1. Chapter 4
Environment
Group Members:
Koshish,077 Madhav,081
Krishna,078 Madhav,082
Kumar,079 Manish,083
Laxmi,080
Tutor:
Asst. Prof. Shukra Raj Poudel
Department of Civil Engineering
IOE, Pulchowk Campus
2018/07/04
2. 2
Objectives of the Presentation
To understand what is Environment and its importance
To understand the objectives of conserving the environment
To be able to know different types of natural resources
To know about the Conflicts of Resources
To identify the Global Environmental issues
To identify Environmental issues in Nepal
At the conclusion, participants will able to understand about
the Environment, its Resources and issues
3. 3
Presentation Outline
Introduction
Ecology, Ecosystem and its Importance
Conservation of Environment
Optimum utilization of natural resources
Renewable and non renewable resources
Conflict of resources
Global Environmental issues
Environmental issues in Nepal
5. 5
1.1 Environment
• The surroundings of all living and non-living things constitute an
environment.
• Environment is defined as the surroundings in which an organization
operates including air, water, land and natural resources, flora, fauna,
humans and their inter relations” – ISO Definition
• The word environment is derived from the French word “environ”. The
meaning of the French word is somewhat related to “encompass”
“encircle” etc. It is believed to have been introduced into the subject by
biologist Jacob Van Erkul in the early 1900s.
6. 6
1.2 Components of Environment
The components of environment are listed as
1. Hydrosphere (Water)
2. Atmosphere (Air)
3. Lithosphere (Land)
4. Biosphere (Flora/Fauna/Microbes)
5. Anthrosphere (Man made things)
8. 8
I. Biotic Component
• Biotic components are the living things in an environment that form
an ecosystem.
• A biotic factor is any living component that affects another organism,
including animals that consume the organism in question, and the living food that
the organism consumes.
• Biotic components are contrasted to abiotic components, which are non-living
components of an organism's environment, such as temperature, light, moisture,
air currents, etc.
• Biotic components usually include:
• Producers, i.e. Autotrophs: e.g. plants; they convert the energy (from the sun, or other
sources such as hydrothermal vents) into food.
• Consumers, i.e. Heterotrophs: e.g. animals; they depend upon producers for food.
• Decomposers, i.e. Detritivores: e.g. fungi and bacteria; they break down chemicals
from producers and consumers into simpler form which can be reused.
10. 10
II. Abiotic Components
• In biology, abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors
in the environment.
• Abiotic factors, while generally downplayed, can have enormous impact
on evolution.
• From the viewpoint of biology, abiotic influences may be classified
as light or more generally radiation, temperature, water, the chemical
surrounding composed of the terrestrial atmospheric gases, as well as soil.
12. 12
2.1 Definition of Ecology and Ecosystem
• Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with the relations between
organisms and their environment.
• Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between different organisms
and between organisms and their environment or surroundings.
• An ecosystem is a grouping of organisms that interact with each other
and their environment in such a way as to preserve the grouping.
• There is a great variety of ecosystems in existence, all of them are
characterized by general structural and functional attributes.
13. 13
2.2 Levels, Scope and Scale of Ecology
• The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of
organization spanning micro-level (e.g. Cells) to planetary scale (e.g.
Biosphere) phenomena.
• Ecosystems are dynamic, they do not always follow a linear successional
path, but they are always changing, sometimes rapidly and sometimes so
slowly that it can take thousands of years for ecological processes to
bring about certain successional stages of a forest.
• An ecosystem's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast.
• The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained
by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the
emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is
studied as an integrated whole.
14. 14
2.3 Three Major Principles of Ecosystem
I. Nutrient Cycling
• Movement of chemical elements from the environment into living
organisms and from them back into the environment through organisms
live, grow, die and decompose.
II. Energy Flow
• Energy is required to transform inorganic nutrients into organic tissues
of an organism.
• Energy is the driving force to the work of ecosystem.
III. Structure
• It refers to the particular pattern of inter-relationships that exists
between organisms in an ecosystem.
18. 18
2.4 Components of Ecosystem
A. Abiotic Components:
• They form the environment and determine the type / structure of
ecosystem.
Sunlight (Temperature, Radiation)
Nutrients, Rainfall, minerals, carbon, nitrogen, etc.
19. 19
B. Biotic Components
• Producers (Autotrophs):
• All green plants. They use solar energy, chlorophyll, inorganic
nutrients and water to produce their own food. (Photosynthesis)
• Consumers:
• They consume the organic compounds in plant and animal tissues by
eating.
• Herbivores (plant feeders) Primary consumers
• Carnivores (meat eaters) Secondary consumers
• Omnivores (general feeders)
• Decomposers:
• They are tiny organisms includes bacteria and fungi, which turn
organic compounds in dead plants and animals into inorganic materials.
• They cause the continual recirculation of chemicals within ecosystem.
(nutrient cycle)
22. 22
2.5 Linkages and Interaction in Ecosystem
• Carbon and Oxygen cycle
This cycle is concerned with the circulation of carbon and oxygen in their
various chemical existence from one form of life which eventually associates itself
to other life form sooner or later.
• Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen cycle is the circulation of nitrogen which includes the process in
which the nitrates are absorbed by plants and these plants get eaten by
animals that die and decay returning the nitrogen back to soil.
• A model of nutrient cycle
Nutrients(chemicals, minerals or elements) are circulated around the
ecosystem and recycled continually.
26. 26
2.6 Environmental Limitation in Ecosystem Development
• Principles of limiting factors
• Law of the maximum
• Law of the minimum
• Principle of holocoenotic environment
• Limiting factors of an environment
28. 28
Principle of holocoenotic environment
• A German ecologist Karl Friederich (1927) suggested that 'community-
environmental relationship are holocoenotic'. This means that there are no 'walls'
or barriers between the factors of an environment and the organism or biotic
community.
• If one factor is changed, almost all will change eventually.
• For example: If temperature increases, evapotranspiration will also increase along
with the reduction in relative humidity. And the increase in evapotranspiration
causes the dryness in soil which reduces free water in soil as a result of
which some plants need to struggle as per it. And the struggle of plants to
exist is also a struggle of animals.
29. 29
Limiting factors of an environment
• Light
• Temperature
• Water
• Wind
• Topography
• Soil
• Biotic Factors
30. 30
2.7 Importance of ecology and ecosystem
The study of ecology is an essential necessity for
• Environmental Conservation
• Resource allocation among living organisms
• Eco friendliness
• Organism Ecology (Response by living organisms to stimuli caused by
physical environment)
• Community of all organisms
• Well balanced ecosystem
32. 32
3.1 Introduction
Conservation is an ethic of resource use, allocation, and
protection.
• Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the
natural world: its, fisheries, habitats, and biological diversity.
• Secondary focus is on materials conservation and energy
conservation, which are seen as important to protect the
natural world.
Environment
Conservation ?
Is the wise management and utilization
of natural resources in a sustainable
manner to ensure the maintenance of
biodiversity.
33. 33
I think the environment should be put in the
category of our national security. Defense of our
resources is just as important as defense
abroad. Otherwise what is there to defend?
~Robert Redford, Yosemite National Park
dedication, 1985
Main focus of conservation of Environment-
SAVE TODAY & SURVIVE TOMORROW
35. 35
• The types of conservation can be many or few,
depending on the focus of the individual or
program that is aimed at conserving the Earth's
resources.
• The two types that are considered to be of the
greatest are water and energy conservation.
Source: google.com
36. 36
I. Energy conservation
Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce
energy consumption, and to preserve it for future
generations.
Energy conservation can be achieved through increased
efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy
consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional
energy sources.
There are two type of resources:-
• Renewable Resources
• Non Renewable Resources
A THING WHICH BURNS NEVER
RETURNS.
37. 37
II. Water conservation
• Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water
and recycling of waste water for different purposes such as
cleaning, manufacturing, and agricultural irrigation.
The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows:
• Sustainability: To ensure availability for future
generations.
• Energy conservation: Water pumping, delivery, and
wastewater treatment facilities consume a significant
amount of energy.
TODAY’S WASTAGE IS TOMORROW’S
SHORTAGE.
38. 38
IV. Soil conservation
• Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for
prevention of soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or
becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification,
salinization or other chemical soil contamination.
• If you see your soil eroding, protect it with grass or plants.
Source: google.com
LEAKS MAKE YOUR FUTURE BLEAK
39. 39
V. Plant conservation
• The field of plant conservation includes the study of
plant decline and its causes, and techniques to
conserve rare and endangered plants.
• Plant conservation can be considered a part of
conservation biology, a relatively young field that
emphasizes the conservation of biodiversity and
whole ecosystems, as opposed to the conservation
of individual species.
40. 40
Within plant conservation can be found many
subfields these includes
• Forest conservation: Conservation studies and practices
involving whole forests, as opposed to specific species
• Wild plant conservation: Conservation of plants that are
not cultivated by humans for agriculture or other
purposes.
• Invasive species study and control: The study and
control of species that have spread beyond their native
area. Such species pose a significant threat for the
conservation of native plants.
• Medicinal plant conservation: Study and conservation of
plants with medicinal properties.
Source: google.com
41. 41
3.3 Why conservation ?
• We have limited resources available on earth
• Resources are expensive!
• Our demand are continuously increasing day-by-
day
• Country facing power shortages
• It is possible that someday, most of non-
renewable resources will be exhausted, and we
will have to switch to alternate energy.
• For the healthy environment and survival of
Living beings.
Source: floydmiddle.typepad.com
NATURE DOESN’T NEED PEOPLE
PEOPLE NEED NATURE!
42. 42
3.4 How To Conserve ?
Use Cleaner Transport
• Don’t drive when there is an alternative!
• Try to use environment friendly transportation.
• Check your vehicles regularly.
• Walk or cycle if the journey is short one.
Add Energy-Saving Features to your Home
• Install energy-saving lamps in your home
• Choose energy efficient appliances
• Use biodegradable, non-toxic cleaning products
Cultivate Energy-Saving Habits
• Turning off unused electrical appliances.
43. 43
Using both side of paper. If possible,
advocate to make your office or
college PAPER-FREE.
By switching off lights when not
required.
By using cloth/jute bags instead of
plastic bags and bottles.
44. 44
Turn off tap while cleaning your
teeth, shaving or washing your
face. You can waste up to 9 liters a
minute by just letting the water
pour down the sink.
Try shortening your shower
by just a minute. You could
save 150 gallons/month!
Only use the washing machine
and the dishwasher when you
can put on a full load. It wastes
both water and energy to run only
a half full machine
Source: floydmiddle.typepad.com
45. 45
Use a broom and bucket of
water for washing down the
veranda rather than a steady
flow of water from the hose.
Use a sponge and bucket of
water to clean your vehicles
or if you use the hose, ensure
you use a shut off nozzle so
the water is not constantly
running.
Fix any dripping tap, you can
waste 90 liters a week
Source: floydmiddle.typepad.com
46. 46
Closing the doors while using A/C Runs
Throwing Trash in the Trash Cans.
Using Green Power.
By planting Trees.
47. 47
• Awareness programs related to Importance of environment.
• Enact policies to conserve the environment.
Minimize your Environment Footprint
• Minimize you different Footprints, i.e. Ecological footprint,
Carbon footprint, Water footprint, etc.
Others Ways to Conserve Environment
Environment : nature
and all the vital
resources it provides.
Footprint: trace left
behind or deep and
long-lasting mark
48. 48
……The 3 R’s
“Find your own ways to make less
trash, and help others to learn
how to Reduce, Reuse, and
Recycle.”
And Finally….
Source: eltete.com.my
49. 49
Let’s start Conserving Environment......
Instead of only talking about Environmental Conservation!
Those Who help
Nature,
End of Helping
Themselves….!
Source: adsoftheworld.com
51. 51
4.1 Optimum Use of Natural Resources
Concept
Natural Resources are backbone
of national economy.
Current depletion rate of natural
resources risks the need of
future generation.
Allocation of natural resources
so as to make optimum use of
the environment in satisfying
human needs at minimum as
possible, and more if required
,on sustainable basis.
52. 52
4.2 Objectives
Conservation, development and sustainable management of
natural resources and their utilization techniques.
Restoration of ecological balance in degraded and fragile
ecosystem by trees and grasses.
Creation of sustained employment opportunities for rural
communities.
Reduction in the global use of non-renewable resources by
development of different other alternatives.
Pollution control through policy formulation and implementation.
53. 53
4.3 Optimum Use of Different Types of Natural
Resources
Perpetual resources are virtually inexhaustible for human
consumption.
Renewable resources are available over a period of time and
space. These can be used and produced by human
involvement.
Non-Renewable resources are present in fixed amount and
get exhausted after certain time. Some non-renewable
resources can be recycled or reused to meet certain
requirements.
More focus must be given in proper use of renewable and
mostly non-renewable resources.
54. 54
A simple optimal resource depletion model: the economy and its
production function
The economy produces a single good, Q, which can be either
consumed or invested.
Consumption increases current well-being, while investment
increases the capital stock, permitting greater consumption in the
future.
Output is generated through a production function using as inputs a
single ‘composite’ non-renewable resource input, R, and
manufactured capital, K:
Q = Q(K, R)
Source: http://slideplayer.com
55. 55
A non-renewable resource two-period model
The planning horizon that consists of two periods, period 0 and period 1.
There is a fixed stock of known size of one type of a non-renewable
resource. The initial stock of the resource (at the start of period 0) is
denoted S#.
𝑅𝑡 is the quantity extracted in period t
Assume that an inverse demand function exists for this resource at each
time, given by
where Ptis the price in period t, with a and b being positive constant
numbers. So, the demand functions for the two periods will be:
Source: http://slideplayer.com
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑅𝑡
𝑃1 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑅1
𝑃2 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑅2
56. 56
a
P
R
a/b
a - bR
0
Rt
Figure The non-renewable resource demand function for the two-
period model
The shaded area (the integral of
P with respect to R over the
interval R = 0 to R = Rt) shows
the total benefit consumers
obtain from consuming the
quantity Rt in period t.
From a social point of view, this
area represents the gross social
benefit, B, derived from the
extraction and consumption of
quantity Rt of the resource.
2
0
2
tt
R
t
R
b
aR
dRbRaRB
t
Source: http://slideplayer.com
57. 57
4.4 Summary
Non-renewable resources consist of energy and material stocks that are
generated very slowly through natural processes; these stocks can be thought
of as existing in fixed, finite quantities. Once extracted, they cannot regenerate
in timescales that are relevant to humans.
Resource stocks can be measured in several ways, including base resource,
resource potential, and resource reserves. It is important to distinguish
between purely physical measures of stock size, and ‘economic’ measures of
resource stocks.
Non-renewable resources consist of a large number of particular types and
forms of resource, among which there may be substitution possibilities.
Raising public participation through awareness programmes so that
optimization process can be initiated from base level.
59. 59
5.1 Renewable Resources
A renewable resource is a natural resource that is not depleted in quantity
upon consumption or can be reproduced in a short period of time. Some of
the commonly used renewable energies are solar energy, hydropower,
geothermal energy, wind energy, biomass etc.
60. 60
I. Bio Fuel
• Bio-fuel is a fuel that is made from living things like plants and algae.
• Plants like corn and switch grass are very popular in the production of bio-
fuel.
• These plants are used in the distilling process resulting in bio-ethanol,
more commonly know as ethanol.
• This is there to help lower the amount of gasoline (made from petroleum
oil) thus reducing our dependence on oil from other countries and reduce
air pollution as bio-fuels burn cleaner and pollutes less.
• Bio-Diesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fat.
61. 61
II. Geo Thermal Energy
• Geo-Thermal is a way to use the temperature of the ground to generate
power or heat and cool buildings.
• This is done by pumping water through pipes in the ground.
• For example. In the winter a house would pump cold water through the
pipes in the ground. As that water passed through the pipes it would
pickup some of the heat that is found in the ground which is around 55
degrees. Now that water is heated by another source to 70 degrees or so
to heat the house. By preheating the water with the temperature in the
ground it reduces the total amount of energy used for heating. This
process can be reversed to cool the house.
62. 62
• Large geothermal power plants can produce a lot of electricity.
• These plants extract extremely hot water from the ground that is turned
into steam.
• That steam powers an electrical generation plant .
63. 63
III. Solar Energy
• The sun hits a photoelectric panel also know as a PV cell.
• The absorbed light from the sun excites electrons and creates an electric
flow.
• The electric flow or electricity will then be used or stored in batteries for
later use.
• Solar panels are becoming more popular as the cost of them are
becoming more affordable.
• Even at an affordable price it still takes a homeowner quite some time to
recoup the cost of investment.
• Solar panels can be used in locations where power is not available which
is a nice feature.
64. 64
IV. Hydro Energy
• Hydro electric is using the flow of water to spin a turbine that is connected
to a generator to produce electricity.
• Hydroelectric plants can be formed anywhere there is a flow of water from
high to low.
• Typically a dam is created to hold back water and this creates pressure on
the back side of the dam.
• The water is directed threw specialized pipe called the pen-stock.
• That water rushes by and spins the turbine.
65. 65
5.2 Non Renewable Sources
A non renewable resource is a natural is a natural resource that exists in a
finite quantity and cannot be reproduced at a scale comparable to its
consumption and thus, carries a higher risk of exhaustion. Example of non
renewable resources such as coal, petroleum , natural gas etc. Non
renewable resources such as coal, petroleum are less environmental
friendly and are hugely affected by human activites.
66. 66
I. Coal
• Coal is type of rock that is primarily of carbon, it also contains other
ignitable elements.
• It is formed by compressing plant mater and other materials for thousands
of years under the weight of the earth surface.
• Coal is one of the leading sources of fuel for generating energy.
• Coal is used as a heat source for generating power and heating building.
• It was determined that pollution from coal just about doubled the pollution
from natural gas while generating the same amount of power.
67. 67
II. Petroleum Oil
• Petroleum Oil is commonly refined into gasoline for engines and refined
even more for jet engines.
• . It is also used to heat homes that are outside of the natural gas network
of pipe lines.
• Oil is used in the makings of asphalt for our roads and plastics that are
used daily.
• It is estimated that the world consumes nearly 90 million barrels of oil a
day.
• . Making it a large factor when looking into the reasons for global warming.
68. 68
III. Natural Gas
• Natural gas is one of our top energy supplies.
• It is found deep in the ground usually in a rocky areas or where organic
matter has been buried and compressed over a long period of time.
• It is commonly used for cooking, heating of homes and business and
power generation plants.
• Natural gas is categorized as a non-renewable energy source because it
takes 1000's of years for natural gas to form on its own.
72. 72
6.1 Conflict of Resources
It is the situation where the allocation, management or use of natural
resources results in violence, human rights abuses or denial of access to
natural resources to an extent that significantly diminishes human welfare.
Natural resources Centre of development for any country , and so as reason
for conflicts among states within a country or among countries.
About 40% of conflicts among countries are seen to be due to conflict on the
ownership of resources.
In context of Nepal , Conflicts over land, water and forests are dominant .
73. 73Causes of Resources Conflicts
• Rapid population growth resulting environmental degradation and
resource scarcity.
• Solid inequality resulting in skewed access to natural resources and
services.
• Failure of governing bodies to address the issue.
• Unsustainable consumption.
• Economic globalization.
74. 74
Minerals and Conflict
• Different minerals have different commodity values and occur in
many geographical locations.
• For example: diamonds in western Africa, Amber in Russia, Gold in
Indonesia.
• All minerals generate revenue and power for governments, rebel
groups or whoever owns the land.
• Africa has been plagued by diamond related conflicts.
76. 76
6.2 Major Conflicts Seen in Nepal
I. Conflicts related to land
Boundary and demarcation, change in ownership rights, looting of crops,
tenancy rights and tenant eviction, development infrastructure on particular
sites, and obstruction of existing paths.
77. 77
II. Conflicts Related to Forest
• Forest conflicts are related to ownership,
identification of users, access to forest
products, payment of royalties, illegal
collection of non-timber forest products by
outsiders, hunting and poaching of wild
animals, and collection of medicinal plants by
commercial traders in high-altitude forests
managed and used by communities.
78. 78
III. Conflicts Related to Water
Source disputes, sharing of drinking water and water for irrigation, and
payment of compensation for damage caused by the construction of water-
related projects.
81. 81
7.1 Pollution
- Pollution of air, water and soil.
- Industry and motor vehicles are the major
pollutants.
- Nutrients of soil is deprived by industrial
waste.
Fig: Air Pollution
82. 7.2 Global Warming
- It is the result of human practice like emission of
greenhouse gases
- It leads to rise in temperature of ocean and land.
- Causes melting of polar ice and uneven pattern of
precipitation.
83. 7.3 Over Population
-The population of earth is reaching unsustainable levels.
-Causing shortage of resources like food ,water and fuel.
-Population growth rate is more in developing countries
than developed one.
-Excessive use of agricultural land damages environment
due to use of chemical fertilizers.
84. 84
Fig: Graph showing differences in
population growth rate between
developed and developing countries.
85. - Overpopulation leads to excessive use of fossil results
in emission of greenhouse gases causing global
warming.
- Use of non renewable sources leads to resources
depletion.
- Alternatives like renewable sources can prevent
resources.
7.4 Natural Resource Depletion
86. 86
7.5 Climate Change
-It occurs due to global warming.
-It has various effect like change in season,
occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of
flood etc.
-Due to this precipitation has been occurring untimely
and in uneven season.
87. 7.6 Loss of Biodiversity
-Human activity is leading to extinction of species and
habitat.
-Excessive use of resources leading scarcity of it
causing movement of species from one place to other
and some to death.
-Balance of natural processes like pollination is crucial
to the survival of the eco-system and human activity
threatens the same.
88. 7.7 Ocean Acidification
-It is the direct impact of excessive production of co2.25%
of co2 from human.
- The main impact is on marine life like shellfish, plankton.
89. 89
7.8 Genetic Engineering
-Genetic modification of food by biotechnology is called
Genetic Engineering.
-This food results in increased toxin and diseases as
genes.
-Food modified to improve taste and its quantity.
-It affects environment as it may prove toxic to wildlife.
92. 92
8. Environmental Issues in Nepal
• Climate change and global warming
• Air and water pollution
• Deforestation and Land Degradation
• Illegal mining of sand, stones
• Poaching
• Water borne diseases
93. 93
8.1 Climate Change and Global Warming
• Melting of snow and glacier
• Rise in sea level
• Change in seasonal and rainfall pattern
• Affect in agricultural production
• Heavy rainfall and drought
96. 96
8.2 Air and Water Pollution
• Untreated sewage, industrial waste and agrochemical
• Haphazard urbanization
• Biological contamination of water in rural areas
• Arsenic, high iron, manganese, coliform bacteria in Terai
• Vehicular emission in city areas
• Industrial emission and old vehicles
97. 97
8.3 Deforestation and Land Degradation
• Overgrazing and land fragmentation
• Improper use of agrochemicals and fertilizers
• Flood and soil erosion
• Habitat degradation
• Agro bio-diversity is under threat
98. 98
8.4 Illegal Mining of Sand and Stones
• Soil instability and land caving
• Lowers the river level
• Soil erosion
• Degradation of productive land, lowering water table
100. 100
8.5 POACHING
Poaching has been defined as the illegal hunting or capturing of the
wild animals or supply of trees
• Ecosystem is heavily affected
• Extinct of endangered animals and plants
• Harmonious environment of the society is affected
102. 102
8.6 Water borne diseases
Diseases like Cholera, Diarrhea, Typhoid, Dysentery, Jaundice etc.
E.g. According to the latest WHO data published in 2017 Diarrhea
diseases Deaths in Nepal reached 7,882 or 4.83% of total deaths.
Death percent ranks Nepal #41 in the world due to diarrhea.
103. 103
8.7 Corrective measures
• Environment Impact Assessment
• Financing Sustainable development
• Formation and implementation of the policy of sustainable
development
• Protecting and conserving the biodiversity
• Changing human behavior
104. 104
• Environment monitoring system
• Proper dispose of chemical toxins
• Alternative source of energy
• Fixation of standard emission rates for industrial and factories
• Public awareness
• Clean development mechanism principle
• Women empowerment for sustainable development
• Low carbon economic development strategy
• Low GHGs emission economy
