Communication models

1. X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will learn about models of communication in order to
help you better understand the nature of communication. Several models of
communication will be presented to show you how various thinkers have tried
to explain the communication process. However, you must remember that all
models have their limitations as they only provide snapshots of a phenomenon,
and not the complete picture. It is not easy to fit something that we do almost
continuously, every waking moment – i.e. communicate – into a simple
illustration. But the models can serve as starting points for you to discover the
mystery of human communication, and to better conceptualise the written
communication process. Only when we have a clear understanding of this can
we hope to hone our skills towards more effective communication.
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X Communication
Models –
A Theoretical
Perspective
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify important elements in the communication process;
2. Describe four models of communication; and
3. Explain the significance of the roles of signs, symbols, and metaphors
to meaning and interpretation.

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CLAUDE SHANNON’S MODEL
Claude Shannon was an engineer who formulated an information theory based on
mathematical theorems. His model of a communication system – developed in the
1940s – can be summarised in a diagram, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, which shows
that information is transmitted from a source through a channel to a receiver:
Figure 2.1: Claude ShannonÊs model of communication
In ShannonÊs model, the encoding and decoding of information is of primary
importance. Put simply, encode is „to compose‰ a message, whilst decode means
„to interpret‰ the message. The process of encoding information for transmission,
and of decoding received information is affected by „noise‰.
Noise is interference on the channel or media through which the information is
transmitted. This can be external or inherent in the system and can mean many
things, from bad printing of text to static interference of radio waves.
ShannonÊs model, however, is considered by many to be too mechanical because
it ignores the reason people compose messages. The message itself is not always
the reason people communicate; sometimes a piece of communication aims not
so much to relay information as to build and maintain social relations.
For example, let us say that your clientÊs general manager has just met with an
accident and passed away. You send a letter of condolence to your client. In this
case, the content of the letter is of secondary importance.
What is more important is the gesture – the sending of the letter which says, „We
know of your loss and sympathise with you‰. This gesture aims to maintain the
good relationship you already have with your client, even if there is a change in
management. In this kind of cases, ShannonÊs model has limited impact.
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ROMAN JAKOBSON’S MODEL
Figure 2.2: JakobsonÊs model of communication
Roman JakobsonÊs model (please refer to Figure 2.2) is particularly suited to
explain written communication as it takes into account code (the language
you write in) besides other major elements like writer, reader, context, message
and contact. However, it still does not take into consideration factors for
communication such as motives.
In this model, the contact is your medium of communication. The contact can
be something as simple as a poster on the wall, or something much more
complex (like the Internet which involves servers, satellites, or cables and other
sophisticated technology).
The code is the language you write in. It includes the alphabet and the discourse
conventions we normally use in written communication. If the writer and the
reader use the same code, then communication is simpler. Communication, for
example, is much easier if you write in Arabic and use legal discourse conventions
when you write to someone who is an Arab and a lawyer by profession.
Jakobson also borrows from ShannonÊs model (transmission via channel) but his
model still fails to take into account the learning that goes into communicating and
the recursiveness in writing and reading. JakobsonÊs model has been simplified but
this only produces a more limited model (see Figure 2.3).
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Figure 2.3: JakobsonÊs simplified model of communication
MODEL BASED ON ULRIC NEISSER’S
WORK
Ulric NeisserÊs work is somewhat harder to put into a model. Neisser himself does
not present us with a model but we can construct a simple one to help us understand
his writings (please refer to Figure 2.4):
Figure 2.4: Ulric NeisserÊs model of communication
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Figure 2.4 tries to capture the basic ideas of NeisserÊs work in the psychology
of cognition and perception and how they are applied in the writing process. It
presents perception as exploratory and recursive. We explore our world or a
specific phenomenon guided by our desires, needs, ideas and images of the
world. This exploration gives us a new perception or new information of the
world which, in turn, affects our needs, desires and worldviews. This again
changes our perception of the world and so we begin our exploration again. This
cycle continues as long as we are still learning and exploring.
This model is especially relevant in written communication. We write guided by
our ideas, beliefs, and motivations and as we write, we explore, discover and
learn. The information we produce triggers us to start thinking of new ideas.
These new ideas influence our beliefs, and so the exploration cycle begins again.
If you combine this model with those by Shannon and Jakobson, you will come
up with a rather good picture of the writing process which we can now see as
motivated, exploratory and recursive.
MODEL BASED ON MICHAEL POLANYI’S
WORK
Michael Polanyi was a philosopher whose work contributed significantly to our
understanding of written communication. He argues that a person needs to be
actively engaged in the process of knowing, and highlights the importance of the
„tacit dimension‰, the fact that we know more than we can say and that we often
say more than we realise.
The model is simple. A person discovers meaning in an experience or context, for
instance, he watched a beautiful sunrise. Subsequently, the person writes a text
to express his appreciation and to convey the meaning he had gained from the
experience. He may write a poem, novel, essay, letter or journal entry. Someone else
reads the text in another context (for instance, by the beach) and derives meaning
from it. Of course, in some instances, the reader may be the writer himself.
An important implication of this model is that the reader may not have shared
in the original experience but still derives meaning from the text. However,
the meaning that the reader discovers in the text may not be as intended by the
writer. In other words, a text cannot convey an experience, only meanings.
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You should also not that some texts do not convey a single, unequivocal meaning
to all readers. These are texts we call literature. Both PolanyiÊs and NeisserÊs
models highlight the importance of interpretation in written communication.
In general, all the four models of communication could be summarised in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Summary of Communication
Model Key Ideas
Claude Shannon
The encoding and decoding of information is of primary
importance.
Roman Jakobson The contact is your medium of communication.
Ulric Neisser
Perception is exploratory and recursive. We explore our
world or a specific phenomenon guided by our desires,
needs, ideas and images of the world.
Michael Polanyi
The meaning that the reader discovers in the text may not
be as intended by the writer.
SOME IDEAS ABOUT COMMUNICATION
Communication is a dynamic process. Over the years, there have been changes
not only in the way we communicate but also in the „code‰ or language form
used. This section introduces us briefly to the signs, symbols and abbreviations
commonly used in written communication as these may have meanings and
interpretations unique to particular contexts, and a failure to understand this can
also cause a breakdown in communication.
2.5.1 Signs, Symbols and Abbreviations
Signs, symbols and abbreviations are important in written communication. In
fact, signs and symbols are both primitive precursors of the written language
as well as important modern supplements to it. They preceded the Western
alphabet as a form of writing. However, the meanings they convey is culture-
bound and may or may not get interpreted correctly, thereby affecting the
effectiveness of the communication.
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A sign can be anything that is used to point to, or stand for, something else. It can
be used to represent ideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings and concepts. In
a way, words are also signs, not unlike the painted metal plates on posts we see
by the roadside. The advantage of using signs in written communication is that
the actual objects represented by the signs need not be present when we write
about them.
However, it is important to choose the correct sign to use for the right occasion. A
„No Parking‰ sign says a thousand words if it is found beside a house, but would
probably create confusion if it is put beside a swimming pool or located inside a
gymnasium.
When we use signs to refer to complex things, we call them symbols. Symbols have
complex meanings in addition to literal ones. In some cases, a symbol may have
more than one meaning, some of which may be culture-bound. Take the picture of a
rice stalk, for example. In countries like Japan and Malaysia, this denotes fruitfulness
and abundance; sometimes, even fertility (please refer to Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: The rice plant is a symbol of fertility and abundance
The advent of technology today means that written communication has taken
on new forms such as email and SMS. Increasingly, emoticons and shorthand
notations (acronyms) are used to convey messages.
Commonly used emoticons are shown in Table 2.2:
Table 2.2: Meanings of Emoticons
Emoticon Meaning
:-) Happy or do not take me too seriously.
;-) Being cheeky or showing disbelief.
:-( Sad or disappointed.

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E-mail communities are also increasingly using abbreviations, such as those shown
in Table 2.3, which have taken on universal meanings in written communication.
Table 2.3: Shorthand Notation
Shorthand Notation Meaning
<g> Grin
<hug> Hug
BTW by the way
FYI for your information
IMHO in my humble/honest opinion
RTM read the manual („manual‰ here refers to any documentation)
LOL [I] laughed out loud [at what you wrote]
RSN real soon now
ROTFL [I am] rolling on the floor laughing [at what you wrote]
TIA thanks in advance
TTFN Ta-ta for now
x A model is a snapshot of a phenomenon, not the complete picture.
x Claude ShannonÊs model gives importance to the encoding and decoding of
information because of the need to counter noise but ignores the reasons why
people compose messages.
x Roman JakobsonÊs model considers the writer, reader, context, message, contact,
and code but does not account for motive.
x According to the model based on the work of Ulric Neisser, we undergo a cycle
of learning whereby we explore based on our existing perceptions, learn new
information, acquire new perceptions, and continue to explore.
ACTIVITY 2.1
„Text does not convey the original experience to the reader. It conveys
meaning.‰ Elaborate.

9. X TOPIC 2 COMMUNICATION MODELS – A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
24
x Similarly, we write guided by our beliefs and as we write, we discover new
information which leads to new ideas that influence our beliefs.
x According to the model based on Michael PolanyiÊs work, a piece of text does
not convey the original experience to the reader. Instead, it conveys meaning.
x A sign can represent ideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings and concepts.
x Symbols have complex meanings in addition to the literal ones.
x Emoticons and abbreviations are increasingly making an impact in written
communication.
Code
Contact
Context
Exploration
Interpretation
Literal
Meaning
Message
Metaphor
Noise
Perception
Sign
Symbol
Symbolic
Hawkes, T. (1977). Structuralism and semiotics. Los Angeles: University of
California Press.
Kinneavy, J. L. (1971). A theory of discourse. New York: W. W. Norton.
Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive
psychology. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Polanyi, M. (1969). Knowing and being. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Price, R. (1984). A conversation with claude shannon: One manÊs approach to
problem solving. IEEE Comm. 22(5), 123–126.