Maximizing Incident Investigation Efficacy in Oil & Gas: Techniques and Tools
Unit 1.pptx
1. Unit - I
Fundamentals of Electricity
M.Selvam
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECS
Sri Krishna Arts and Science College
Coimbatore-08
Basic Electronics and Network
Analysis
2. Course Details
• Course Name : Basic Electronics and Network
Analysis
• Course Code : 18ECU01
• Year and Semester : I/I
• Class Room : L 201
• Google Classroom code : s1009h
• Modular Assessment : C (Theory-Concepts)
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 2
3. M.Selvam/ECS
Topics to be covered
•Fundamentals of Electronics
•Structure of Solids
•Structure of Atom
•Atomic Number
•Atomic Mass
• Key terms
• Summery
• MCQ
23-01-2023 3
4. Electronics
Electronics
• Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study
of flow and control of electrons (electricity) in vacuums,
gases, and semiconductors.
• The Word ‘electronics’ is derived from a Greek word
‘elektron‘.
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 4
5. Foundation of Electronics
• Electronics is distinct from electrical science, which deal
with the generation, distribution, switching, storage, and
conversion of electrical energy using motors, generators,
batteries, relays, transformers, etc.
Electronic circuit
• An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic
components, such as resistors, capacitors, inductors,
diodes, transistors, FET, MOSFET, Thyristors, etc. that
controls the flow of electrons to achieve a particular
functionality.
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 5
6. Foundation of Electronics
• An electronic circuit can be categorized into analog circuits
and digital circuits.
• Analog circuits operate on continuous valued signals
(commonly referred to as analog signals).
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 6
7. Foundation of Electronics
• Digital circuits operate on signals that exist only two levels
i.e. 0's and 1's (binary number system).
• The basic components of digital circuits are logic gates
(AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR), Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers, etc.
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 7
8. Fields of Electronics
• Communication Systems
• Instrumentation
• Computer engineering
• VLSI design
• Embedded Systems
• Signal processing
• Automation and Control
• Medical electronics
• Power Electronics
• Robotics
Applications of Electronics
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 8
9. 23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS
Structure of solids
Understanding the fundamentals of electricity – Structure of solids plays an
important role.
Everything in the universe is made of atoms or molecules, and every atom contains
three types of particles called Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons.
Most of the solids are crystalline in structure. The basic arrangement of atoms
repeated throughout the entire solid ,is called crystal lattice. Such solids are called
crystalline solids others non-crystalline solids or amorphous solids.
Crystalline- silicon and germanium. Amorphous – wood,plastic,paper,glass
9
11. • There are four Important crystalline structures are
• Simple Cubic (SC): The unit cell of this structure contains atoms at all
the corners of a cube. The compound cesium chloride (CsCl) possess
this type.
• Body Centred Cubic (BCC): The unit cell of this structure is a simple
cube ,with an additional atom at the body centre of the cube. The
crystals such as tungsten ,vandadium,chromium and alki materials.
• Face centred cubic (FCC): The unit cell of this structure is a simple
cube ,with an additional atom in the centre of six faces of the cube.
eg: silver,Gold,nickel.
• Diamond or tetrahedral: This is one of the most important crystal
structure .The unit cell of this structure can be thought of as an FCC
with an extra atom located at a/4,+b/4,+c/4
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS
Types of Crystalline Structures
11
13. • The most fundamental unit of a solid is an atom.
• In 1913,Neils bohr,Danish physicist proposed atomic model.
• Everything in the universe is made of atoms or molecules, and every atom
contains three types of particles called Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons.
• The protons and neutrons are packed together in the nucleus at the
center of the atom, while the electrons spin around the nucleus in a
constant motion.
• Electrons are negatively charged as 1.6x10-19 Coulomb. Neutrons has no
charge at all.
Structure of Atom
Principles
of
Electronics
2n2
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 13
14. Structure of Atom
• WHAT IS AN ATOM?
o The smallest unit of an element.
o Consists of a central nucleus surrounded by one or more electrons.
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 14
15. Structure of Atom
• WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS?
o The central part of an atom.
o Composed of protons and neutrons.
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 15
16. Structure of Atom
• WHAT IS A PROTON?
o Positively charged particle.
o Found within an atomic nucleus.
• WHAT IS A NEUTRON?
o Uncharged particle.
o Found within an atomic nucleus.
• WHAT IS AN ELECTRON?
o Negatively charged particle.
o Located in shells or orbits that surround an atom’s nucleus.
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 16
17. Structure of Atom
• In an atom:
• Atoms are neutral
• The protons = The electrons
• If 20 protons are present in an atom then 20 electrons are there to
balance the overall charge of the atom.
• The neutrons have no charge.
• Atomic number:
• This number indicates the number of protons in an atom.
• Ex: Hydrogen’s atomic number is 1
• hydrogen has 1 proton
• Ex: Carbon’s atomic number is 6
• carbon has 6 protons
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 17
18. Structure of Atom
• Mass number:
• The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Ex:
• Hydrogen can have a mass of 3.
• It has 1 proton it must have 2 neutrons
• No. of Neutrons = mass number - atomic number
• Li has a mass number of 7 and an atomic number of 3
• Protons = 3
• Neutrons= 7-3 = 4 (mass - atomic number)
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 18
19. Mass number = 12 atomic number = 6
p+ = 6 no = 6 e- = 6
6 p and 6 n live
in the nucleus
Structure of Atom
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 19
20. Number of electrons equal to the number of protons.
Number of protons (or electrons) in the nucleus is equal to the atomic
number (Z). For example hydrogen has one proton in its nucleus (or one
electron around in its nucleus).Therefore Atomic number(Z) of hydrogen
atom is 1.
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is atomic mass
(M). The silicon atom has 14 Protons and 14 neutrons in its nucleus
therefore its atomic mass is 28.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS
Structure of Atom
20
22. • Electrons revolves around the nucleus in fixed orbits ,called energy levels
or shells .
• The orbits are represented by the letters K,L,M,N,etc are also designated as
1,2,3,4 etc. The Maximum no of electrons in any shell is given by 2n2
.where n is an integer and is called as principal quantum number.
ii) The maximum number of electrons that can be filled in the outermost
shell is 8.
iii) Electrons cannot be filled in a shell unless the inner shells are filled.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS
Electron Orbits
22
23. • Each electron orbit(main-shell) in an atom consists of number of sub
orbits or sub shells. The number of sub orbits is equal to the number
of its principal quantum number and they designated s,p,d,f etc.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS
Distribution of Electrons in Atoms
23
24. • The outermost orbital shell of an atom is called valence shell.
• The electrons in the valence shell are valence electrons.
• Valence electrons are the highest energy electrons in an atom.
• When the valence electron gains sufficient energy from some outside
force, it can break away from the parent atom and become a free
electron.
Valance Electron
Principles
of
Electronics
Free Electron
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 24
25. Electrical balance
• Atoms are electrically neutral.
• If one or more electron(s) are removed from atom, the remaining
positively charged structure is called a positive ion or cation.
• If an atom gained one or more electron(s), the remaining negatively
charged structure is called a negative ion or anion.
• This gaining or losing of electrons is called ionization.
Ionized atoms
Principles
of
Electronics
M.Selvam/ECS
23-01-2023 25
26. • According to Bohr’s Atomic Model ,an energy is emitted by an
electron when it moves from higher orbit to a lower orbit.
• Similarly energy is absorbed by an electron when it moves from lower
orbit to higher orbit.
• The amount of energy transferred is given by a relation
W2 - W1 = ⱨ.f in joules
Where
W1 - Energy of Initial Orbit
W2 - Energy of the final Orbit
ⱨ - Planck’s Constant (6.626x 10-34 joules)
f –Frequency of radiation
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS
Energy level Diagram
1eV= 1.602x10-19
26
28. • Energy band
• The range of energies possessed by electrons in an atom is know as energy
band.
• The energy levels are separated by forbidden energy gaps where electron
cannot exist.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 28
29. Valence Band:
• The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom is called Valence electrons.
• The range of energy possessed by valence electrons is called as Valence band.
Conduction Band:
• The valence electrons loosely attached to the nucleus. These electrons easily left out
from valence orbit are called conduction electrons or free electrons.
• The range of energy possessed by conduction electrons is called as Conduction band.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 29
30. Insulators:
• The valence band is full
• The conduction band is empty
• The Large forbidden energy gap ( > 6 eV )
• Have negative temperature co-efficient.
• A large amount of energy is
required to shift electrons from
the valence band to the
conduction band.
• The electrical conductivity is
small or nil. So that it is called
as Insulator.
• Ex:
– Plastic, Rubber, Mica, Glass,
etc.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 30
31. Conductors:
• Plenty of free electrons are available in the conduction band
• Overlapping valence and conduction bands
• No forbidden gap
• The free electrons in the
conduction band are
responsible for the conduction
of current .
• The materials which easily
allow the flow of electric
current through them are
called as conductors.
• Ex:
– Copper, Aluminium, etc.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 31
32. Semiconductors:
• The valence band is partially filled
• The conduction band is partially filled
• The narrow forbidden energy gap ( ~ 1 eV )
• A semiconductor is a material whose
electrical properties lie in between
the conductor and insulator.
• They require very small energy to
release an electron from their valance
band to conduction band.
• For Si, it is 1.1 eV and for Ge, it is 0.7
eV.
• Ex:
– Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)..
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 32
33. Fundamentals of Electricity-Unit Charge
• Every atoms are having Protons and electrons.
• In the solids, Some electrons are removed ,there occurs a deficit of
electrons in the solid the solid becomes positively charged.
• If a neutral solid is supplied with electrons ,there occurs an excess
of electrons then the solid becomes negatively charged.
• These charges are the fundamental unit of electricity.
• Coulomb is the Unit of Charge.
Note
Charge on electron qe = -
𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔
= -1.6X10-19 C
Mass of an electron, m = 9.0 × 10–31 kg
Radius of an electron, r = 1.9 × 10–15 metre
1 Coulomb = 625x1016 electrons
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 33
34. Free Electrons
• The Electrons are move around the nucleus of an atom in different
orbits. The outermost orbit electrons are loosely bonded with the
nucleus.
• The outer most orbit is called Valance orbit and the electrons are
called free electrons.
• The Free electrons are moved around from one atom to another.
• Based of the free electrons the substances are classified as
conductors,insulators,Semiconductors
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 34
35. Electric Current
• The directed flow of free electrons (or charge) is called
electric current..
• For example ,the Copper strip has a large no of free electrons, when
electric pressure or voltage is applied then the free electrons being
negatively charged will move towards positive terminal is called
electric current.
• The actual flow electric current is from negative to positive, but in
traditional it is noted from positive to negative called conventional
current.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 35
36. • Unit of Current: Ampere
The Strength of electric current I, is the rate of flow of electrons.
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 =
𝑸
𝑻
Ampere
Where Q – electric Charge ( No of Electrons)
T – Time in seconds
If 1 Ampere of Current flows mean it has 1Q at 1Sec.
One Ampere of Current is said to flow through a wire is coulomb
of charge at one second.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 36
37. exercise
• How much current is flowing in a circuit where 1.27x1015
electrons move past a given time 100ms?
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 37
I = Q/T= ne/T
I= 1.27x 1015 x 1.6x10-19
100x10 -3
I = 2.03 mA
38. Electric Potential
• When a body is charged, work is done in charging it. This work
done is stored in the body in the form of potential energy. The
charged body has the capacity to do work by moving other
charges either by attraction or repulsion.
• The Capacity of a charged body to do a work is called electric
potential.
i.e. the ability to move one charge is known as electric potential
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉 =
𝑊
𝑄
Volt
• Where W – work in joules
Q – Charge In Coulombs.
Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of 1 Volt ,if
1joule of work is done to give it a charge of 1Coulomb.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 38
39. Potential difference
• The difference between two different charged bodies are called
potential difference.
• If two bodies have different potentials; a potential difference exists
in the bodies.
• Let two bodies A and B have potentials of +5V and +3V ,if they are
connected by a copper wire the electrons flows from B to A. when
two bodies attains the same potential the current flow stops.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 39
41. Maintaining Potential difference
• A device that maintains potential difference between two points is
said to develop electromotive force(emf).
• A simple Voltaic Cell consists of copper plate called anode and a
zinc rod called cathode immersed in diluted H2SO4
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 41
The chemical action taking place in the cell
removes electrons from copper plate and
transfers them to the zinc rod. This
transference of electrons takes place
through the agency of dil. H2SO4 (called
electrolyte).
Consequently,the copper plate attains a positive
charge of +Q coulombs and zinc rod a charge of –Q
coulombs. The chemical action of the cell has done a
certain amount of work (say W joules) to do so.
Clearly, the potential difference between the two
plates will be W/Q volts.
42. • If these plates are connected by a wire the electrons from the zinc
will transferred to copper plate by attraction. The flow of electrons
by the wire is called electric current.
• The Potential difference is maintained till the chemical energy lasts.
• Thus the potential difference causes current flow while an emf
maintains the potential difference.
• The following points may be noted carefully :
(i) The name e.m.f. at first sight implies that it is a force that causes
current to flow. This is not correct because it is not a force but energy
supplied to charge by some active device such as a battery.
(ii) Electromotive force (e.m.f.) maintains potential difference while
p.d. causes current to flow.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 42
43. • The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is
called resistance.
• Since the current is the flow of free electrons ,resistance offered by the
substance to the flow of free electron.
• The unit of resistance is Ω and resistance is denoted as R.
• If a copper wire said to have 1Ω means it have 1V across it when 1A
current flow on it.
Factors upon Resistance
The resistance R of a conductor
Directly proportional to its length(l)
Inversely proportional to the cross section Area (a)
Depends upon nature of material.
Changes with respect to temperature.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 43
Resistance
R ∝
𝒍
𝒂
R= 𝝆
𝒍
𝒂
44. Specific Resistivity
R= 𝝆
𝒍
𝒂
• By the relationship , let l=1m, a= 1m2 ,then R= 𝝆
• Specific Resistance of a material is the resistance offered by 1m length
of wire of metal having cross section area of 1m2 .
• Thus the specific resistance 𝝆 = R*
𝒂
𝒍
in ohm-m.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 44
Resistance
𝝆 − 𝑹𝒉𝒐
Specific
resistance
45. Conductance:
Conductance G is the reciprocal of Resistance .
G=
𝟏
𝑹
=
𝒂
𝝆𝒍
= 𝝈
𝒂
𝒍
Where 𝝈 =
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍.
Unit for conductance is S (siemens) or (mhos)
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 45
46. • If resistance of the materials are increase when increment in
temperature is Called Positive Temperature Co-efficient.
eg .Copper,Aluminium
• Positive Temperature Co-efficient. = T R
• if the If resistance of the materials are decreases when increment in
temperature is Called Negative Temperature Co-efficient.
• Eg Silicon,germanium,glass,mica,rubber.
• Negative Temperature Co-efficient. =T R
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 46
Effects of Temperature on Resistance
47. • Temperature coefficient of resistance indicates how much the
resistance changes for a change in temperature.
• It is indicated by the alpha symbol (α).
• A positive α value means R increases with temperature.
• A negative α value means R decreases with temperature.
• A value of 0 means R stays constant.
• α is generally positive for pure metals.
• α is generally negative for semiconductors (silicon, germanium)
and electrolyte solutions (sulfuric acid, water).
• The increase in resistance may be calculated using the formula:
Rt = R0 + R0(αΔt)
• R0 = the resistance at 20 °C.
• Rt = the resistance at the higher temperature
• Δt = the temperature rise over 20° C.
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 47
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
49. • It was stated by George Simon Ohm
• It states that at constant temperature ,the
amount of current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends i.e.
I α V
V = IR where R is constant called Resistance
According to this law conductors are divide
into -
1. Ohmic conductors (follow ohm’s law)
2. Non- ohmic conductors (do not follow
ohm’s law)
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 49
Ohms Law
George Simon Ohm
(1787-1854)
52. Electrical Energy
• Energy is the fundamental capacity to do work.
• A charge can have potential energy (voltage) because of its
place in space.
• Electrical Energy is defined as the ability to produce heat by
causing charge to move from one location to another.
• Note that energy can neither be created or destroyed, only
transformed.
• Energy is measured in joules and symbolized by the letter j
• One joule is the amount of energy converted to heat when
one coulomb of charge moves through a resistance with a
voltage of one volt existing across it.
1 joule = 1Voltx1coulomb
53. Electrical Power
• Power is the rate at which energy is used.
P=W/t,
where W= work done or energy in joules
t= Time in Seconds
The unit of Electrical Energy is Watt(W).
• One Watt of Power is equal to the work done in one Second
by a voltage in moving one Coulomb of Charge.
Power P= V x I in Watts
Thus the Power in Watts is equal to the product of voltage and
Current.
56. 1The Atomic Number is ________ in an atom.
a) Sum of Protons and Neutron b) Quantity of Electrons
c) No of Neutrons d) equal to Mass Number
2.Solids are classified into ____ types.
a) 4 b) 2 c)3 d) 5
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 56
MCQ
Ans: B
Ans: C
57. 3.Choose the amorphous material in the following
a)silicon b) germanium
c) mica d) none of the above
4.The electron has the negative charge of ___________
a) 6.256x 1021C b) 1.6x10-19 C
c) 625C d)1.6x10+19C
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 57
Ans: B
Ans: C
58. 5.The L orbit in atom can have __________ electrons.
a) 2 b) 12
c) 8 d) 18
6.which of the following bond is formed by transferring of
electrons from one atom to another?
a) metallic b) Ionic
c) covalent d) either a or b
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 58
Ans: B
Ans: C
59. 7.if a material has wide band gap energy means, it will call as?
a) Conductors b) Semiconductors
c) Insulators d) both a and b
8.The unit of Resistance is called as
a) Rho b) mho
c) ohm d) Ampere
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 59
Ans: C
Ans: C
60. 9.The rate of charge is also called as
a) Power b) capacitance
c) Current d) Voltage
10.What is the tolerance % of gold stripe in fixed resistors?
a) ± 1% b) ± 5%
c) ± 10% d) ± 20%
23-01-2023 M.Selvam/ECS 60
Ans: B
Ans: C
