What are pulse crops, Breeding centers of pulse crops, cultivation of pulse crops, cultivation of Chickpeas, Mungbean, Mashbean.lentil and much more.

6. WHAT IS A PULSE CROPS
Pulse belong to the family Fabaceae/Leguminosae (with about 700 genera and 18,00
species).
The year 2016 was declared as International Year of Pulses by United Nations and
pulses were announced as nutritious seeds for a sustainable future (FAO 2016)
However, pulses are grown as secondary crops and the global area under cereals is
about ten times higher than that of pulses .
Legume crops can be divided into two groups according to their ability to grow in
different seasons,
namely cool-season food legumes and warm- or tropical-season food legumes . Pulse
crops are one of the most sustainable crops a farmer can grow. Cool-season food
legumes include broad bean (Vicia faba), lentil (Lenculinaris), lupin (Lupinus spp.),
dry pea (Pisum sativum), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus),
and common vetch (Vicia sativa) Warm-season food legumes include pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), mung bean (Vigna radiata var.
radiata), common bean (Phaseolus spp.) and urd bean (Vigna mungo), which are
mainly grown in hot and humid conditions .Legumes rank third in world crop
production, after cereals and oilseeds

7. They are high in protein, fibre, and various vitamins, provide amino acids, and are
hearty crops. They are most popular in developing countries, but are increasingly
becoming recognized as an excellent part of a healthy diet throughout the world.
Pulse crops are one of the most sustainable crops a farmer can grow
Pulses can help restore degraded soils through biological nitrogen fixation,
mobilization of nutrients as phosphorus, increasing organic matter through root
biomass and leaf fall, and protecting soil from erosion with cover and promoting the
formation of soil aggregates through deeper root systems Also, inclusion of pulse
crops in the crop sequence reduces disease incidence in crops that follow a pulse
crop. The fruit of a pulse crop is a pod containing one to several seeds, which are
high in protein, carbohydrates, fibre, minerals and vitamins (folate). Consumption
of pulses as part of a regular diet may offer numerous health benefits including
reduced risk of diabetes and heart diseases.
Why are they important crops?

8. Major producing countries for primary pulses

9. Cultivated species, Centre of origin of primary pulse crops

10. Reproduction and Pollination of Pulse Crops:
• All primary pulses are seed propagated and self-pollinated. Pigeon-pea is often
cross-pollinated species in which natural cross pollination upto 7% has been
reported under Indian conditions.

11. Breeding Centers Pulse Crops
• Both International and National Centres/Institutes are engaged in the
improvement of pulse crops. International Crop Research Institute for
Semi-Arid Tropics, (ICRISAT) Hyderabad, India is actively
engaged in improvement of pigeon-pea and chickpea (both desi and
Kabuli).
• ICARDA (International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dryland
Areas) works on improvement of lentil and Kabuli chickpea.
• Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre, Taiwan deals
with breeding of mungbean and maintains global gene-pool of this
pulse.
• International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Colombia deals
with breeding of French bean.

12. Breeding Centers Pulse Crops:
• Cowpea improvement work is carried out in the International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria.

13. Significance of pulses in human diet

14. Pulses are mainly cheapest source of protein (22-24%) for vegetarian dietary
population, especially the poor. It also provide dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals
like iron, magnesium, phosphorous, zinc and other minerals, which play a
variety of roles in maintaining good health.
SN Important reasons SN Important reasons
1. Excellent source of fiber 6. Good source of iron
2. Good source of protein 7. Excellent source of follate
3. Low fat 8. Good source of potassium
4. Low sodium 9. Gluten free
5. Cholesterol free 10. Low glycemic index
Top ten reasons to use pulses
Significance of pulses in human diet

15. Significance of pulses in human diet
Pulses are an important part of our diet. Basically, they are the edible seeds of the plants of
legume family.
The average consumption of pulses in the world is 7 kg/person/year .
Pulses contain high amounts of protein, fiber, iron, zinc, phosphorous, folate and B-vitamins!
The low glycemic index and high fiber content of the pulses makes them an important source
of human nutrition.
Pulses contain twice the amount of protein found in whole grain cereals like wheat, barley,
oats and rice.
Pulses are part of a healthy, balanced diet and have been shown to have an important role in
preventing illnesses such as cancer, diabetes and heart disease.

16. Significance of pulses in human diet
• Common Beans
Dry beans include a few different types under it’s belt. Black beans, Red
Kidney beans, Navy beans to name a few.
• But the advantage to adding black beans to our ‘Southwestern Salad’
are the high levels of fiber, potassium — low cholesterol and heart
healthy attributes.
• Lentils
• Lentils are an amazing source of cholesterol-lowering, they also help
in managing, blood-sugar problems because of their high fiber content.
Lentils also provide an excellent amount of seven important minerals,
B-vitamins, and protein.
• Chickpeas
• Chickpea is a good source of important vitamins such as Vitamin B2,
Vitamin B3, vitamin B1, vitamin B9 and vitamin A. As with other
pulses, chickpea seeds also contain anti-nutritional factors which can be
reduced or eliminated by different cooking techniques. .
• The high fiber content helps improve digestion and promote weight loss
by increasing satiety.

17. Nutrient Content of Important Pulse crops
Crop Name Protein
(%)
Fiber
(%)
Carbohydrate
(%)
Fat
(%)
Minerals
(%)
Vitamins
(%)
Pigeon pea 22.3 1.5 57.6 1.7 3.5 B9- 114
B1- 56
Chickpea 18-22 1.2 61-62 4.5 2.7 B9- 43
B1- 10
K- 4
Moong 24-25 4.1 56.0 1.3 3.5 B9- 156
B1- 54
Urd 24.0 1.4 59.6 1.4 3.2 Rich in Vit.
A,
B 1, 3
Lentil 24-26 3.2 57-60 1.3 2.1 B9- 120
B1- 76,
B5,6- 42
Field pea 22.5 4.5 62.1 1.8 2.2 B9- 16
C- 48
K- 24
Source: Status paper on pulses by RP Singh, Govt. of India, Ministry of Agriculture

18. Botanical description
• Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
• Mung bean (Vigna radiate (L.)
• Lentil (Lens culinaris .)
• Mash bean (Vigna mungo L.)
• Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.)
• Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. )
• Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
• Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia L.)
• Faba bean (Vicia faba L.)

19. STATUS OF PULSES CROPS IN PAKISTAN
Pulses are cultivated all over the world but in Pakistan it is being cultivated on 5% of
total cultivated area of crops . Major pulse crops cultivated in Pakistan include,
chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), mungbean [Vigna radiate (L.), lentil (Lens
culinaris Medic.) and mashbean (Vigna mungo L. Hepper). Other minor pulses are
cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.), common
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), moth bean [Vigna aconitifolia and faba bean (Vicia
faba L.). The protein contents in grains of pulses range from 15 to 30%. Specifically,
protein contents range between 17–22% in chickpea, 23–28% in lentil , 21–27% in
mungbean and 21–28% in mash bean.
Production of pulses in Pakistan is 0.7 Mt while the total requirement (consumption)
is about 1.5 Mt. To meet the requirement, Pakistan has to import 0.8 Mt pulses every
year (chickpea, lentil, mungbean and mashbean) mostly from Canada, USA,
Australia, China, Russia, Ukraine and Africa.

20. Production of pulses is centered
• In Pakistan, the production of pulses is centered in two regions.
• (i) Thal desert through districts Jhang, Bakhar, Khushab, Mianwali, and Layyah)
• (ii) Barani region (including districts Attack, Chakwal, Jhelum, Rawalpindi and
Narowal).
• In both above production regions, success of crops relies on the incidence of
rainfall.
• There is a decreasing trend in area and production of chickpea, lentil, mung bean
and mash bean since last five decades owing to disease infestation, insect-pests,
marketing problems, lack of crop-specific farm machinery, changed precipitation
patterns, heat waves, and low productivity.
• Farmers prefer growing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), cotton (Gossypium
hirsutum L.), and other crops due to high yield potential and better economic
returns than the pulses.

22. Production of pulses in Pakistan
• In Pakistan, pulses are planted in an area of 1.5 Mha.
• Among these, chickpea is a major winter pulse crop and mungbean is the principal
summer pulse crop.
• Chickpea occupies (73%) of the total area under pulses with 76% of the total
production whereas mungbean contributes 16% of total production from 18% of the
area under pulses .
• However, each lentil and mashbean is cultivated on 5% of the area under pulses and
contribute 5% to the total production (NARC 2017).

23. Chickpea
• Chickpea is the major pulse crop of Pakistan and is grown on 73% of the area
under pulses.
• Thal desert is home to chickpea production as none of the other crops can be
profitably grown in this region due to low fertility, and lack of irrigation water.
However, chickpea produces fair yield under moisture stress in marginal lands of
Thal desert (NARC 2017).
• There has been significant yield instability in this region due to drought stress,
and infestation of diseases like chickpea wilt, and chickpea blight.
• The average chickpea yield during last 5 decades (1970–1980, 1981–1990,
1991–2000, 2001–2010 and 2011–2019) was 501, 616, 636, 678 and 670 kg ha−1,
respectively.
• Although Pakistan is the third largest producer of chickpea after India and
Australia (FAO 2014), its production is less than the national requirements.

24. Lentil
• Lentil is the 2nd major winter pulse crop of Pakistan. It is cultivated in 5% of
the area under pulses (NARC 2017).
• Rust and blight are the major diseases restricting lentil yield in Pakistan.
• The average lentil yield during last five decades (1970–1980, 1981–1990,
1991–2000, 2001–2010 and 2011–2019) was 307, 449, 526, 554 and
545 kg ha−1, respectively.

25. Mungbean
• Mungbean is the major summer pulse of Pakistan.
• About 16% area under mungbean is in the Punjab province which produces
18% of total production in the country.
• Major production constraints of mungbean include pathogen attack, weeds
infestation, insect-pest attack, and inadequate supply of certified seed
(NARC 2017).
• Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus (MYMV) is the most destructive viral disease
in Pakistan. Disease infestation delays maturity, which reduces the flowering
and pod formation (www.nia.org.pk/gin%20mungbean.html, Accessed 19
September 2019).
• The average yield of mungbean, in Pakistan during last five decades (1970–
1980, 1981–191990, 1991–2000, 2001–2010 and 2011–2019) has been 465,
498, 518, 597 and 598 kg ha−1, respectively

26. Mash bean
• Mashbean is 2nd major pulse crop of the summer season in Pakistan.
• It is cultivated in 5% of the area under pulses and contributes 5% to the total
pulses production in the country.
• The major reasons for low yield of mashbean include its cultivation on marginal
lands, lack of high yielding varieties, and lack of improved production
technology.
• Average yield of mashbean during last five decades (1970–1980, 1981–1990,
1991–2000, 2001–2010 and 2011–2019) remained 479, 565, 610, 636 and
676 kg ha−1, respectively. However, production is less than the national
requirements.

27. The main reasons of low yield of pulses in Pakistan include, lack of crop improvement
and seed distribution system, abiotic stresses (drought, heat stress, and salinity, ),
biotic stresses (weeds, disease, and insect-pests), and soil related issues such as
cultivation on marginal soils which have high pH, low organic matter, low moisture,
and high erosion.
Moreover, pulses are considered minor crops in Pakistan and are substituted with
major crops (cereals) resulting in decrease in area under pulses and the total
production.
Furthermore, changing climate (frequent drought episodes, heat waves, erratic rainfall
and shift of season), lack of farm machinery (for sowing, irrigation, plant protection,
and fertilizer application), post-harvest losses, and marketing (no-support price)
constraints are also bottleneck in getting required production in pulses.
Reasons of low yield in pulse crops

28. Crop Improvement and Seed Distribution
System
• Seed improvement and replacement rate in pulses are not still achieved to the
desired level and farmers are forced to use their own saved seed.
• During 2018–2019, the total requirement of certifed seed in the country was
42,674 metric tons while the total seed availability was 1,401 metric tons (from
this 10 metric tons was contributed by the public sector while 1,391 metric tons
were provided by the private sector).
• This is one of the major reasons for low yield of pulses in Pakistan. The
availability of improved varieties of major pules is very low. From 1947 to date,
44 varieties of chickpea, 25 varieties of mungbean, 14 varieties of lentil, and 10
varieties of mashbean have been released for commercial cultivation during the
last seven decades. Only 2% of farmers use registered dealers or companies’ seed
. Another survey indicated that 85% of chickpea growers use their seed taken
from the previous crop which results in low productivity.

31. Pulses overview
Pulses are mainly cheapest source of protein (22-24%) for vegetarian dietary
population, especially the poor. It also provide dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals
like iron, magnesium, phosphorous, zinc and other minerals, which play a
variety of roles in maintaining good health.
Worldwide pulse production, a total of 70.41 million tons are harvested
annually from 77.50 million hectares area with a productivity of 907.70 kg/ha
(FAOSTAT, 2012). Almost about 90% of the global pigeon pea, 65% chickpea
and 37% under lentil area falls in India, corresponding to 93%, 68% and 32%
of the global production respectively (FAOSTA, 2011)
Major pulse growing countries are India, Canada, Myanmar, China, Brazil,
Australia, Russia, Ukraine, USA,
France, Tanzania, China and Kenya.
Major exporters are Australia, Canada, Myanmar, Russia, Ukraine, USA,
France, Tanzania,
China and Kenya.
Major importer are India, Pakistan and other developing countries

32. AN OVERVIEW ON MUTATION
Mutation have been important in evolution that at one time these were
considered to be the chief source of origin of new species.
Ultimate source of variation in different genotypes.
Mutation may be spontaneous or induced artificially.
.” Use of induced mutants in the breeding programmes for developing
superior varieties is known as mutation breeding”.
During the past about eight decades more than 2500 varieties have
been released worldwide by mutation breeding.
The prime strategy in mutation based breeding has been to upgrade
the well-adapted plant varieties by altering one or two major traits to
enhance the quality.
The mutagenes are PHYSICAL (X-rays, Gamma rays, UV radiations,
β-particles, Neutrons)
And the chemical (Base analogues, Antibiotics, Alkylating agents,
Acridines, Azides, Hydroxylamine and Nitrous acid).

33. ADVANTAGES OF MUTATION BREEDING
Through mutation breeding a lot of variability can be created in a crop
species.
It can be used for germplasm enhancement as well as for deriving new
cultivars.
Rapid way to develop a variety as compare to conventional methods.
Enhance the quality of the many cereal and pulses crops.
It is less time consuming prosess it takes about 3-7 year to release a variety
depending upon the method.
Mutations may induce both qualitative and quantitative variation.

34. DIFFICULTIES IN MUTATION
The mutation frequency is different for different plant species and
even within a species there is differential genotypic response to
different mutagens.
As far as the frequency of desirable mutations is concerned it is very
low at about 0.1%.
To get the higher success rate, the larger population should be grown
and observed critically at different stages of growth and development
to isolate desirable mutants.
Screening of large populations require more time, labour and other
resources, hence very expensive in terms of man power and resources.
Some mutations have pleiotropic effects due to linked gene(s),
whereas other mutations have chromosomal aberrations and deletions,
hence not desirable
Further, breaking the undesirable linkage between gene of interest and
undesirable genes is not an easy task, which restricts frequent use of
mutation breeding for crop improvement.

35. ROLE OF MUTATION IN PULSES CROP
Mutation breeding is very useful in pulses as variability in
germplasm.
In pulses both physical and chemical mutagens have been used in
past to study mutagenic effect and as a result varietal
developmental has also come up.
Approximately 97 varieties of pulses have been developed at
world level
Maximum varieties have been developed through gamma rays
(Table 1).

36. Continue…………
In chickpea, the spectrum of mutations affecting major genes were found to be
high with NMU as compared to EMS and gamma rays mutants obtained were
miniature, dwarf, compact and upright types .
 Gamma rays have been found effective in generation of disease resistant
variety in chickpea Ascochyta blight and wilt
Gamma rays increases the degree of softness of seed, thus improving the
cooking quality.
 The first mutation based variety ‘CM 72’ was released in the year 1983 in
Pakistan which was found to be resistant against ‘Ascochyta blight’ by
the radiation mutagenes.
EMS having the highest mutagenic efficiency in traits like germination,
height, survival, maturity and pollen fertility is observed.
The EMS with increasing concentration shows a consistent decrease for plant
height, days to flowering and days to maturity
In Pakistan, nine mutant cultivars of mungbean with induced early and uniform
maturity, short stature and large seed size have been released. ‘NIAB Mung 92
was approved in 1996, and NIAB Mung 98’ in 1998 for cultivation in the
Punjab Province. Both the cultivars are high yielding and resistant to YMV and
Cercospora leaf spot diseases.

37. Hybridization Techniques
• Flowers are generally emasculated in the evening and pollinated on
the next morning.
• For emasculation flower that will open one or two days latter are
selected and rest flowers and bud on the branch are removed the
stamens of the selected buds are removed with forceps with gently
pushing keels apart.
• The emasculated flower bud is then bagged. Magnifying glass may be
used if needed, Ripe anthers are collected in the following morning
and pollination is done by gently pressing the ripe anther against the
stigma.
• The flowers are again bagged after pollination. To ensure selfing the
flower need to be bagged as insects, when visiting carry pollens to
the stigma and bring about cross-pollination.

38. General Hybridization Techniques in Pulses
1. SELFING:
• To ensure selfing the flower need to be bagged as insects, when visiting carry
pollens to the stigma and bring about cross-pollination.
2. CROSSING:
• Flowers are generally emasculated in the evening and pollinated on the next
morning.
A. Emasculation:
• For emasculation flower that will open one or two days latter are selected and rest
flowers and bud on the branch are removed the stamens of the selected buds are
removed with forceps with gently pushing keels apart.
• The emasculated flower bud is then bagged and tagged.
• Magnifying glass may be used if needed.
B. Pollination:
• Ripe anthers are collected in the following morning and pollination is done by gently
pressing the ripe anthers against the stigma.
• The flowers are again bagged after pollination.
• Entries are completed on tag.

39. BREEDING TECHNIQUES
IN DIFFERENT PULSE CROPS

40.  Pollination:
• Self-pollination is the rule in Red gram and natural crossing extents up to 65 per
cent. Therefore it is also known as often cross pollinated crop.
 Selfing:
• Immature flower buds are to be covered with paper bags for one or two days.
 Crossing (Emasculation & pollination):
• Hand emasculation followed by artificial cross pollination is essential.
• Emasculation should be done in the previous day evening and the emasculated
buds are protected by covers.
• Early morning on the next day.
• Pollination is done using pollen collected from the protected flowers of the
selected male parents.
1. RED GRAM (Cajanus cajan) (2n = 22) Family - Fabaceae

41. 2. COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata), Family - Fabaceae (Diploid 2n = 22 and 24)
Pollination:
• Highly self-pollinated (because of Cleistogamy).
Selfing:
• Keeping the plants in insect proof cages will lead to selfing.
• Covering of individual flower buds will lead to poor pod setting.
Crossing:
• Select young buds, in an inflorescence and remove all immature buds.
• Split open the keel petals and remove the stamens one by one holding the
filaments.
• Bring corolla back to position and cover the bud with a folded leaflet.
• Protection is given by keeping the plants in insect proof cages.
• Pollination is done on the next day morning by exposing the stigma from the keel
petal and brushing it with the pollen collected from the male parent.

42.  Pollination:
• Flower open early in the morning.
• The pollen is shed normally shortly before or after the flower opens.
• But pollen shedding may occur sometimes with in the bud itself.
• Normally cross pollination does not exceed 1 percent.
 Crossing:
• Hand emasculation is the method followed for crop breeding which is
tedious since the floral parts are so small and seed set is also less.
• Emasculation is done in the evening and pollination is done in the
morning hours.
3. SOYBEAN (Glycine max) (2n = 40), Family - Fabaceae

43. 4. GRAM – (Cicer arietinum) (2n = 14, 16), (Channa,Chick Pea), Family- Fabaceae
Pollination:
• Chickpea is a self-pollinated species with normal out crossing limited to 1.58%.
• Self-pollination takes place one or two days before opening up of the flower.
• The flower open in the morning and close in the afternoon and each flower
opens on two or three successive days.
• Time of Anthesis is 3 AM to 9 AM.
Crossing:
• For hybridization crossing work should be started when the first pod on the
selected plant is already formed.
• In Northern India, emasculation is done a day prior to pollination.
• The pollination is done in the morning hours give better setting.
• In south India, pollination immediately after emasculation gives higher seed
setting.

44. Pollination:
• Self-pollination is the rule.
• Here pollination occurs before flower opening (cleistogamous) in night.
• Anthesis time 1 am-4 am.
• The flower opens in the morning at 7 am.
• The interval between pollination and opening of flower is 4 hours.
• This ensures self-fertilization.
Selfing:
• As in red gram, bagging is done to avoid insect contact.
5. BLACK GRAM (Vigna mungo) (Diploid, 2n = 22 & 24) Family - Fabaceae

45. 5. BLACK GRAM (Vigna mungo) (Diploid, 2n = 22 & 24) Family - Fabaceae
Crossing:
• Young unopened bud is kept between thumb and fore fingers of the left hand.
• The point of dissecting needle is inserted just under the standard petal in an
oblique position along the top of the bud.
• The left side of the standard and wing petal are pushed outward and held with
thumb and left hand.
• The left side of the keel petal is removed with the forceps.
• The pistil and stigma are then exposed and the anthers are removed with the
forceps.
• Evening emasculation followed by morning pollination gives best results.
• Pollination is done by gently rubbing anther of male, inserting the staminal
column and closing it with standard and wing petal.
• Since flower shedding is common, putting butter paper bag is avoided.
• The emasculated flowers are identified with thread wound round.
• The crossed pod will be smaller in size with two or three seeds only.

46. Breeding Objectives of pulse crops
• 1.High yield with early maturity.
2. Resistant wilt, pod borer, flower drop.
3. Breeding for non shattering
4. Breeding for profuse branching and fruiting.
5. Breeding for better quality.
6. Breeding for seed quality.
7. Breeding for oil quality and quantity.

47. Role of Rhizobium
bacterium in Nodule
formation and
nitrogen fixation

48. • Rhizobium plural form rhizobia.
• These are prokaryotes.
• Requires a host plant.
• It is a biofertilizer.
• Nitrogen-fixing organism.
• Found in the Roots of Legumious family such as
chickpeas, Peas, peanut, etc..
• Main function involves the conversion of stable
atmospheric nitrogen gas into Ammonia (NH3).
Introduction To Rhizobium
bacterium

49. •Helps in fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants.
•Freely of cost Nitrogen fixing bacteria.
•Crop needs Very less amount of urea.
•Helps in plant growth and development.
•The most important nitrogen-fixing organism.
•These organisms have the ability to drive
atmospheric Nitrogen and provide it to plants.
Importance of rhizobium bacteria

50. What Is Nitrogen
Fixation?
• Atmospheric N2 gas is converted into more reactive
compounds which hese are easily soluble by plants.
• such as (Ammonia ,nitrates,nitrites).
• It is done by Rhizobium bacteria, present in the nodules
of roots.
• Firstly Rhizobium bacteria converts N2 gas into
Ammonia this process is known as Ammonification.
• Then nitrifying bacteria like nitrosomonas convert
ammonia in to nitrites.
• and last nitrobacter converts it into nitrates this process
is known as nitrification.

51. Types Of Nitrogen
Fixation
Environmental
N2-Fixation
• Under the influence of lightning and thunder
N2 and O2 of air react to form nitric oxide (
NO ).
• Nitric oxide again oxidized with oxygen to
form nitrogen peroxide (No2)
• N2+O2 lightning--thunder 2NO (nitric
oxide) 2NO + O2 - 2No2 (Nitrogen
peroxide).

52. • Is done in the fertilizer
manufacturing industries.
• Nitrogen and hydrogen from
atmosphere is used to form
ammonia which is further used
to manufacture fertilizers such
as urea, ammonium nitrate, etc.
Industrial N2
Fixation

53. Mechanisms Of Nodules
Formation & Biological
N2 Fixation
• Mostly occurs in leguminous crops
• Two types of bacteria
• Free Fixers and Symbiotic Bacteria

54. • Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacteria.
• Aerobic bacteria not associated with host plant
• Anaerobic N2 Fixation State
• Nitrogenase work only in anaerobic condition.
• Plant Release Flavonoid Chemical (Amino acid, sugar,etc) to signal the
Rhizobium Bacterium.
Stages Of Nodule Formation
Mechanism Of Nodule
Formation

55. Mechanism Of Nodule Formation

56. Mechanism Of Nodule Formation

57. Mechanism Of Nodule Formation

58. • Rhizobium Bacterium get N2 from atmosphere.
• Nitrogenase enzyme present in the root Nodule
will convert Into Ammonia NH3
• Plant absorb N in 3- forms:
• Ammonia , Nitrate and Nitrite.
• Bacteria form Ammonia called Ammonifying
Bacteria
• Bacteria that replace H3 with O3 (from NH3 to
NO3) are called Nitrifying Bacteria.
Process Of Biological
N2 Fixation

59. Process of Nitrogen fixation in Pulse crops
The infection of rhizobium bacteria to the plant occures through
the root hair.
The bacteria degraded the pours of roots hair cell wall which
produces a thread like structure called infection thread.
The bacteria multiply and invade the infection thread.
Then the invading bacteria finally reach up to inner cortex where
they enter into cells and stimulate them to divide and after that
bacteria change into bactericides.
After this process a mass of cells in formed and is called the
nodule.
These special cells are nitrogen fixation cells tightly packed cells
which create an aerobic condition for the nitrogen fixing cells
maintain an anaerobic condition.

61. CHICKPEA
Local name chana
Chick pea Chickpea ( Cicer arietinum L.)
Chromosome: 2n=2x=16
 Self‐pollinating
 Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Cicer
Species: arietinum
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is the second largest cultivated food legume crop in the world
Chick peas are one of the oldest pulses known and cultivated from ancient times
both in Asia and in Europe.
It is assumed that gram is originated either from Himalayas or Mediterranean region.
• At present it is grown in Pakistan, India, Italy, Greece, Rumania, Russia, Egypt,
North Africa and many other countries of world.
Chickpea is valued for its nutritive seeds with high protein content, 25 – 28%.
Chickpea seeds are eaten fresh as green vegetables, parched, fried, roasted, and
boiled.

62. Health Benefits
Chickpeas are a good source of fiber so helps in weight loss.
• Chickpeas are a good source of protein and energy.
 Chickpeas help in stabilizing sugar levels in blood.
• Chickpeas may help in reducing Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol.
• Chickpeas may boost energy levels due to their iron content.
• Chickpeas which is good for diabetic patients

63. Plant habit
• Chickpea is an herbaceous annual branching close to the ground.
• Some varieties are semi-erect with a main stem and only a few
branches while others are semi-spreading types with profuse
branching.
• Under good conditions, the plant grows to a height of 20 to 45 cm.,
bearing a tap root 15 to 30 cm.

64. Soil type
The plant requires fertile soil with good drainage system.
Chickpeas generally grow on heavy black or red soils.
soil pH of 6.0 to 7.0.
They prefer soil with good residual soil moisture content.
This crop is grown on moderately heavy soils, black cotton soils, and
sandy loam soils.

65. Climate & Temperature
• Chickpea crop grows well under good moisture conditions with ideal
temperatures between 24°C and 30°C.
• Chickpeas are cultivated under both irrigated and rained condition.
Basically this crop is winter season crop.
• Chickpea is a self-pollinated crop and usually grown as a rainfed cool-
weather crop or as a dry climate crop in semi-arid regions.
• The optimum daily temperature ranges from 18 to 29°C

66. Types of chickpea
• There are two different types of chickpea that are grown worldwide-
Desi and Kabuli.
• Desi -Desi chickpeas have colored and thick seed coat. The seed
colors of Desi chickpeas are brown, yellow, green or black.
• Kabuli --The Kabuli type chickpeas are characterized by white
colored seed with ram-head to rounded shape.
• The seed coat is thin with smooth seed surface. The Kabuli type
generally has large seed size and receive higher market price than
Desi type.

67. Seed rate & Sowing
• Seed rate of 60kg/ha and plant density of 25 to 30 plants per square
meter is ideal for chickpea farming.
• An average seed rate of 70-100kg/ha well enough good growth of the
crop.
• Chickpeas are propagated from seeds. Sowing is usually done on
conserved soil moisture.
•Drilling is best sowing method of chick peas.
• Row to Row spacing 25 – 40 cm and plant to plant spacing 10 cm at
the depth of 2 – 12 cm with soil well pressed down.

68. Preparation of Field
• Chickpea is highly sensitive to soil aeration.
• This imposes a restriction for its cultivation on heavy soils and calls
for special care in seedbed preparation.
• A rough seedbed is required for chick pea. In case the chickpea crop
is taken after a kharif fellow.
• It would be desirable to go for a deep ploughing during the monsoon
as the same would help in larger conservation of rain water in the soil
profile for subsequent use by this crop. Very fine and compact seedbed
is not good for chickpea but it requires a loose and well aerated
seedbed.

69. Fertilizer Application
• It all depends on fertility of soil.
• In case of poor soils, this crop requires well rotten farm yard manure
(F.M.Y) and in organic fertilizers like Urea (50kg/ha), Phosphorus
(150kg/ha) MOP (70kg/ha).
• These manures and fertilizers should be applied before sowing the
seeds.
• Apply these fertilizers using drillers with depth about 8cm in soil.

70. Irrigation
• Chick pea is mostly sown as a rainfed crop.
• However, where irrigation facilities are available, give a pre-sowing
irrigation.
• It will ensure proper germination and smooth crop growth. If winter
rains fail, give one irrigation at pre-flowering stage and one at pod
development stage.
• In no case first irrigation should be given at flowering time of gram
crop. A light irrigation should be given because heavy irrigation is
always harmful to gram crop. Excess of irrigation enhances vegetative
growth and depresses chick pea yield.

71. Harvesting
• Chickpea crop will be ready for harvesting after leaves turn reddish-
brown and start shedding from the plant.]
• Using sickle or hand, plants should be plucked.
• Should allow the crop to dry in sun for about a weed and threshing
should be carried out by beating the plant with sticks.

72. Drying
• Threshed seeds are cleaned by winnowing, dried to reduce seed
moisture content to 12% for temporary storage.
• For longer storage pea seed should be stored in sealed containers at
10% moisture content and in air cooled rooms

73. Pulse are part of may traditional diets

74. Major Pulse Crops in Pakistan
Rabi Pulses:
Chickpea (cicer arietinmm)
Lentil (Lens culinaris )
Kharif pulses:
Moong ( Vigna radiata)
Mash (Vigna Mungo)
pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)

75. Rabi Pulses
1 2 3
Kharif pulses
1 2 3

76. Minor Pulse Crops in Pakistan
Cowpea (vigna unguiculata)
Common beans (phaseolus vulgaris)

78. MUNGBEAN
• English name Mungbean
• Binomial name Vigna radiata
• family legume
• Chromosome: 22
• Protein (21%–28%)
• Mungbean is one of the important kharif crop of Pakistan.
• But it is also grown during spring season mainly in southern Punjab and Sindh
province.
• Punjab is the major mungbean growing province that alone accounted for
88% area and 85% of the total mungbean production. Cultivation is
concentrated in the districts of Layyah, Bhakkar, Mianwali and Rawalpindi. It is
mainly grown in Kharif season (July October).
• The mung bean plant is an annual, erect or semi-erect, reaching a height of
0.15-1.25 m

79. Growth Habits:
• Mungbeans are in the Legume family of plants and are closely related
to cowpea (in the same genus but different species).
• They are warm season annuals, highly branched and having trifoliate
leaves like the other legumes.
• The pale yellow flowers are borne in clusters of 12–15 near the top of
the plant.
• Mature pods are variable in color (yellowish-brown to black), about
five inches long, and contain 10 to 15 seeds. Self pollination occurs so
insect and wind are not required.

80. Climate
• Mung beans are a warm season crop requiring 90-120 days of frost
free conditions from planting to maturity (depends on variety).
• Adequate rainfall is required from flowering to late pod fill in order to
ensure good yield.
• Late plantings which result in flowering during the high temperature-
low moisture period in July and August will reduce yield.
• High humidity and excess rainfall late in the season can result in
disease problems and harvesting losses due to delayed maturity.

81. Soil:
• Mungbeans do best on fertile sandy, loam soils with good internal
drainage. They do poorly on heavy clay soils with poor drainage.
Performance is best on soils with a pH between 6.2 and 7.2 and
plants can show severe iron chlorosis symptoms and certain
micronutrient deficiencies on more alkaline soils. Mungbean has
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur
requirements similar to other legumes which must be met by
fertilizer additions if the soil is deficient in these elements.

82. Time for Sowing
• For seed purpose there are two growing seasons of Mung crop.
• February to March
• June to July

83. Sowing Method
• Most suitable method of sowing is drilling.
• Broad casting is usually done in dry regions.
• The seeds are sown at 2 cm depth with a plant to plant spacing
of 8 -10 cm and 30 cm between rows.
• If the surface layers are dry this depth can be increased to 3 cm
if the soil type is one which does not crust easily.
• Populations of 150,000-200,000 plants per acre can be
achieved.

84. Varieties

85. Seed Rate
• Seed rate depending on the variety the seed rate varies from 8-10 kg
per acre.
• Fertilizer
• Fertilizer at the rate of 50kg or one bag of DAP can be broadcasted
and incorporated into the soil before planting.
• Irrigation
• Mung bean is a short duration and drought tolerant crop therefore it
requires less irrigation but to get maximum yield from irrigated areas
350 - 420 mm water is sufficient.

86. Harvesting and Yield
• Pod maturity in mungbean is not uniform because the plants flower
over an extended period. This makes it difficult to decide when to
harvest. Generally harvest should begin when one half to two-thirds
of the pods are mature. Seeds might be between 13%-15% moisture
at this time.

87. MASH
• Local Name Mash
• English Name : Black gram
• Botanical name: Vigna mungo
• Chromosome Number:2n = 22
• family :Leguminosae
• protein contains (25%),
• carbohydrates (60%),
• fat (1.3%)
• Mash occupies an important position in Pakistan's agriculture. It grows on
marginal land where other crops perform poorly. The worldwide yield of
mash (including Pakistan) is very low because mostly indigenous land races
are cultivated and also because the crop is often grown on marginally fertile
land with insufficient water. In Pakistan, mash is the least researched crop
among pulses despite its high nutritive and economic value due to which its
area and production decreased continuously.

88. Climate :
• Climate :
• It is generally grown in kharif/rainy and summer season.
• It grows best in hot and humid condition with ideal temperature
range between 25 to 35oC.
• Heavy rains during flowering are harmful.
• It is best suited to areas having an annual rainfall of 60 to 75 cm.

89. Soil:
• Soil:
• Black gram does well on heavier soils such as black cotton soils which
retain moisture better.
2. It can be grown all types of soils ranging from sandy loam to heavy
clay, except the alkaline and saline soils.
3. Loam or slightly heavy soils with neutral pH are best suited for
urdbean.
4. Soil should be will drained and having good water holding capacity.
5. Waterlogged, saline and alkaline soil should be avoided.

90. Time of sowing
• Time of sowing:
1. Second fortnight of June (15to 30 June) is the proper time of black
gram sowing in kharif season.
2. In summer, sowing should be done from third week of Feb. to First
week of April.
3. Late sowing should be avoided

91. COWPEA's
BOTANICAL
DESCRIPTION

92. INTRODUCTION
English Name: Cowpea, Black Eye Pea
Local Name: Lobia
Scientific Name: Vigna unguiculata
Family: Fabaceae
Chromosome No: 2n=22
Origin: South Africa
Growing Season: Kharif
Pollination: Self Pollinated Crop
Growing Purpose: Food and Fodder
Seed Rate: 15-30 Kg per Hectare

93. INTRODUCTION
Protein: 23–32%
Carbohydrates: 50–60%
Fats: <1%
Soil Recommendation: Well-drained sandy loams
Soil pH: 5.5 to 6.5
Irrigation: 5 - 6 Irrigation
Sowing Date: End of July to the first week of August
Sowing Method: Broadcasting, line sowing and
dibbling
Temperature Range: Wide temperature
range, between 18 and 37 °C

94. IMPORTANCE
• High protein content
• Adaptability to different soil types
• Drought tolerance
• Intercropping system
• Ability to improve soil fertility and reduce soil
erosion
• Food for humans and feed for livestock
• Raw material for industrial production of
preserved food and protein supplements
• Economic crop in different regions of the world

95. VEGETATIVE DESCRIPTION
Roots: Tap root system with numerous lateral roots
arising form the main root
Root Depth: Around 2.4 meters deep
Stems: Ribbed stem, hollow, glabrous ( free from hair;
smooth) but hairy at nodes
Leaves: Compound, trifoliate with ovate leaflets
Leaf venation: Ternate (in pair of three)
Leaves Arrangement: Alternate (a single leaf
originates from a node and successive leaves are
present in the opposite direction)

96. REPRODUCTIVE DESCRIPTION
Flower Type: Papilionaceous (with flowers
that resemble a butterfly)
Floral Formula: Br ⊕ ⚥ K(5) C1+2+(2) A(9)+1 G1
Inflorescence: Racemose (the flowers at the base of the
central stem develop first)
Flower Color: White, purple, yellow, blue, pink
Fruit Type: Leguminous and dehiscent ( which split
open when reaching maturity)
Seed: Pod shaped and dicot
Germination: Epigeal (germination takes place above
the ground)