E-content on Techni_Writing.pdf

Technical Writing & Communication Skills
PRACTICAL MANUAL
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Senior Scientist & Head
Deendayal Research Institute,
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ambajogai,
Dist. Beed (MS) 431 517

Publisher : Deendayal Research Institute,
KRISHI VIGYAN KENDRA,
Ambajogai, Dist. Beed (MS) 431 517
Editor : Dr. Saurabh Sharma
Senior Scientist & Head
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Beed (MS)
Typing : Mr. Shaikh Akram
Printer : Aai Offset
Shivaji Chowk, Ambajogai, Dist. Beed
ISBN No. : 978-93-5445-165-2
Pages : 74
Price : 390/-
Year : 2021

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR THE STUDENTS
1. A Student is expected to maintain the decorum of the laboratory by
maintaining proper discipline.
2. Student is expected to be punctual in lab, should keenly perform the
experiment allotted him without moving from one lab to another and
even experimental set up should not be left until it unavoidable.
3. Mobile phones are not allowed in the labs and should be kept in the
bags in silent or switch-off mode.
4. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your
work. Extra books, purses, bags etc. should be kept in the racks placed
in the lab.
5. Clean up your work area before leaving.
Dress code:
1. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are
required when working in the laboratories.
2. Compulsory things to be carried by the students in lab:
Safety Guidelines:
1. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a
user by your supervisor.
2. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.
3. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or
confined.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sl.
No.
Title Page
1 To Study about Technical Writing 1-3
2 To Study about forms of scientific writing 4-12
3 Editing and proof reading of different forms of writing 13-18
4 Presentation of Scientific papers 19-23
5 Writing of abstract, summaries , citation and précis 24-32
6 Writing a Technical Paper-Research Paper 33-37
7 Study on Preparation of manual 38-41
8 To perform Group discussion exercises 42-45
9 How to faced Interview? 46-49
10
Commonly used abbreviations in the theses and research
communications;
50-58
11
Communication skills- Grammar (Tenses, part of speech,
clauses, punctuation mark)
59-64
12
Error analysis (Common error);Concord; Collocation;
Phonetic symbols and transcription ;Accentual pattern:
weak forms in connected speech.
65-74
References:
Mohan K. 2005. Speaking English Effectively. MacMillan India.
Richard WS. 1969. Technical Writing. Barnes & Noble.

1
Experiment No.-I
Aim : To Study about technical writing
Material required : Pen, Paper etc.
Learning outcome : Students will learn different types of scientific and
technical documentations. Clearly convey specialized
information from a technical field to a non-specialized
area
Theory/Principles:
Scientific and technical writing is a variant form of technical communication. It is a
style of writing use to effectively and accurately record and document information
on specialized fields and disciplines. In 1953 two organizations concern with
improving the practice of technical communication were founded in United States-
the society of technical writers and association technical writers and editors. This
organization merged in 1957 to form the society of technical writers and editors. A
predecessor of the current of society of the technical communication.
Technical writing:
The clear, concise, & distinct presentation and analysis of scientific results
• Distinct from literature, journalistic, or personal communication styles and
contents
• In technical writing, every statement should be based on evidence and not on
unsupported opinion.
Principles of Technical Writing:
Five steps to successful technical writing:
1. Preparation
2. Research
3. Organization
4. Writing a draft
5. Revision
Elements of effective writing style
1. Know your audience
 Make the technical depth of your writing compatible with the background of
the readers you intend to reach.
 Are you writing for agriculturists? managers? technicians? lay people?
 Identify your objective and main message(s)
 Never start writing until you have decided to whom you are writing.
 This establishes the scope and depth of what you will write.

2
2. Use a clear style
 A technical paper should not have the same chatty tone as a personal letter.
 Key to technical writing:
o Keep it simple and explicit
o Write to communicate – not to impress
o Avoid overly formal styles, which will unclear, the main messages
3. Be concise
 Make your writing less time-consuming for them to read by telling the whole
story in the fewest words possible
 Technical readers are interested in detailed quantitative information: facts,
figures, conclusions, & recommendations.
 Avoid imprecise or subjective terms, such as good, bad, fast, slow, tall, or easy
4. Be consistent
 Inconsistencies in technical writing will confuse your reader
 Result: readers will think your work & reasoning are as sloppy and
disorganized as your writing
 Strive for consistency: – numbers, units of measure, symbols, equations –
hyphens, punctuation, capitalization – grammar, technical terms,
abbreviations
5. Avoid jargon
 Every domain of science has its own special language.
 Technical jargon is helpful shorthand when communicating with
professionals in your field.
 Must be clearly defined, so readers without special background will not
become confused.
6. Use the active voice
―Active voice action is expressed directly like ―Jhon performed the
experiment‖
Versus ―Passive‖ Voice―the experiment was performed by John‖
―Active voice‖ is more direct and concise
7. Organize your messages & approach
Introduction or Abstract (executive summary):
 significance of results + important conclusions of the work
 must be short, succinct, to the point
 write version to start". re-write after paper is complete

3
Types of technical documents:
1. End user assistance: This information product help a user understand how to
use a technical software and hardware product.
2. Traditional technical documentation: Here the writer‘s objective is to
communicate to specific audience.
3. Marketing communication: Product catalogues, advertisements, introductory
page for a press release and advertising copy belongs to this category.
Results:
The knowledge about the technical and scientific writing will be developed.
Scope of the result:
It is prerequisite information for understanding concept importance of
technical and scientific writing.
Cautions:
i. Develop proper writing abilities.
ii. Express proper scientific and technical thoughts infront of different committees.
Suggested Readings:
Society for Technical Communication (http://www.stc.org)
Writers Write: Technical Writing (http://www.writerswrite.com/technical/)
Worksheet of the student
Date of Performance Registration Number
Observations:
Types of writing Uses Audience (end users)
Results:

4
Learning Outcomes (what I have learnt)
To be filled in by faculty:
Sr.
No.
Parameters
Marks
obtained
Max. Marks
1 Understanding of student about
procedure/apparatus
20
2 Observations and analysis including learning
outcomes
20
3 Completion of experiments, Disciplines and
Cleanliness
10
Signature of Faculty Total
marks

5
Experiment No.2
Aim : To Study about different forms of scientific writing
Material required : Pen, Paper, Research data, Research papers etc
Learning outcome : The purpose is to enable the student to develop deeper
knowledge, understanding, capabilities and attitudes in
the context of the Dissertation/thesis.
Theory/Principles:
Scientific and Technical writing is used in any branch of knowledge requiring a
systematic study. All forms of written communication follow certain rules and
regulations to convey technical information in an organized manner. It makes the
process of communication of information effective, clear and precise. If
communication is comprehendible, information is conveyed accurately. For prompt
action and steady progress, the exchange of information needs to be swift, flawless
and effective.
Forms of Technical Writing:
a) Reports: Reports are standard documents in all organizations. A report is a
stand-alone document that relays the results of a factual inquiry to other
parties who have a professional interest in the results, expert opinion,
laboratory tests, policy issues and administrative, Tour report details-
anything of importance to professional organization. Sports event, cultural
events, farmer meeting, seminar, workshop, conference
b) Manuals: Information brochures, instruction books, guidance booklets etc,
provide information of a particular product, industry or establishment. They
are used by industrial establishments to convey to the user the mechanics of a
machine. In a teaching institution they are used to convey to the student a
difficult laboratory procedure or the mechanics of a specialized discipline.
c) Proposals: A proposal identifies a specific problem and states how to solve
that problem. Proposal are carefully prepared and just as carefully reviewed
by granting agencies. All proposals develop a plan of action in response to a
specific need or problem.
d) Press releases: A technical press release usually announces the development
of a new product. A technical press release contains the following elements
 A headline that identifies the product
 A lead paragraph giving key information
 A graphic that will secure the reader‘s attention
 A description of the product
 An explanation of why the product is important
 Information about whom to contact for further information

6
e) Resumes: Almost all prospective employers meet your resume before they
meet you, and there reaction to it determine whether or not they will consider
you further by interviewing you. Effective resumes contain the following
elements:
 Heading
 Professional Job objective
 Educational history
 Work Experience
 Relevant Skils,Activities and accomplishments
 Reference
f) Thesis: Thesis is an extended research report on a theoretical, experimental or
designed project. The thesis seeks to make some original contribution to the
writer field of specialization. Dissertations and theses is an extended research
report on a theoretical, experimental, or design project. The thesis seeks to
make some original contribution to writer‘s field of specialization. Thesis
work is good evidence of how you work on problems. The quality of a thesis
indicates the quality of an individual thinking ,organization and power of
expression.
Importance of thesis:
 To further develop the ability to give an independent, systematic and clear
treatment of a certain topic.
 To train the ability to independently identify and analyze relevant problems
 To solve a practical problem by a systematic use of an appropriate choice of
theory and methodologies.
 To train the ability to independently acquire and handle academic knowledge
through independent studies of relevant literature, and to cultivate the ability
to evaluate and briefly account for the central elements in a large literature
base.
Structure of the thesis:
1. Title Page: Title, author, institution, department, date, etc
2. Certificate from guide/Advisory committee
3. Acknowledgment: Advisor(s) and anyone who helped you:
Technically (including materials, supplies)
Intellectually (assistance, advice), financially (for example, departmental
support, travel grants)
4. Abstract: A good abstract explains in one line why the paper is important. It
then goes on to give a summary of your major results. Information in title
should not be repeated.

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5. Table of contents of a thesis
 List all heading and subheadings with page numbers
 Indent subheadings
 It will look something like this
S. No. Contents Page no
1 List of figures
2 List of tables
3 Introduction
4 Review of literature
5 Method and materials
6 Sub headings
7 Result and Discussion
8 Sub headings
9 Conclusion
10 Recommendations
11 Bibliography/References
12 Appendix
Introduction:
The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular
topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research
being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background
information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the
research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly
the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting
the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure
and organization of the paper.
Review of Literature:
A literature review addresses a specific topic by evaluating research that
others have done on it
Methods and Materials:
The methods section describes actions to be taken to investigate a research
problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques
used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding
the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study‘s overall
validity and reliability.

8
Result:
 The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics, tables
and graphs.
 Indicate information on range of variation.
 Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results - save
that for the discussion.
 Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others can draw
their own inferences and construct their own explanations.
Discussion
Start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results. The
discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following
questions:
1. What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and
temporal variations.)
2. What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
3. What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
4. What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting
predictions?
5. Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
6. Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the f - what is the
relationship of the present results to the original question?
7. What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions
in earth sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc....?
8. Multiple hypotheses: There are usually several possible explanations for
results.
9. What are the things we now know or understand that we didn't know or
understand before the present work?
10. Include the evidence or line of reasoning supporting each interpretation.
11. What is the significance of the present results: why should we care?
Conclusions:
 What is the strongest and most important statement that you can make from
your observations?
 Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached
from carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new
interpretations, and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
 Include the broader implications of your results.

9
Recommendations:
 Include when appropriate (most of the time)
 Remedial action to solve the problem.
 Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.
 Directions for future investigations on this or related topic
References:
 cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own
 if you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a reference
 all references cited in the text must be listed
 cite single-author references by the surname of the author (followed by date
of the publication in parenthesis)
o According to Hays (1994)
o Population growth is one of the greatest environmental concerns facing future
generations (Hays, 1994).
 cite double-author references by the surnames of both authors (followed by
date of the publication in parenthesis)
o e.g. Simpson and Hays (1994)
 cite more than double-author references by the surname of the first author
followed by et al. and then the date of the publication
o e.g. Pfirman, Simpson and Hays would be:
o Pfirman et al. (1994)
 do not use footnotes
 list all references cited in the text in alphabetical order using the following
format for different types of material:
o Hunt, S. (1966) Carbohydrate and amino acid composition of the egg capsules
of the whelk. Nature, 210, 436-437.
Appendices:
 Include all your data in the appendix.
 Reference data/materials not easily available (theses are used as a reference
by the department and other students).
 Tables (where more than 1-2 pages).
 Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages).
 If you consulted a large number of references but did not cite all of them, you
might want to include a list of additional resource material, etc.
 List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated
procedures.
 Note: Figures and tables, including captions, should be embedded in the text
and not in an appendix, unless they are more than 1-2 pages and are not
critical to your argument.

10
Figures and Tables:
 The actual figures and tables should be embedded/inserted in the text,
generally on the page following the page where the figure/table is first cited
in the text.
 All figures and tables should be numbered and cited consecutively in the text
as figure 1, figure 2, table 1, table 2, etc.
 Include a caption for each figure and table, citing how it was constructed
(reference citations, data sources, etc.) and highlighting the key findings
(think skimming). Include an index figure (map) showing and naming all
locations discussed in paper.
 You are encouraged to make your own figures, including cartoons,
schematics or sketches that illustrate the processes that you discuss.
 Figures should be oriented vertically, in portrait mode, wherever possible. If
you must orient them horizontally, in landscape mode, orient them so that
you can read them from the right, not from the left, where the binding will be.
Results:
The knowledge about the forms ofwriting will be developed.
It is prerequisite information for understanding of forms of writing.
Cautions:
ii. Express proper scientific & technical thoughts in front of different
committees.
Suggested Readings: Books:
• Society for Technical Communication (http://www.stc.org)
• Klariti.com: Technical Writing (http://www.klariti.com/technical-
writing/index.shtml)

11
Observations:
Content of the thesis Importance /role
 Prepare your Resume
 Make a PRESS RELEASE
 Characteristics of good abstract
Results:

12
Sr.
No.
Parameters Marks obtained
Max.
Marks
procedure/apparatus
20
2 Observations and analysis including
learning outcomes
20
3 Completion of experiments,
Disciplines and Cleanliness
10
Signature of Faculty Total marks
obtained

13
Experiment No.-3
Aim : Editing and proof reading of different forms of writing
Material required : Pen, Paper, Research paper, laptop etc
Learning outcome :
 Students will learn to improve the quality of copy.
 Recognize and remove tautology.
 Use positives, comparatives and superlatives
correctly.
 Ensure correct punctuation.
Theory/Principles :
Proofreading is the act of searching for errors before you hand in the final research
paper. Errors can be both grammatical and typographical in nature, but also include
identifying problems with the narrative flow of your paper, problems with concise
writing, and finding any word processing errors
Guidelines for Proofreading:
 Be sure you've revised the larger aspects of the text. Don't make corrections
at the sentence and word level [the act of editing] if you still need to work on
the overall focus, development, and organization of the paper or you need to
re-arrange or change specific sections [the act of revising].
 Set your paper aside between writing and proofreading. Give yourself a day
or so between the writing of your paper and proofreading it. This will help
you identify mistakes more easily. This is also a reason why you shouldn't
wait until the last minute to draft your paper because it won't provide the
time needed between writing and proofreading.
 Eliminate unnecessary words before looking for mistakes. Throughout your
paper, you should try to avoid using inflated diction if a simpler phrase
works equally well. Simple, precise language is easier to proofread than
overly complex sentence constructions and vocabulary. At the same time, also
identify and change empty or repetitive phrases.
 Know what to look for. Make a mental note of the mistakes you need to
watch for based on comments from your professor on previous drafts of the
paper or that you have received about papers written in other classes. This
will help you to identify repeated patterns of mistakes more readily.
 Review your list of references. Review the sources mentioned in your paper
and make sure you have properly cited them in your bibliography. Also make
sure that the titles cited in your bibliography are mentioned in the text. Any
omissions should be resolved before you begin proofreading your paper.

14
Strategies to Help Identify Errors:
1. Work from a printout, not a computer screen. Besides sparing your eyes the
strain of glaring at the computer, proofreading from a printout allows you to
easily skip around to where errors might have been repeated throughout the
paper [e.g., misspelled name of a person].
2. Read out loud. This is especially helpful for spotting run-on sentences, but
you'll also hear other problems that you may not have identified while
reading the text out loud. These will also help you play the role of the reader,
thereby, encouraging you to understand the paper as your audience might.
3. Use a ruler or blank sheet of paper to cover up the lines below the one
you're reading. This technique keeps you from skipping over possible
mistakes. This also helps you deliberately pace yourself as you read through
your paper.
4. Circle or highlight every punctuation mark in your paper. This forces you to
pay attention to each mark you used and to question its purpose in each
sentence or paragraph. This is a particularly helpful strategy if you tend to
misuse or overuse a punctuation mark, such as a comma or semi-colon.
5. Use the search function of the computer to find mistakes. Using the search
[find] feature of your word processor can help you identify common errors
faster. For example, if you overuse a phrase or use the same qualifier over and
over again, you can do a search for those words or phrases and in each
instance make a decision about whether to remove it or use a synonym.
6. If you tend to make many mistakes, check separately for each kind of error,
moving from the most to the least important, and following whatever
technique works best for you to identify that kind of mistake. For instance,
read through once [backwards, sentence by sentence] to check for fragments;
read through again [forward] to be sure subjects and verbs agree, and again
[perhaps using a computer search for "this," "it," and "they"] to trace pronouns
to antecedents.
7. End with using a computer spell checker or reading backwards word by
word. Remember that a spell checker won't catch mistakes with homonyms
[e.g., "they're," "their," "there"] or certain typos [like "he" when you meant to
write "the"]. The spell-checker function is not a substitute for carefully
reviewing the text for spelling errors.
8. Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by
speeding through writing and proofreading, setting aside the time to carefully
review your writing will help you catch errors you might otherwise miss.
Always read through your writing slowly. If you read through the paper at a
normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.

15
9. Ask a friend to read your paper. Offer to proofread a friend's paper if they
will review yours. Having another set of eyes look over your writing will
often spot errors that you would have otherwise missed.
Frequently used proofreading marks:

16
Editing:
Arranging, revising, and preparing a written, audio, or video material for final
production, usually by a party (called an editor) other than the creator of the
material.
The objectives of editing include
(1) Detection and removal of factual, grammatical, and typographical errors,
(2) Clarification of obscure passages,
(3) Elimination of parts not suitable for the targeted audience, and
(4) Proper sequencing to achieve a smooth, unbroken flow of narrative.
Copy editing: This is the stage where you check that what you‘ve written makes
grammatical sense. Is that brilliant idea conveyed in a way that people can actually
understand it? Do your subjects and verbs agree? Is there a consistency of style?
Structural edit: This is critical to your first draft. Does the story make sense? Are the
characters coherent (and necessary)? How‘s the dialogue? Are there consistent
themes throughout the book? How can we improve upon this?
So what are you looking for when you are editing your own work?
Results: The knowledge about the writing and editing will be developed.
Scope of the result: It is prerequisite information for understanding concept
importance of proof-reading.
Cautions:
ii. Improve quality of writing.
Resources for Technical Writers (http://www.techpubs.com/resources.html)

17
Observations:
Frequently used proof-reading mark Importance /role
Results:

18
Sr.
No.
Parameters Marks obtained Max. Marks
procedure/apparatus
20
2 Observations and analysis including learning
outcomes
20
Cleanliness
10
obtained

19
Experiment No. 4
Aim : Presentation of Scientific papers
Material required : Research paper, PPT, Projector, laptop etc
Learning outcome : Students will be able to: Deal with nerves & think more
positively about public speaking. Consider ways of
grabbing the listener's attention, holding their interest,
and concluding strongly. Use body language and tone of
voice to enhance their presentations.
Theory/Principles:
Presentation is the practice of showing and explaining the content of a topic to an
audience or learner. Presentation is also the means of communication which can be
adapted to various speaking situations such as talking to a group, addressing a
meeting or briefing a team.
There are two types of presentations
Poster presentation
Oral presentation
Strategies for creating effective notes include the following:
 Choose a large, readable font;avoid using fancy text fonts or cursive text.
 Use bold text, underlining, or different-colored text to highlight elements of
your speech that you want to emphasize. Don't overdo it, though. Only
highlight the most important elements of your presentation.
 Leave adequate space on your notes to jot down additional thoughts or
observations before and during your presentation. This is also helpful when
writing down your thoughts in response to a question or to remember a
multi-part question [remember to have a pen with you when you give your
presentation].
 Place a cue in the text of your notes to indicate when to move to the next slide,
to click on a link, or to take some other action. If appropriate, include a cue in
your notes if there is a point during your presentation when you want the
audience to refer to a handout.
 Spell out challenging words phonetically and practice saying them ahead of
time. This is particularly important for accurately pronouncing people‘s
names, technical or scientific terminology, or words in a foreign language.
General Outline
I. Introduction
 Capture your listeners’ attention. Begin with a question, an amusing story, a
provocative statement, or anything that will engage your audience and make
them think.

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 State your purpose. For example, "I‘m going to talk about..."; "This morning I
want to explain…."
 Present an outline of your talk. For example, ―I will concentrate on the
following points: First of all…Then…This will lead to…And finally…"
II. The Body
 Present your main points one by one in a logical order.
 Pause at the end of each point. Give people time to take notes, or time to think
about what you are saying.
 Make it clear when you move to another point. For example, ―The next point
is that...‖; ―Of course, we must not forget that...‖; ―However, it's important to
realize that....‖
 Use clear examples to illustrate your points and/or key findings.
 If appropriate, consider using visual aids to make your presentation more
interesting [e.g., a map, chart, picture, link to a video, etc.].
III. The Conclusion
 Leave your audience with a clear summary of everything that you have
covered.
 Don't let the talk just fizzle out. Make it obvious that you have reached the
end of the presentation.
 Summarize the main points again. For example, use phrases like: "So, in
conclusion..."; "To recap the main issues...," "In summary, it is important to
realize...."
 Restate the purpose of your talk, and say that you have achieved your aim:
"My intention was ..., and it should now be clear that...."
 Thank the audience, and invite questions: "Thank you. Are there any
questions?"
Voice to Communicate Clearly
 Speak loudly enough for everyone in the room to hear you. Projecting your
voice may feel uncomfortably loud at first, but if people can't hear you, they
won't try to listen.
 Speak slowly and clearly. Don‘t rush! Speaking fast makes it harder for
people to understand you and signals being nervous.
 Avoid the use of "fillers." Linguists refer to utterances such as um, ah, you
know, like as fillers. They occur most often during transitions from one idea
to another and, if expressed too much, are distracting to an audience. The
better you know your presentation, the better you can control these verbal
tics.
 Vary your voice quality. If you always use the same volume and pitch [for
example, all loud, or all soft, or in a monotone] during your presentation,
your audience will stop listening. Use a higher pitch and volume in your
voice when you begin a new point or when emphasizing the transition to a
new point.

21
 Speakers with accents need to slow down [so do most others]. Non-native
speakers often speak English faster than we slow-mouthed native speakers,
usually because most non-English languages flow more quickly than English.
Slowing down helps the audience to comprehend your talk.
 Slow down for key points. These are also moments in your presentation to
consider using body language, such as hand gestures or leaving the podium
to point to a slide, to help emphasize key points.
 Use pauses. Don't be afraid of short periods of silence. They give you a
chance to gather your thoughts, and your audience an opportunity to think
about what you've said.
Body Language to Communicate
 Stand straight and comfortably. Do not slouch or shuffle about. If you appear
bored or uninterested in what you are talking about, the audience will be as
well. Wear something comfortable. This is not the time to wear an itchy wool
sweater or high heels for the first time.
 Hold your head up. Look around and make eye contact with people in the
audience [or at least pretend to]. Do not just look at your professor or your
notes the whole time! Looking up at your your audience brings them into the
conversation. If you don't include the audience, they won't listen to you.
 When you are talking to your friends, you naturally use your hands, your
facial expression, and your body to add to your communication. Do it in
your presentation as well. It will make things far more interesting for the
audience.
 Don't turn your back on the audience and don't fidget! Neither moving
around nor standing still is wrong. Practice either to make yourself
comfortable. Even when pointing to a slide, don't turn your back; stand at the
side and turn your head towards the audience as you speak.
 Keep your hands out of your pocket. This is a natural habit when speaking.
One hand in your pocket gives the impression of being relaxed, but both
hands in pockets looks too casual and should be avoided.
Characteristics of a good poster:
1. Contain a brief and sticking slogan in bold letters
2. Contain action pictures to compel the attention of the people
3. Tell a complete idea at a glance
4. Have a few pleasing colours preferably 2 or 3 colours
5. It should be simple brief and timely
6. At least 20‖ x 30‖ in size
7. Letter size should not be less than 2 to 2.5 inches and should no be more
than 3 to 3.5 inches
8. Made on poster paper or drawing sheet.
Results:
The knowledge about the ways of grabbing the listener's attention, holding their
interest will be developed.

22
It is pre-requisite information for understanding concept importance of, holding
their interest, and concluding strongly will be developed.
Cautions:
i. Develop proper presenting abilities.
ii. Express proper scientific and technical thoughts in front of different
committees.
Suggested Readings Books:
Observations
Types of presentation Methods Importance
Results

23
Sr.
No.
Max.
Marks
1 Understanding of student
about procedure/apparatus
20
2 Observations and analysis
including learning outcomes
20
10
Signature of Faculty Total marks obtained

24
Experiment No. 5
Aim : Writing of abstract, summaries, citation and précis
Material required : Pen, Paper, Research paper, Review paper etc
Learning outcome : Students will learn to write summaries the scientific
contents To train the ability to independently identify the
different forms of writing
Theory/Principles:
An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major
aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes:
1) The overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you
investigated;
2) The basic design of the study;
3) Major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and,
4) A brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.
The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and
helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper.
Types of Abstracts
There are four general types.
Critical Abstract
A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and
information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or
completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other
works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length
due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used
infrequently.
Descriptive Abstract
A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It
makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of
the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the
purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract
only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline
of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short,
100 words or less.
Informative Abstract
The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or
evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as
a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the
main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An
informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive
abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions
of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies

25
according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300
words in length.
Highlight Abstract
A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader‘s attention to the
study. No show, being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in
fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader‘s interest. In
that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a
true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.
Differences between abstract and summaries
Sr. Abstract Summaries
1 An abstract tells you the point of
the piece, the reason the research
was done. What it was hoping to
measure or test.
A summary tells you the
conclusions to which the research
came
2 Abstract is a brief account of
the research paper. A good abstract
gives you a clear idea of what the
whole document will encompass.
Summary refers to the concluding
part of the work and here the
author will talk about his current
findings
3 Abstract will gain the attention of
the reader at the first instance since
it gives a clear idea of the whole
research paper.
In summary, you have to shorten
something and write about it.
Word limit may or may not be
given. You may even not stick to
the word limit and write
approximately around it.
Citation
All literature cited in the text should: be included in the list of references giving
complete details.
Standard style of literature citation should be followed.
A. Citation in Text
 Citation style of references in the text varies from journal to journal and
therefore consult the guidelines of the journal and go to references cited for
noting style.
 In case of one author, give last name/surname first, year of publication within
parentheses, e.g. Singh (2002).
 In case of two authors, give first the last name of first author followed by last
name of second author, year of publication e.g.Singh and Grover (2002).
 In case of more than two authors give last name of first author followed by et
al. and year of publication e.g. Singh et al. (2002).
 In case the author is referred at more than one place in the same year, number
references as 'a' and 'b' e.g. Singh (2002Sa )........Singh (2002b).

26
B. Citation in Journal
 This must include the name of author(s), followed by year of publication
within parentheses or stops, title of the paper/article, name of the
journal/periodical, volume and number in brackets, and page number. In
case of male authors, initials are used and in case female authors give full
name e.g. Singh, J. and Grover, Indlj. 2002.
 Academic achievement and entrepreneurial performance of undergraduate
students of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, CCSHAU J. Research.
88(3),pp 416-421.
Note: In some journals the name of journal is written in italics.
C. Citation from Book
 Khetarpaul, Neelam and Grover, Indu.2000. A Consumer Guide for Home
Makers. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur, p 40.
 Khetarpaul, Neelam; Katyal, Sudha and Grover, Indu. 2001. Infant Health and
Nutrition. Agrotech Publishing Academy.p 298.
(In this example, total pages of the book have been referred).
D. Citation from an Edited Book
Grover, Indu.,Agarwal, Deepti and Grover, O.K. 2000. Gender perception of
voters towards women and governance. In: Singh Raj (ed.). New Panchayati
Raj: A functional analysis, Anmol Publications Ltd. pp 66-77.
(pp 66-77 indicates that chapter is within these pages).
E. Citation of Seminar/Conference Proceedings
Sinhg, Saroj., Grover, Indu and Grover, O.K. 2001. Participatory role and
adoption of buffalo management practices by rural women in Haryana
(India). In: National Conference on Extension Education for Sustainable
Development, Mumbai, 29-31 December, 2000.Proceedings edited by O.S.
Verma, AK Singh and J.P. Yadav, New Delhi, ISEE. pp 201-222.
F. Citation from Institutional Publication
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi. 1997. General
information on research and development funding schemes of Central
Government departments/agencies, New Delhi. GOI, Ministry of Science and
Technology, Deptt.of Science and Technology, p 135.
G. Citing Government Publications
 India, 2002. Ministry of Human Resource Development. Annual Report. New
Delhi. p 270.
 India. 2001. Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation, Directorate of Economics and Statistics. Indian Agriculture in
Brief. (30th ed.), Delhi. Controller of Publication. p 389.

27
Précis writing
The word ‗precis‘ is derived from French and it means ‗precise‘ a good précis
is a straight forward condensed statement of the salient features, ideas or
information contained in the original passage and it is written in a clear and concise
way in the writing own words. A précis is a summary, andprécis-writing means
summarizing. Precis-writing is an exercise in compression. A précis is the gist or
main theme of a passage expressed in as few words as possible. It should be lucid,
succinct, and full (i.e. including all essential points), so that anyone on reading it
may be able to grasp the main pointsand general effect of the passage summarized.
Forms of conversation
 Précis is lengthier than the abstract
 Follows the exact order of points of the original passage.
 It is a clear statement of base facts without any unnecessary frills.
 In fact précis writing requires writing of the essential facts/ideas in a clear,
exact and concise way.
 In this sense précis is more like original piece of writing.
 As a précis writer, you use your own words to write the gist of the passage.
Skills required
The aim of précis is to present to a busy reader, the main ideas of original passage as
concisely and clearly as possible, in a readable form. In this sense a précis is like an
original piece of writing. Précis writing demands power of judgment and evaluation
as the passage usually contains important ideas and a number of unnecessary words.
Method of procedure
1. Reading.
(a) First read the passage through carefully, but not too slowly, to get a general
idea of its meaning. If one reading is not sufficient to give you this clearly,
read it over again, and yet again. The more you read it, the more familiar will
it become to you, and the clearer will be
(i) Its subject, and
(ii) What is said about that subject? Ask yourself,
What is it I am reading?
What does the author mean?
What is his subject?
What is he saying about it?
Can I put in a few words the pit of what he says?‖
S.
No
Précis Citation
1. A précis of an article is an
abridged, condensed version
of the original article.
A "citation" is the way you tell your
readers that certain material in your
work came from another source.

28
2. Hence, a précis does not
evaluate, provide
interpretation, nor add any
material to the article
It also gives your readers the
information necessary to find that
source again.
3. The goal of a précis is to quite
literally 're-present' the article
in a shortened form
Information about the author, the
title of the work, the name and
location of the company that
published your copy of the source,
the date your copy was published,
the page numbers of the material you
are borrowing
4. Each précis is to be double
spaced, in a standard 12 point
font, and have at least one
inch margins on all four
sides.
citations are extremely helpful to
anyone who wants to find out more
about your ideas and where they
came from
5. Your name and pledge
should appear at the end of
the précis.
citing sources strengthens your work
by lending outside support to your
ideas
6. Maintain the order and
organization of the original
article as much as possible,
Reflect on the author's
purpose, Consider the kinds
of evidence the author uses.
Not all sources are good or right --
your own ideas may often be more
accurate or interesting than those of
your sources. Proper citation will
keep you from taking the rap for
someone else's bad ideas
(b) Usually you are required to supply a title for your precis. This is a good stage
at which to do this. Think of some word, phrase or short sentence that
will sum up briefly the main subject of the passage. The effort to find a
suitable title at this stage will help you to define in your mind what
exactly the subject, or main theme, of the passage is.
(c) Further reading is now necessary to ensure that you understand the details of
the passage as well as its main purport.
(d) You should now be in a position to decide what parts of the passage are
essential and what parts are comparatively unimportant and so can be
omitted without any loss. The best guide, of course, is the subject or main
theme of the passage. If you have a clear and correct idea of that you will soon
see what is important and what is unimportant.
At this stage it is useful to jot down your conclusions in brief notes-
2. Writing.
(a) Rough Drafts – You should now be ready to attempt the writing of the précis;
but be sure of the limits within which it must be compressed. If the number of
words is given you, this is easy;

29
(b) Important Points – The following points must be kept in mind:
(i) The précis should be all in your own words. It must not be a patchwork
made up of phrases and sentences quoted from the original.
(ii) The précis must be a connected whole. It may be divided into sections or
paragraphs, according to changes in the subject – matter, but these must
not appear as separate notes, but must be joined together in such a way
as to read continuously.
(iii) The précis must be complete and self-contained; that is, it must convey
its message fully and clearly without requiring any reference to the
original to complete its meaning.
Summarizing
A summary is a short and concise representation of the main points, ideas, concepts,
facts or statements of a text written in your own words. Unlike a paraphrase, which
is generally of a similar length to the original text, a summary is much shorter.
When either summarizing or paraphrasing, you should not alter:
 the author's original idea(s)
 the degree of certainty with which the ideas are expressed.
How to summaries?
To create / write a good summary, you should read the article or text a number of
times to develop a clear understanding of:
 the author's ideas and intentions
 the meaning and details
 the force with which the ideas are expressed.
Referencing
 Summaries need to be referenced. Whether you have summarised or
paraphrased an author's words, thoughts, ideas etc, a citation to the original
source of the words, thoughts, ideas etc must be provided.
Writing a summary
Use the following steps to write a summary.
1. Write notes in point form using keywords; this will make it easier to express
the ideas in your own words.
2. Write the summary directly from your notes without re-reading the passage.
3. Refer back to the original to ensure that your summary is a true reflection of
the writer's ideas.
Results:
The knowledge about the forms of writing will be developed.
It is prerequisite information for understanding concept importance of abstract,
summaries ,citations.

30
Cautions:
ii. Express proper scientific and technical thoughts infront of different
committees.
What is an Abstract? When do I use it?
An abstract is a condensed overview of a paper that usually includes the purpose of
the paper/research study, the basic design of the study, the major findings, and a
brief summary of your interpretations of the conclusions. Abstracts are usually used
in social science or scientific papers, and are generally 300 words or less.
What is a Summary? When do I use it?
Like an abstract, a summary is just a condensed write-up on the topic discussed in
your paper. However, summaries are more open ended than abstracts, and can
contain much more varied information. They can be included in virtually any type of
paper, and do not have a specific word count limit. Always check with your
instructor for those types of guidelines before handing in your summary and paper.
What is an Annotation? When do I use it?
Annotations, otherwise referred to as annotated bibliographies, are contextual blurbs
that are placed underneath the citation that they refer to within the bibliography of a
paper. Each annotation is usually about 150 words, and is a descriptive
and evaluative paragraph. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of
the relevance, accuracy, and quality of each source cited.
Before including any of these options in your paper, be sure to check with your
instructor about their specifications for your assignment. It might also be beneficial
to run it through a grammar checker in case there are any errors you may have
missed in the abstract, summary, or annotation.
Basis for
comparison
Reference Bibliography
Meaning Reference implies the list of
sources, that has been referred
in the research work.
Bibliography is about listing out all
the materials which has been
consulted during the research work.
Arrangement Alphabetically and
numerically
Alphabetically

31
Basis for
comparison
Reference Bibliography
Includes Only in-text citations that have
been used in the assignment or
project.
Both in-text citations and other
sources that are used to generate the
idea.
Supporting
argument
A reference can be used to
support an argument.
A bibliography cannot be used to
support an argument.
Observations
Types of writing Methods Examples
Results

32
Sr.
No.
Max.
Marks
1 Understanding of student
about procedure/apparatus
20
20
10
obtained

33
Experiment No. 6
Aim : Write a Technical Paper-Research Paper
Material required : Pen, Paper, Research data, etc
knowledge, understanding, capabilities and presenting
their research work and proper documentation.
Theory/Principles:
A research paper is an essay in which you explain what you have learned after
exploring your topic in depth. In a research paper, you include information from
sources such as books, articles, interviews, and Internet sites.
Structure of Research Paper:
 Title of the Research Paper
 Name of the author(s) with designations
 Abstract:
The abstract is what a person always reads first in a technical paper. Based on
the content of the abstract, the reader will decide whether the paper is worthy
enough to merit further study. The abstract should classify your research and
contribution in the research areas. It should contain the following four parts: a
brief introduction describing the discipline that the paper belongs to; a clear
and concise statement of your problem; a brief explanation of your solution
and its key ideas; a brief description of the results obtained and their impacts.
Lastly, provide a short list of index keyword terms.
 Keywords: writing guides, writing technical papers, format guides
 Introduction:
The introduction serves a twofold purpose. Firstly, it gives the background on
and motivation for your research, establishing its importance. Secondly, it
gives a summary and outline of your paper, telling readers what they should
expect to find in it.
 Related Work:
It is important to pay extra attention in writing this section. Similar to the
introduction, the purpose of the related work is twofold. First, it gives a list of
research works that are related to your paper—necessary to show what has
happened in this field. Secondly, it provides a critique of the approaches in
the literature—necessary to establish the contribution and importance of your
paper. Providing a related work section shows that you have done your
―homework
 System Model:

34
In the system model section, you explicitly describe all the hypotheses and
assumptions of the environment on which the problem will be stated. Put
good effort in realizing all explicit and implicit assumptions that you make,
and clearly state them. It is important to provide support for your assumption
choices. The more valid and acceptable your assumptions are the more valid
and acceptable your work will be.
Problem Statements:
Often, this section is merged with the system model. State your problem clearly. Be
as exact as possible into stating what the question of the problem is. It reflects poorly
upon an author if he cannot describe or does not know what problem his solution
addresses. But most importantly, it will be easier for successive researchers to
classify your work.
Solution:
You should begin this section by providing an overview of your solution. Give a
good explanation of its rationale, concepts and mechanisms. If your solution relies
on a theorem or some other undocumented concept, make sure that you explain
them before you carry on to the detailed description. The main part of this section is
the thorough description of the solution and its functionality. The description should
not contain arguments on correctness or design decision debates; simply, describe
the mechanisms of your solution and avoid explanations of the ―why so‖ type.
Dedicate a separate paragraph or two on the latter, if you deem necessary.
Disassemble your solution to its functional components and explain them separately.
For example, if you describe a distributed algorithm, explain the protocol-specific
part (message format, etc.) separately from the semantics and decision-making part
of the algorithm. It is both important and useful to provide figures demonstrating
the functionality of your solution. Make the figures look similar to the system model
figure, if applicable, and exploit the similarities and differences to point out
important aspects of your solution.
Analysis:
Analysis can be of two types: qualitative and quantitative. The former means to
show some properties (qualities) of your solution, while the latter means to show
some performance aspects of your solution. Qualitative analysis is usually proof of
correctness; however it could be proof that the solution possesses some desired
property. For algorithms or protocols, a proof of correctness is always welcome.
Quantitative analysis is mostly performance analysis. It is important to explain what
performance metric you use and why you have selected the specific metric.

35
Choosing a metric that has been widely used will make the comparison to other
solutions easier.
Conclusions:
The conclusions section, similar to the introduction and related work sections, serves
two purposes. The first is to elaborate on the impacts of using your approach. The
second is to state limitations or disadvantages of your solution, thus enabling you to
provide directions for future research in the field.
Bibliography:
Use a bibliography utility to generate the bibliography. Do not hesitate to include
textbooks in your bibliography; mention them in the introduction or in the related
work section.
Writing a Review Paper:
Most graduate students will need and benefit by writing a review paper on their
subject matter central to their thesis topic. Doing so will benefit you in writing
introduction and discussion sections of papers, help you ace your comprehensive
exams, and most importantly, give you a solid understanding of how your proposed
research fits in to what the scientific community has already done.
When writing the review paper, keep these objectives in mind:
1. Refine your skills at critically evaluating scientific papers in a historical
context
2. Become familiar with using reference databases in libraries
3. Develop scientific writing skills
4. Gain expertise in an area of freshwater ecology
Writing a review is a big job and requires some breakdown of the tasks. Below are
4 components to writing a review.
1. Your topic: Keeps you on track. Prepare a 1-2 sentence objective/description.
2. Annotated bibliography: An annotated bibliography is a list of peer-
reviewed scientific papers that you are considering reviewing in your paper
and a short summary (like an abstract) of findings relative to review.
3. Outline: The outline will help me provide constructive feedback on your
review and will hopefully make writing the final version of the term paper
easier. The outline of your paper is meant to help organize your thoughts
about your review. Consider the outline as a skeleton of your paper. An
outline should include a bulleted list of topics. These topics should be ordered
logically and hierarchically. Each of topics should contain your claim (the

36
major headers). Do not go into great detail for any of your major headers; just
write one sentence per idea? More importantly you and I must understand
the intent of the section/paragraph breakdown. What point do you want to
make? A description of what you will support those claims. Some techniques
to achieve this include figures, tables, and verbal descriptions of data (no need
to include actual figures)
Results: The knowledge about the research and review writing will be developed.
Scope of the result: It is prerequisite information for understanding concept
importance of writing.
Cautions:
ii. Express proper scientific and technical thoughts in front of different committees.
Klariti.com:TechnicalWriting (http://www.klariti.com/technical-writing/index.shtml)
Observations
Types of writing Methods Examples
Results:

37
Sr.
No.
Parameters
Marks
obtained
Max. Marks
procedure/apparatus
20
learning outcomes
20
3 Completion of experiments, Disciplines
and Cleanliness
10
obtained

38
Experiment No. 7
Aim : Study on Preparation of manual
Material required : Pen, Paper, etc
knowledge, understanding, capabilities and resenting
their practical knowledge and its applications
Theory/Principles:
A manual is defined as book of information or instruction. It is generally perceived
as publication that is shorter than a ‗book‘ in the accepted sense, and produced with
plastic comb/coil binding or in ring binders. In this context of this particular
publication the term ‗manual‘ refers to:
 Training manuals
 Staff instruction manuals
 Policy & procedures manuals
 General ‗how to‘ manuals
 Reference manuals
 Technical manuals
 Operation manuals
 User guides
Commencing to write a manual without a clear plan to follow can be likened to
driving to an unfamiliar destination without a roadmap.
Benefits of planning:
The importance of planning the text cannot be over emphasized. Effective planning
produces the benefits as follows:
Step No. 1: Define the subject:
You must first get the message clear in your own mind. You must also know the
purpose of the message. So the initial step in the planning phase is to define the
subject.
Step No.2: Identify the chapter heading:
Having established the subject definition, the next step is to compile a list of the
main subjects you intend to cover. These will be the chapter headings. Don‘t try to
arrange them in order at this stage, just concentrate on getting the heading down on
paper. When this exercise has been completed, carefully review the list and make
sure you not overlooked any particular main item.
Step No.3: Organize the chapter sequence:
After the initial list has been completed, rearrange these headings into logical
sequence. It usually necessary to rearrange the list of several times. When you are

39
satisfied with the list, write each chapter heading on a new page, leaving a wide
margin on the left hand side.
Step No.4: Develop the chapter topics:
Take any chapter sheet, and list all the topics, thoughts and ideas you intended to
cover in that particular chapter. At this stage you may find it necessary to further
rearrange the chapter; perhaps combining several and/or developing others. This
process is an excellent thought-stimulator and invariably you will find additional
points coming to mind that were initially overlooked.
Step No. 5: Arrange the chapter topics in logical sequence:
Review each list of topics and rearrange them so the information flows through each
chapter in the right order. Again it may be necessary to amalgamate topics or move
them to other chapters.
Step No. 6: organize the reference material:
When researching and planning a publication, most writers collect a mass of
reference material in the form of notes, articles, photocopied references and other
assorted information. This material should be organized into the same subjects as the
chapter heading and then filed in separate files. In an appropriate system that
facilitates easy retrieval. List any additional references that may be required, and
take the necessary action to obtain this material.
Step No.7: Select a working title:
It is important to give some thought to the title during the planning process. The best
way to develop a tile is to write down all the possibilities and select one that seems
to be appropriate. Regard this as a working title because you may change it several
times as you progress through the manuscript.
Step No. 8: Set a writing target:
There are many people who intend to write a book or manual, but the manuscript
never becomes a reality, because it is easy to procrastinate. Because writing reports
and manuals and from discussions with other successful authors. The best way of
avoiding the procrastination problem is to set a daily writing target-setting your
mind to writing a certain number of works each and every day until the manuscript
is finished.
Step No. 9: Obtain an international standard book number (ISBN) (optional):
Most publications to be widely distributed in the public arena carry an International
Standard Book Number (ISBN), which is shown on the copyright page. This number
is not a legal requirement but provides the advantages of clearly identifying a
particular publication, and having it included in the Australian National
Bibliography (published annually). Both these bibliographies are used extensively by
libraries for ordering purpose and by individuals and organizations for research and
to locate publications on particular subjects.

40
Results:
It is prerequisite information for understanding concept importance of technical and
scientific writing.
Cautions:
committees.
Observations
Types of group discussion Importance/uses
Results

41
Sr.
No.
Max.
Marks
procedure/apparatus
20
learning outcomes
20
Cleanliness
10
obtained

42
Experiment No. 8
Aim : To perform Group discussion exercises
Material required : Pen, Paper, Research data, Research papers etc
the context of the Dissertation/thesis.
Theory/Principles:
Group discussion can be defined as a group activity as a where number of people
meettogether and try to understand and solve the particular problems which are
more common to them. Discussion can thus be considered as an organized exchange
of new information. Discussion helps in knowing, view and removing
misunderstanding in the member. In this the decision are taken in group to which
every member is responsible. Group-discussion aim at collective decision making
and at improving individual decision making by using the knowledge and
experience of group members. The group process enhances people participation and
facilitates program implementation. It also develops capability of the people to face
challenge and adverse situations.
Planning:
i. Decide on the topic to be discussed and the persons to be involved.
ii. Collect relevant information. Contact research if required.
iii. May request resource persons and subject matter specialists to participate.
Implementation:
i. Start the discussion on the scheduled date and time.
ii. Introduce the topic to the group and initiate discussion.
iii. Allow the members to talk and interact.
iv. Facilitate the discussion by further explaining the points already made and
giving new points if required.
v. Encourages the less vocal members to participate in the discussion.
vi. Assist the group to take decisions and make a record of important decisions.
vii. Keep the discussion friendly and informal and Allow the group to discuss.
viii. Leader‘s opinion must be dominated. Don‘t discourage the speaker.
ix. Hear, what he thinks about a particular problem.
x. Guide the discussion group towards action for taking decision.
xi. Use visual method for method for presenting facts.
Advantages:
i. Knowledge and experience are shared.
ii. Thinking is clarified and systematized.

43
iii. Misunderstandings are avoided.
iv. Healthy group spirit is stimulated as it is social event.
v. Planning and implementation are made easy.
Limitations:
i. Requires understanding of group dynamics and skill of the extension agents.
ii. Group members must have some self-discipline.
iii. A slow process and may not be suitable in crises and emergency situations.
Type of the discussion:
i. Small group discussion.
ii. Panel discussion.
iii. Symposium.
iv. Workshop.
v. Conference.
vi. Forum.
vii. Syndicate
vii. Case study
viii. Brainstorming
Results:
The knowledge about group activity will be developed.
It is prerequisite information for understanding concept importance of group
discussion.
Cautions:
i. Develop proper listing ability
ii. Organized proper thoughts infront of members.
Suggested Readings: Web links:
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5529341/
https://www.graduatesfirst.com/assessment-day/group-discussion-exercises/
https://www.assessmentcentrehq.com/assessment-centre-exercises/group-
exercise-tips

44
Observations
Types of group discussion Importance/uses
Results

45
Sr. No. Parameters Marks obtained
Max.
Marks
1
Understanding of student about
procedure/apparatus
20
2
Observations and analysis including
learning outcomes
20
3
Completion of experiments, Disciplines
and Cleanliness
10
obtained

46
Experiment No. 9
Aim : Study on how to faced Interview
Material required : Pen, Paper, etc
the exploring/ presenting themselves to the world
Theory/Principles :
The word interview comes from Latin and middle French words meaning to ―see
between‖ or ―see each other‖. Generally, interview means a private meeting between
people when questions are asked and answered. The person who answers the
questions of an interview is called in interviewer. The person who asks the questions
of our interview is called an interviewer. It suggests a meeting between two persons
for the purpose of getting a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we
normally think of an interview, we think a setting in which an employer tries to size
up an applicant for a job.
According to Dr. S. M. Amunuzzaman, ―Interview is a very systematic method by
which a person enters deeply into the life of even a stranger and can bring out
needed information and data for the research purpose.”
Types of interviews:
There are many types of interviews that an organization can arrange. It depends on
the objectives of taking the interview. Some important types of interviews are stated
below:
1. Personal interviews: Personal interviews include:
2. Promotion of the employees:
3. Retirement and resignation of the employees: Of course, this type of interview
is designed to obtain information through discussion and observation about
how well the interviewer will perform on the job.
2. Evaluation interviews: The interviews which take place annually to review
the progress of the interviewee are called the evaluation interviews.
Naturally, it is occurring between superiors and subordinates. The main
objective of this interview is to find out the strengths and weaknesses of the
employees.
3. Persuasive interviews: This type of interview is designed to sell someone a
product or an idea. When a sales representative talk with a target buyer,
persuasion takes the form of convincing the target that the product or idea
meets a need.
4. Structured interviews: Structured interviews tend to follow formal
procedures; the interviewer follows a predetermined agenda or questions.
5. Unstructured interviews: When the interview does not follow the formal
rules or procedures. It is called an unstructured interview. The discussion will

47
probably be free flowing and may shift rapidly form on subject to another
depending on the interests of the interviewee and the interviewer.
6. Counseling interviews: This may be held to find out what has been troubling
the workers and why someone has not been working.
7. Disciplinary interviews: Disciplinary interviews are occurring when an
employee has been accused of breaching the organization‘s rules and
procedures.
8. Stress interviews: It is designed to place the interviewee in a stress situation
in order to observe the interviewees reaction.
9. Public interviews: These include political parties‘ radio-television and
newspaper.
10. Informal or conversational interview: In the conversational interview, no
predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable
a possible to the interviewee‘s nature and priorities; during the interview the
interviewer ―goes with the flow‖.
11. General interview guide approach: The guide approach is intended to ensure
that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee
this provides more focus than the conversational approach but still allows a
degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the
interviewee.
12. Standardized or open-ended interview: Here the same open-ended questions
are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews faster
interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.
13. Closed or fixed-response interview: It is an interview where all interviewers
ask the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set
of alternatives. This formal is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
Key Points for an interview
 Smile!
 Be prepared to shake hands firmly, similarly a "wet fish" (weak) handshake
will suggest a weak character.
 Wait to be invited to sit down.
 Try to relax - don‘t sit on the edge of your chair and don't lean too far back: sit
up reasonably straight and still.
 Don't sit with your arms crossed
 Keep up good eye contact with the interviewer (according to research this
apparently is especially important for men) but don't eyeball them all the
time!
 Speak clearly but not too fast: a deeper calm voice suggests authority,
whereas as excitable high-pitched voice suggests a nervous personality.

48
 Head nodding to show agreement can help, especially for female candidates.
 Postural echo (mirroring the interviewer's posture) can show empathy and
agreement but needs to be done very subtly or it might backfire if the
interviewer notices that you are doing this!
Results:
It is prerequisite information for understanding concept importance of technical and
scientific writing.
Cautions:
committees.
Observations
Strength Weakness
Results

49
Sr. No. Parameters Marks obtained Max. Marks
procedure/apparatus
20
20
10
obtained

50
Experiment No.10
Aim : Study tenses and its usage
Material required : Pen, Paper, etc.
Learning outcome : Distinguish between three types of tenses Explain
common verb tense errors.
Understand the correct use of subject-verb agreement.
Understand the importance of punctuation marks.
Effective use of tenses while writing and speaking
Theory/Principles:
The word tense is derived from Latin word ―tempus‖ which means time. A verb
indicates the time of an action event and condition by changing its form.
The tenses may be categorized according to the time frame :
a. Present tense
b. Past tense
c. Future tense
Present tense: Present tense represents an unchanging, repeated, reoccurring
situation that exist only now. E.g.: He goes to school.
Past tense: Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished
in the past. E.g.: We went to school.
Future tense: Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the
future E.g.: We will go to school.
Each of these tenses are further subdivided into four types like
1. The Present Tense:
(a) Simple Present Tense
(b) Present Continuous Tense
(c) Present Perfect Tense
(d) Present Perfect Continuous Tense
2. The Past Tense:
(a) Simple Past Tense
(b) Past Continuous Tense
(c) Past Perfect Tense
(d) Past Perfect Continuous Tense
3. The Future Tense:
(a) Simple Future Tense
(b) Future Continuous Tense
(c) Future Perfect Tense
(d) Future Perfect Continuous Tense

51

52
Subject verb Agreement:
Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).
Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its
verb must also be plural. In the present tense, nouns and verbs form plurals in
opposite ways: nouns ADD an ―s‖ to the singular form; verbs REMOVE the ―s‖ from
the singular form.
Rules of Subject verb agreement:
Basic Rule: A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines),
whereas a plural subject takes a plural verb.
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.
Rule 1: A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for
understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-
verb mistakes. Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-
common mistake in the following sentence:
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lendcolor and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)
Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a
singular verb.
Examples:
My aunt or my uncleis arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmenis available.
Either Kiana or Caseyis helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3: The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or
pronoun closest to it.
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowlgoes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if is one of two (or more)
subjects, it could lead to this odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

53
Rule 4: As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are
connected by and.
Example:A car and a bikeare my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:
Exceptions:
Breaking and enteringis against the law.
The bed and breakfastwas charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
Rule 5a: Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along
with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject.
Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 5b: Parentheses are not part of the subject.
Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.
Rule 6: In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
Note: The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences
like There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are."
Take care never to use there's with a plural subject.
Rule 7: Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc.,
when considered as a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
Rule 8: With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1
given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the
noun after of is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

54
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pieshave disappeared.
A third of the cityis unemployed.
A third of the peopleare unemployed.
All of the pieis gone.
All of the piesare gone.
Some of the pieis missing.
Some of the piesare missing.
Rule 9:Withcollective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb
might be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.
Examples:
All of my familyhas arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the juryis here OR are here.
A third of the populationwas not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.
Consistent:The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding
sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.
Rule 10:The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary
to fact:
Example:If Joe were here, you'd be sorry..
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.
Parts of speech:
In grammar there are 8 parts of speech:
1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Verb
4. Adverb
5. Adjective
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection

55
NOUN - (Naming word)
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea.
Examples of nouns: Daniel, London, table, dog, teacher, pen, city, happiness, hope
Example sentences: Steve lives in Sydney. Mary uses pen and paper to write letters.
Learn more about the different types of nouns.
PRONOUN - (Replaces a Noun)
A pronoun is used in place of a noun or noun phrase to avoid repetition.
Examples of pronouns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it, me, us, them, him, her, this, those
Example sentences: Mary is tired. She wants to sleep. I want her to dance with me.
ADJECTIVE - (Describing word)
An adjective describes, modifies or gives more information about a noun or
pronoun.
Examples: big, happy, green, young, fun, crazy, three
Example sentences: The little girl had a pink hat.
VERB - (Action Word)
A verb shows an action or state of being. A verb shows what someone or something
is doing.
Examples: go, speak, run, eat, play, live, walk, have, like, are, is
Example sentences: I like Woodward English. I study their charts and play their
games.
ADVERB - (Describes a verb)
An adverb describes/modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It tells how,
where, when, how often or to what extent. Many adverbs end in -LY
Examples: slowly, quietly, very, always, never, too, well, tomorrow, here
Example sentences: I am usually busy. Yesterday, I ate my lunch quickly.
PREPOSITION - (Shows relationship)
A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. They
can indicate time, place, or relationship.
Examples: at, on, in, from, with, near, between, about, under
Example sentences: I left my keys on the table for you.
CONJUNCTION - (Joining word)
A conjunction joins two words, ideas, phrases or clauses together in a sentence and
shows how they are connected.
Examples: and, or, but, because, so, yet, unless, since, if.
Example sentences: I was hot and exhausted but I still finished the marathon.
INTERJECTION - (Expressive word)
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or emotion. It is a
short exclamation.
Examples: Ouch! Wow! Great! Help! Oh! Hey! Hi!
Example sentences: Wow! I passed my English test. Great! – Ouch! That hurt.

56
Clause
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”
For example: he laughed.
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an
independent sentence) which has both subject and predicate.
Example: I will meet him in office
The part of above sentence ―I will meet him‖ is a clause because it has a subject (I)
anda predicate (will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence
―in office‖ lacks both subject and predicate (verb) such group of word is called
phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a
sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.
Examples.
• He is sleeping. (one clause)
• The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause)
• The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses)
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, (three clauses)
because he wants to become a doctor.
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and
subordinate clause (also called dependent clauses).
Types of Clauses
There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate
(or dependent) clause.
Main Clause and Subordinate Clause – Comparison
He is buying a shirt which looks very nice. The above sentence has two clauses ―He
is buying a shirt‖ and ―which looks very nice‖. The clause ―He is buying a shirt‖
expresses a complete thought and can alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is
called main or independent clause.
Subordinate or dependent clause.
While the clause ―which looks very nice‖ does not express a complete thought and
can‘t stand as a sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express
complete idea. Such a clause is called subordinate or dependent clause.

57
Punctuation is the name for marks used in writing. They are to help understanding
and correct reading. These are some common punctuation marks used in English:
 . is a period or full stop
 , is a comma
 ? is a question mark
 ! is an exclamation mark
 ' is an apostrophe
 " is a quotation mark/inverted comma
 : is a colon
 ; is a semicolon
 ... is an ellipsis
 - is a hyphen
 – is a n-dash
 — is an m-dash
Observations: Write about the first time you engaged in your driving lessons in
about 150 words
Results

58
Sr. No. Parameters Marks obtained Max. Marks
procedure/apparatus
20
20
10
obtained

59
Experiment No. 11
Aim : To study collocations and Phonetics
Material required : Pen, Paper
Learning outcomes :
 To use a variety of strategies for decoding words and
pronouncing it correctly
 To improve fluency and accent
 To recognize the sounds properly
 To understand how to use vocabulary words in a
sentence correctly
Theory/Principles:
A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just
sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other
hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound "wrong".
Importance of learning collocation
 Improve language use
 Use native like expressions
 Express your ideas with greater power
 Improve writing sophistication
 Further develop your language proficiency
 English collocations with the word BIG
The word big is often used in collocations with a happening or event, for example:
 a big accomplishment
 a big decision
 a big disappointment
 a big failure
 a big improvement
 a big mistake
 a big surprise
The word great is often used in collocations with feelings or qualities.
Great + feelings
 great admiration
 great anger
 great enjoyment
 great excitement
 great fun
 great happiness
 great joy

60
The word large is often used in collocations involving numbers and measurements.
 a large amount
 a large collection
 a large number (of)
 a large population
 a large proportion
 a large quantity
 a large scale
The word strong is often used in collocations with facts and opinions:
Strong + facts/opinions
 strong argument
 strong emphasis
 strong evidence
 a strong contrast
 a strong commitment
 strong criticism
 strong denial
 a strong feeling
 a strong opinion (about something)
 strong resistance
The word deep is used for some strong feelings:
 deep depression
 deep devotion
It is also used in these expressions:
 in deep thought
 in deep trouble
 in a deep sleep (when the person won‘t wake up easily)
Heavy is used for some weather conditions…
 heavy rain
 heavy snow
 heavy fog
The word heavy is also used for people with bad habits:
 a heavy drinker
 a heavy smoker
 a heavy drug user
There‘s also the expression ―a heavy sleeper‖ – that‘s not someone who sleeps a lot;
instead, it‘s a person who doesn‘t wake up easily when sleeping. The word heavy is
also used in collocations with two unpleasant things: TRAFFIC and TAXES!
 heavy traffic
 heavy taxes

61
Phonetics: Definition of phonetics
The system of speech sounds of a language or group of languages
The study and systematic classification of the sounds made in spoken utterance
The practical application of this science to language study
Phonetic Chart for consonants and vowels:

62

63
Worksheet of the students
Date of performance Registration no.
Write the phonetic transcription for the following list of words:
Far
Meat
Get
Pole
Want
Find
Rough
Chirp
Sound
Bash
Sheep
Hip
Sun
Laugh
chips
smoke
flout
when
tax
aches
boil
Results

64

65
Experiment No. 12
Aim : Commonly used abbreviations in the research
communications;
Material required : Pen, Paper, Research paper, laptop etc
Learning outcome :
 Students will learn to improve their vocabulary.
 Students learn to save time, effort or space.
 Ensure correct punctuation.
Theory/Principles:
An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or
phrase, used to represent a longer, often-used word or phrase.
An abbreviation, is a shortened form of a word. In writing, abbreviations are useful when
you need to squeeze a lot of writing into a small space. You can also use them in place of
long or cumbersome phrases to make your sentences easier to read.
One thing to remember about abbreviations is that certain ones are considered
informal. If you are writing something very formal, it‘s better to clear on the side of
spelling things out. The other thing to remember is that some readers may not know
what an abbreviation means. If the abbreviation is obscure or unfamiliar, make sure
to explain what it means the first time you use it.
Abbreviations/initialisms (and their subset acronyms, which are pronounced as a
word, not spoken as each letter) are used as a shortcut instead of spelling out every
single word of a name (e.g., UNICEF).
If the abbreviation is a common one such as PC or AP, the writer should also provide
the context so your readers know, for example, whether you mean ―personal
computer‖ or ―politically correct‖ for PC, or ―Associated Press‖ or ―Advanced
Placement‖ for PC — or any one of hundreds of other definitions.
Why we use abbreviations:
Abbreviation is too useful now-a-days specially for mind tracking or learning
difficulties. Much of the short form u remembers and knows it full forms with
meaning the more u are aware with English.
We commonly use it to make the language easier and shorten our speach patterns
(my thoughts).

66
To save time:
If you need to convey a message within a limited period of time, you want to use the
fewest words possible and abbreviate when necessary.
To save space:
Most (if not all) web forms are limited to x amount of characters and it‘s sometimes
necessary to abbreviate in order to type all that needs to be said.
The Power of Abbreviations
The use of abbreviations
We often reduce frequently-used short phrases or word sets, usually to their initial
letters (these are also called 'initialisms'). Abbreviations can also be simple
shortening of individual words or word groups, such as 'Mr' for 'Mister' or 'etc' for
'et cetera'.
Abbreviation, and particularly initialism, is useful in making word sets easier and
quicker to remember, write and say.
Common subjects for initial abbreviations include:
 Organizations - eg. FBI, UN
 Chat phrases - eg. LOL, BTW
 Business items - eg. KPI, BCG
 Other things - eg. ABS, SCSI
When is it appropriate to use abbreviations?
To maximize clarity, APA prefers that authors use abbreviations sparingly.
Although abbreviations are sometimes useful for long, technical terms in scientific
writing, communication is usually garbled rather than clarified if, for example, an
abbreviation is unfamiliar to the reader.
Some abbreviations may not be in the dictionary but appear frequently in the journal
for which you are writing. Although probably well understood by many readers,
these abbreviations should still be explained when first used
 Latin Abbreviations
 There are a small handful of abbreviations for Latin terms that are used (and
misused) frequently in English writing. Use periods with these abbreviations.
 e.g.: exempli gratia It means ―for example.‖ Use e.g. when you want to
provide specific examples of a generalization.
 We expect volunteers from many surrounding cities, (e.g., Springfield,
Oakdale, Hogsmeade.)
 i.e.: id est It means ―that is.‖ Use i.e. when you want to provide more specific
information about something you mentioned.

67
 After a reasonable amount of time has passed—i.e. two business days—please
report the missing shipment to our customer service department.
 etc.: et cetera It means ―and so forth.‖ Use it when you‘re providing a partial
list of details.
 You should see the doctor when you have flu-like symptoms (fever, chills,
etc.)
 Other Common Abbreviations
 Below are a few other abbreviations that are common in English. Remember
that abbreviations are not always completely standardized. One style guide
may advise you to abbreviate Thursday as Thurs. while another may argue
for Thu. Likewise, some style guides allow you to omit the periods with these
abbreviations, but it‘s never wrong to include periods. So if you aren‘t sure
whether to use the periods, err on the side of leaving them in.
 Times and dates
 a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon p.m. (post meridiem) = after noon
 The mall opens at 10 a.m. and closes at 8 p.m.
 Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, Jun., Jul., Aug., Sep., Oct., Nov., Dec.
 I was born on Nov. 6, 1980.
 Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat,. Sun.
 The class will run Mon.-Fri. next week.
 Places
 U.S. (United States) U.K. (United Kingdom) E.U. (European Union) U.A.E.
(United Arab Emerates)
 The U.S. highway system seems enormous to visitors from the U.K.
 Units of Measurement
 in. (inches) ft. (feet) lbs. (pounds)
 mm. (millimeters) cm. (centimeters) m. (meters)
 mg. (milligram) g. (gram) kg. (kilogram)
 My cat weighs 10 lbs., which is about 4.5 kg.
Abbreviations used in Statistics
m = mu = population mean
s = small sigma = population standard deviation
S = capital sigma = summation of
0 = sample mean
s = sample standard deviation
t = t value (from t distribution)
z = z-score or standard score
SD = standard deviation
CVar = coefficient of variation

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