization and pest and disease control,
yields of more than 3 to 4 tonnes per hectare can be
obtained. In recent years, it has been introduced on the
international market, fetching prices in excess of US$ 1.5
per kg.
10. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION:
Quinoa is an annual herbaceous plant, measuring 0.20
to 3 m in height, depending on environmental conditions and
genotype. It has a racemose inflorescence (a panicle with groups
of flowers in glomerules); small, incomplete, sessile flowers of
the same colour as the sepals and they may be hermaphrodite,
pistillate or male sterile. The stamens have short filaments
bearing basifixed anthers; the style has two or three feathery
stigmas.
The fruit occurs in an indehiscent achene, protected by the
perigonium. The seeds are 1 to 2.6 mm and are white, yellow,
red, purple, brown or black. The leaves show pronounced
polymorphism: rhomboid, deltoid or triangular. The taproot is
densely branched.
11.
12.
13. ECOLOGY AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY:
Climate:
Quinoa requires short daylengths and cool temperatures for
good growth. Areas in South America where it is still produced tend
to be marginalagriculturalareas thatare prone to droughtand have
soils with low fertility. Cultivated quinoa will flower and produce
seed at high elevations between 7,000 and 10,000 ft in Colorado
since it requires a cool temperature for good vegetative growth.
Research conducted in Colorado reported that temperatures which
exceeded 95°Ftended to cause plant dormancyor pollen sterility. In
several years of trials near the Twin Cities, Minnesota, quinoa plants
have failed to set seed; probably due to high temperatures.
Quinoa plants are usually tolerantto light frosts(30° to 32°F). Plants
should not be exposed to temperatures below 28°F to avoid the 70
to 80% loss that occurred in Colorado during 1985 when plants
were in mid-bloom (Johnson and Croissant, 1990). However, plants
are not affected by temperatures down to 20°F after the grain has
14. reached the soft-dough stage. Quinoa will flower earlier when
grown in areas with shorter daylengths.
Quinoa is generally not a widely adapted crop due to temperature
sensitivity. Farmers should experiment first before planting large
acreages.
Soil:
This crop grows well on sandy-loam to loamy-sand soils.
Marginal agricultural soils are frequently used in South America to
grow quinoa. These soils have poor or excessive drainage, low
naturalfertility, or very acidic(pH of 4.8)to alkaline (8.5)conditions.
Seed Preparation and Germination:
Quinoa prefers cool soil conditions (45° to 50°F).
Germination occurs within 24 hours after planting when adequate
moisture is present, and seedlings emerge in three to five days.
Quinoa seeds, like those of spinach,may not germinate if conditions
are warm and may need to be refrigerated for a week (vernalized)
to obtain adequate germination.
15. Seedbed Preparation:
Quinoa requires a level, well-drained seedbed in order to
avoid waterlogging.
Seeding Date:
Robinson (1986) planted quinoa in mid-May at Rosemount,
Minnesota that emerged about June 1, but earlier dates are also
appropriate. Seed is planted in late April to mid -May in southern
Colorado.
Method and Rate of Seeding:
Seeds should be planted at a depth of 1/2 to 1 in. depending
on soil type and available soil moisture. Ile small size of the seed
makes it susceptible to both dehydration and waterlogging when
planted too shallow, or deep, respectively. Row width can vary, but
rows should be spaced by a minimum of 14 in. Varieties in Colorado
have been grown in rows 20 to 30 in. apart. Stands of 130,000
plants/acre appear to be optimal for growing conditions in
Colorado. A stand of this density would require 1/2 to 3/4 lb of
16. seedlacre. Seeding rates are usually doubled when growing
conditionsare not optimal. Better stands are obtained when seed is
planted in a moist soil, instead of irrigating after planting prior to
emergence. Field trials in Great Britain indicated that increasing
plant density resulted in a slightly earlier maturity, greater seed
yield, and less -branching of plants.
Fertility Requirements:
Quinoa responds well to nitrogen fertilizer. In the first year of
trials in Colorado, the variety Linares and others responded
favorably to application of nitrogen fertilizer (Table 4). Research on
nitrogen and phosphorus requirements conducted for three years
by D. L. Johnson of Colorado State University found that maximum
yields are possible when 150 to 180 lbs N/acre are available. Yields
declined when greater levels of available nitrogen were present due
to a slower maturity and more intense lodging. No effect on yield
was observed when 30 lb of phosphorus (as phosphate acid) per
acre was applied, in comparison to an untreated field plot.
17. Water Requirements:
This crop is somewhat drought tolerant with a water
requirement of 10 to 15 in. per year (precipitation and irrigation
combined on sandy-loam or loamy-sand soils). Studies on crop
water use conducted during 1987 in Colorado found that the
application of lower amounts of water reduced plant height by 50%
with only an 18% reduction in yield. Crops planted during late April
to mid-May in Colorado did not usually need irrigation until mid-
June when the soil was near field capacity at planting time. Plants
should not be irrigated until the two- or three-leaf stage. Rainfall in
July has usually been sufficient during Colorado research trials to
supply the crop until August. Excessive irrigation after stand
establishment usually produces tall, lanky plants with no yield
improvement. Damping off and severe stunting of plants will occur
with excessive irrigation in the seedling stages.
Variety Selection:
The Agricultural Experiment Station at Colorado State
University has developed a yellow-seeded variety, CO407, which is
18. the only registered variety that is available (Table 5). This variety
was derived from plants that came from Chile and was released in
1987. 'CO407' typically has a short height, early maturity (100 days
after planting),compactseed head, and resists grain shattering.This
variety has a rich, nutty flavor and 16.5 to 18% protein, which is
higher than other types that have averaged 12.5 to 14%. The nutty
flavor of the flour made from this variety complements those of
other grain flours when it comprises as little as 15 to 30% of a
product. The pericarp with its coating of saponins is removed
effectively by abrasion rather than washing. Three other varieties,
CO409,Cahuil, and CO407Black, have good yield potential based on
field performance in southern Colorado.
Weed control:
Weed control in quinoa fields is difficult since plants grow
slowly during the first two weeks after emergence. In commercial
fields of southern Colorado, pigweed, kochia, lambsquarters, and
sunflower have been the most common weeds. Wild mustard and
sunflower can be a problem since it is not possible to separate them
from quinoa seed. There are no registered herbicides for quinoa at
19. this time. Preemergence herbicide trials have been conducted in
field and greenhouse locations in Colorado. Several herbicides were
used safely on quinoa, but were variable in weed control.
Competition from weeds is greater when quinoa is planted later in
the growing season. Kochia and lambsquarters numbers can be
reduced when field irrigation is followed by cultivation before
seeding. Pigweed emerges too late in the growing season to depend
on cultivation for weed control. Early planting may be the most
effective means to control pigweed since the quinoa will have a
good start in growth before the pigweed emerges.
Diseases:
Disease and pest problems may arise after a crop like quinoa
is introducedto a new productionarea. Viruses found on spinach or
beets have been observed in quinoa fields. Many of these viruses
are transmitted by aphids or leafhoppers. Several of the viruses
tested produce symptoms, yet research needs to be conducted to
determine if any cause significant damage. Diseases such as
damping off (Sclerotium rolfsii), downy mildew (Peronospora
farinosa), stalkrot(Phomaexigua var.foveata),leaf spot (Ascochyta
20. hyalospora), grey mold (Botrytis cinerea), and bacterial blight
(Pseudomonas sp.) have also caused significant losses in South
America, North America, and Great Britain.
Insects and Other Pests:
A wide variety of insect pests can damage quinoa during seed
germination up through harvest and seed storage in production
areas of South America. Insect pests observed in North America
include flea beetles and a wide variety of caterpillars (insect larvae).
Flea beetles and aphidscaused damage in quinoa trials conductedin
Minnesota (Robinson, 1986). The sugarbeet root aphid (Pemphigus
populivenae) has significantly reduced yields in isolated research
fields of Colorado. Since this crop requires little water, the soil will
crack and allow aphids access to the roots. There are no pesticides
cleared for use on quinoa. The best control method for this aphid is
to irrigate fields when winged forms appear in leaf-petiole galls of
cottonwoods and poplars (overwintering habit) in early summer.
The "quinoa plant bug" (Melanotrichus sp.) and the beet armyworm
(Spodoptera exigua) have also reduced yields in some research
fields. Bacillus thuringiensis, a naturally occurring bacterium that
21. controlscertain insect larvae, can be used to control the defoliating
caterpillars. Entomologists at Colorado State University, do not
consider insect problems to be a yield-limiting factor for quinoa
production at this time.
Seed in the panicle is subject to feeding losses by birds. Quinoa, like
some other grains, evolved a chemical defense against the feeding
activityof insects and animals with the productionof bitter saponins
in the pericarp. However, saponins are easily washed out by rain
and may not totally prevent feeding losses.
Harvesting:
Plants have a sorghum-like seed head at maturity. Harvest
usually begins when the seed can barely be dented with a fingernail
and plants have dried, turned a pale yellow or red color, and leaves
have dropped. The seed should thresh easily by hand at this time.
Field dry down is usually acceptable and plants are harvested easily
with a combine. A sorghumheader attachment is recommended for
quinoa, although platform headers can usually be used as well,
without a large crop loss. Cylinder speed and air flow of combines
are usually greatly reduced. Smaller screens are used than with
22. cereal grainsdue to the small size and lighter weight of quinoa seed.
A fanning mill and gravity separator is usually necessary to remove
trash from the seed after combining. Grain must be dry before
storage. Quinoa stover contains little fiber and subsequently
provides little crop residue.
Rain during harvest will cause problems since mature seed will
germinate within 24 hours after exposure to moisture.
Drying and Storage:
The seed must remain dry during storage. Prior to using
quinoa in food processing,the saponinsin the pericarp are removed
by soaking them in water or by mechanical methods, such as with a
rice polisher or a machine similar to those used to remove wheat
bran.
23. FOLLOWING ARE THE TABLES FOR
NITROGEN, COMPARISONS OF NUTRIENTS,
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS AND DM %AGE.
Effect of nitrogen on quinoa yields in Colorado during 1983for the varietyLinares1. Other
varieties have responded In a similar fashion.
Nitrogen
lb/a
Yield
lb/a
15 950
Comparisons of the mineral content In quinoa grain with barley, yellow corn, and wheat.
Quinoa data are based on the average of 15 cultivars.
Crop Ca P Mg K Na Fe Cu Mn Zn
% PPM
Quinoa 0.19 0.47 0.26 0.87 115 205 67 128 50
Barley 0.08 0.42 0.12 0.56 200 50 8 16 15
Corn 0.07 0.36 0.14 0.39 900 21 - - -
Wheat 0.05 0.36 0.16 0.52 900 50 7 14
25. GrowingGuide:
GROWINGNOTES
Quinoa grows best where maximum temperatures do not exceed
90°F (32°C) and nighttime temperatures are cool. For most southern
Canadian and northern U.S. sites, the best time to plant quinoa is late
April to late May. When soil temperatures are around 60°F (15°C)
seedlings emerge within three to four days. However, when quinoa
seeds are planted in soil with night-time temperatures much above
that, quinoa, like spinach, may not germinate. In this instance, it's
best to refrigerate seeds before planting.
Quinoa is a warm season crop that requires full sun. Best germination
occurs when soil temperatures range from 65 to 75°F (18-24°C). For
southern Canada and the northern U.S., this usually means a late May
or early June planting.
The small seeds of amaranth and quinoa will germinate more
successfully with a finely prepared surface and adequate moisture.
Seeds should be sown no more than one-quarter inch deep in rows
one and a half- to two-feet (45-60 cm) apart or wide enough to
accommodate a rototiller between the rows without damaging the
plants. Planting can be done by hand or with a row seeder. Plants
should eventually be thinned 6 to 18 inches (15-45 cm) apart.
(Thinnings make great additions to salad.)
One gram of seed will sow 50 feet (15 m) of row. An acre requires
about one pound of seed.
HarvestingGuide:
HARVESTING
26. Quinoa is ready to harvest when the leaves have fallen, leaving just
the dried seedheads. Seeds can be easily stripped upwards off the
stalk with a gloved hand. Quinoa resists light frosts especially if the
soil is dry. So long as maturing seed is past the green stage, frost will
cause little damage and harvesting can be done a day or two later.
Extreme hot weather and warm nights inhibit fruit set. It is important
to watch the weather when quinoa is ready to be harvested: if rained
on, the dry seed can germinate. If the heads are not completely dry,
harvest them when you can barely indent the seeds with your
thumbnail. They should then be thoroughly dried before storage.
Amaranth keeps on flowering until hit by the first hard frost. Seed will
often ripen many weeks before that, usually after about three
months. The best way to determine if seed is harvestable is to gently
but briskly shake or rub the flower heads between your hands and see
if the seeds fall readily. (Numerous small and appreciative birds may
give hints as to when to start doing this.) An easy way to gather ripe
grain is, in dry weather, to bend the plants over a bucket and rub the
seedheads between your hands. My own preferred threshing method
is to rub the flowerheads through screening into a wheelbarrow and
then to blow away the finer chaff using my air compressor. Cutting
and hanging plants to dry indoors does not work very well: the plants
become extremely bristly and it is difficult to separate the seed from
the chaff.
The best time to harvest amaranth commercially is in dry weather
three to seven days after first frost—a condition not easily met in
many places. Most presently available varieties maintain too high a
moisture content to be harvested mechanically before a killing frost.
Clean quinoa and amaranth with screens, by winnowing, with a fan or
other blowing device. After harvesting, it is important to further dry
your crop to ensure it won't mold in storage. It can be left on trays in
27. the hot sun or placed near an indoor heat source. Stir occasionally
until it is as dry as possible. Store seed in air-tight containers in a cool
dry place.
SAVINGSEEDS
Amaranth and quinoa cross with their wild relatives, so it is important to
weed out red-rooted pigweed and lamb's-quarters if you want to
maintain pure seed. Amaranth cultivars will cross with each other as will
quinoa cultivars, so grow only one kind of each or separate cultivars by
as much distance as you can. Certain varieties, such as purple-leaved
amaranth, are easier to select for than others. Lamb's-quarters has a
greater branching habit than quinoa and smaller flowerheads.
