Remember me and also my parents in your pray friends

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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

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Urban Engineering
Definition
“Urban engineering can more properly be described as the branch of engineering that
covers all the civil and environmental engineering services related to the range of complex
problems associated with infrastructure, services, buildings, environmental and land-use
issues generally encountered in urban areas.”
Urban engineers provide physical definition of the urban habitat, by planning, designing,
building/constructing, operating and maintaining the infrastructure including buildings and
roads. This infrastructure, on one hand, facilitates the social and economic interactions
within the urban habitat through ubiquitous transportation and communication systems.
On the other hand, it also directly affects physical health and ecological balance within
the urban system through the provision of drinking water, air quality and waste treatment.
Geological Considerations Before Installing Ground
Source Heat Pump Systems
As the GSHP systems have relatively high installation costs, it is important that geological
data and knowledge is available so that costs can be minimized. Furthermore, detailed
geological information like surface and sub-surface temperature, thermal properties of the
soil, water table, flow direction and type of soil etc. is also required for efficient design of
the system. GSHPs can be installed at virtually any location, but the type of system, open
or closed loop; the choice of ground collector loop, horizontal or vertical and the size of
the loop all depend on local geological conditions.

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Geological Factors Affecting Ground Source Heat
Pumps Installation
 Thermal Properties of the Ground
o Thermal Conductivity
o Thermal Diffusivity
 Temperature
 Ground Water
 Ground Conditions and Geotechnical Properties
Thermal Properties of the Ground
This is the rate at which heat can be transferred to the pipes from the ground or from the
pipes to the ground. This can be determined by finding the thermal conductivity and
diffusivity of the ground.
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal Conductivity is the capacity of the material to conduct heat. Thermal
conductivity is evaluated in terms of the Fourier's Law for heat conduction. Heat transfer
occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high
thermal conductivity. Materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation
while materials of high thermal conductivity are used in heat sink applications.
Thermal conductivity decreases with increase in porosity of the soil/rock but the amount
of variation is different for different types of material. Generally, thermal conductivity and
specific heat are increased for saturated rocks.
Thermal Diffusivity
Thermal Diffusivity is the rate at which heat is transferred through a medium. It measures
the rate of transfer of heat of a material from the hot side to the cold side. It has the SI
derived unit of m²/s.
The level of water saturation has a significant impact on the thermal conductivity of the
ground. Generally, thermal diffusivity is enhanced for saturated rocks.
Temperature
At depths of about 15m in the ground, the temperature is approximately constant and
equal to the mean annual air temperature of that area. If the location and height of an
area is know, its mean annual air temperature can also be estimated.
The ground absorbs the heat and transmits it down through thermal diffusivity. At times
of minimum air temperature ground temperatures are generally slightly higher and at
times of maximum air temperatures ground temperatures are lower. This effect is what is

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utilized for the heating and cooling functionality of the GSHP. A glimpse of this
phenomena is also observed in basements/cellars in the buildings, which are relatively
cooler in summer and warmer in winters.
Ground Water
Thermal properties of the ground are clearly affected by its saturation level hence, it can
easily affect the efficiency of ground source heat pumps, especially closed loop systems.
Poor quality groundwater can also be an issue, as high total dissolved solids contents,
particularly high chloride and sulphate ion concentrations, can be corrosive to some
casing materials.
When the collector loop is below the water table in an aquifer with significant groundwater
flow, heat transport away from the site will occur. This can take away the warmth or coolth
away from the heat exchanger and bring new cooler or warmer water respectively as may
be required. But thermal interference like this is not constant, unpredictable and even
immeasurable in many cases and can also cause problems in the working of the ground
source heat pumps.
Ground Conditions and Geotechnical Properties
When a GSHP system is installed following ground engineering aspects need to be
considered to confirm soil suitability for GSHP:
 The thickness and the nature of any superficial deposits
 The depth of any weathered bedrock geology
 The strength of the bedrock geology and
 Any hazardous ground conditions.
It is vital that these aspects are assessed to ensure that the appropriate GSHP installation
is designed, the correct method of installation is used (drilling or trenching) and hence the
installation is appropriately costed.

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Geological Factors Affecting Ground Source Heat Pump Installation.
Soil Suitability for Geothermal Heat Pumps (Closed-
Loop Horizontal Residential)
Ground Source Heat Pumps Definition

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Ground source heat pump systems provide a viable alternative to conventional heating and cooling
systems in the move towards sustainable building solutions. The most important factor for
successful operation of a ground loop heat system is the rate of heat transfer between the pipe and
surrounding soil.
Soil Suitability Criteria
To study soil and understand the soil heat absorption and energy release, the evaluation criteria
include:
1. Depth to Bedrock
2. Depth to Denser Materials
3. Depth to Water Table
4. Flooding Frequency
5. Soil Moisture Content
Soil Suitability Criteria for Closed Loop Horizontal Residential Geothermal Heat Pumps
1. Depth to Bedrock
It is the depth from the soil surface to the bedrock. Soil having bedrock closer to the surface are
less suitable for geothermal heat pumps as the cost of installation in rocky areas will be severely
high.
2. Depth to Densic Material
Densic materials are formed from dense glacial till and have very high bulk densities that impede
or restrict the movement of water vertically through the soil profile. The densic material have
higher thermal conductivity and when dug it becomes loosened drawing water, which further
increases its conductivity. Hence, soils having densic materials near to the surface may be suitable
for geothermal pumps installation. It must also be kept in mind that installation costs may increase
due to the less ease of digging in this type of soil.

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3. Depth to Water Table
It is the depth from the soil surface to a saturated zone in the zone in the soil. The presence of
water facilitates the absorption of heat from the water running in the geothermal heat pump pipes
and makes it cooler. Hence, soils having a higher water table may be suitable for installation of a
GSHP.
4. Flooding Frequency
Soils with a very rare flooding frequency or none are suitable for geothermal heat pumps.
5. Soil Moisture Content
The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil. As per experiments, it
has been observed that soils having a higher moisture content may be more suitable for installation
of GSHP because they have lower thermal resistivity. A drier soil has increased thermal resistivity.
Hence, a saturated soil is more suitable for this purpose.
Soil Suitability Rating
Suitability of soils can be rated as follows:
1. High suitability (No soil limitations)
2. Moderate Suitability (One or more moderate soil limitations)
3. Low Suitability (One or more severe limitations)
4. Not Suitable
Techniques for Sewer Condition Assessment

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 Zoom cameras
 Closed-circuit television
 Digital scanners
 Laser profilers
 Remote sensing diagnostic techniques
Zoom cameras
 Cost and time saving preliminary inspections
 Main premise is that most of sewer problems occur at or near maintenance holes
 Provide good quality imagery up to 20-75 m pipe length
 Able to survey 150 to 1525 mm diameter sewers
 Colour videos and digital images saved on optical storage devices
Closed-circuit television (CCTV)
 Most widely used technology for sewers in past 35 years
 Depend on expertise, alertness and judgment of field technicians or camera operators for
identification and classification of defects
 Advances in coloured image enhancements, pan-and-tilt camera heads, steerable crawler
systems
 A video camera along with a lighting unit mounted on a crawler
 A cable drum with a counter to measure distance inside sewers connects camera to the
surface
 A computerized control unit for controlling camera, lighting, and crawler movement
usually hosted in a van accompanies the CCTV system
Digital scanners
Flash Cameras
 Two high resolution cameras with 186 degrees wide-angle lenses are integrated at the front
and rear ends of the system
 Hemispherical digital images are put together to form a 360-degree spherical image
 Defects and objects can be measured on unfolded images
 Camera works in pipes of dia 200mm & up, operates at a speed of 20 metres per minute
Laser Profiler
 Employed in combination with CCTV camera to determine internal condition and
measurement of defects and other features for sewers

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 A ring of laser light is projected onto the internal pipe surface, and laser image is captured
by the CCTV camera
 Ring of light is analyzed using the laser profiler software and digital profile of pipe is
produced.
Factors Affecting Selection of UUL Technologies
Every underground utility locating technology has its own limitations. There is no single
technology that can be used for every type of utility, soil type, and site. Many factors, including
characteristics of expected underground utilities, geological conditions at the site, environmental
and social factors, and experience of the operators should be considered as criteria for the
appropriate selection of technologies.
1. Type of Surveyed Utility
2. Material of Surveyed Utility

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3. Depth of Surveyed Utility
4. Internal Condition of Surveyed Utility
5. Access to Surveyed Utility
6. Type of Soil at Survey Site
7. Ground Surface Cover of the Survey Site
8. Utility Density at the Survey Site
1. Experience and Knowledge of the
Type of Surveyed Utility
 Certain locating technologies are accurate for locating specific types of utilities.
 Acoustic or thermal characteristics of the surveyed utilities dictate the accuracy of the
locating surveys in parallel with other factors.
 Acoustic surveys can be used effectively for water and gas pipelines, which create
vibrations that can be captured by a receiver.
 Thermal surveys can be used only for warm utilities such as sanitary sewers and high-
voltage power lines to detect anomalies in the temperature field from the surrounding
ground.
Material of Surveyed Utility
 Some locating techniques are limited or more effective for specific materials.
 A limited number of locating technologies are available for nonmetallic utilities. Magnetic
surveys are not applicable to nonferrous metallic materials such as copper, plastic, and
concrete materials, but are applicable to ferrous metallic materials, including steel, cast
iron, and ductile iron.
 Electromagnetic methods, such as ground penetrating radar (GPR) or the terrain-
conductive survey, have great benefits that can locate both metallic and nonmetallic
materials.
Depth of Surveyed Utility
 The penetration limitation of the signal of each technique is an important factor for the
selection of techniques.
 The resolution and accuracy of the results decreases with increasing depths.
 The applicable depth of metal detectors is less than 0.6 m, whereas that of pipe and cable
locators is up to 5 m.
 The applicable depth of acoustic surveys varies in relation to target utilities.
Internal Condition of Surveyed Utility
 The internal condition of utilities refers to the flowing materials and fill level of the
surveyed utilities.
 Specific techniques, such as the acoustic surveys, work better depending on the fill levels
of utilities.
 the acoustic survey is more applicable when the pipeline is filled with water or gas because
the method is on the basis of the pressure transporting the sound wave.
 The internal conditions of utilities also affect the density anomalies of the gravity survey.
The gravity survey detects different densities because of the presence of underground
pipelines from surrounding areas.
 For the gravity survey, an empty water pipeline is more detectable than a filled water
pipeline because of the density difference between the air and surrounding soils.

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Access to Surveyed Utility
 The site accessibility affects the accuracy of the surveys.
 Certain sites require traffic control to conduct surveys. In such conditions, it is beneficial
to evaluate locating technologies, which would give the most accurate results in the shortest
time.
 Certain locating technologies require direct contact with the utility and/or surface
appurtenance.
 For acoustic surveys, prior knowledge about the surface appurtenance of the target utility
is necessary because the transducer introduces sound waves into the utility through the
surface appurtenance.
Type of Soil at Survey Site
 The signal penetrations of some locating technologies depend on the properties of the soil.
 Soil properties have a direct effect on signal penetration depth and accuracy.
 High conductivity in clays or highly saturated sand causes rapid dissemination of GPR
signals so that the penetration of the GPR signal is reduced to less than 1 m.
 The loss of GPR penetration depth is significant in comparison with 2 m in low-
conductivity soil.
 A terrain-conductive method is more effective in highly conductive soils, whereas a
resistivity method works well in highly resistive soils.
Ground Surface Cover of the Survey Site
 Many underground utilities are buried under surface pavements with asphalt or reinforced
concrete, which limits the penetration of electromagnetic signals.
 Acoustic surveys and thermal surveys also may have some difficulty capturing vibration
and heat flux depending on the cover of the surveyed site.
Utility Density at the Survey Site
 Proximity and density of nearby buried objects may interfere with accuracy of the surveys.
Locating technologies needs to be carefully evaluated for such sites.
 High utility density increases the possibility of accidents because of hitting the utilities.
 Surrounding ferrous features, such as guardrails, can significantly affect the accuracy of
certain magnetic or resistivity surveys.
Experience and Knowledge of the Survey Crew
 Qualified underground utility locating consultants that are both knowledgeable and
experienced with all applicable geophysical techniques are necessary for surveying
underground utilities and interpreting the results of the surveys.
 The accuracy in application of underground locating technologies and interpretation of
survey results are greatly influenced by the experience and knowledge of the surveying
crew.
 Surveying crews should be able to effectively evaluate the site conditions, capabilities, and
limitations of the locating technologies for accurate surveys.
Underground Utility Locating Technologies

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The most widely used approach for wastewater pipelines condition assessment is to define
condition states based on a set of variables collected by visual inspections. A state is defined as “a
combination of specific level of variables that provides a complete description of the dynamic
behavior of the system”.
Introduction
 The current condition of an asset and its likely rate of deterioration is important information
in developing a proactive maintenance schedule in the most cost-effective manner.
 Condition assessment surveys for underground assets should start with determining the
locations of these assets
 Competent use of locating practices and technologies allows not only more effective
condition assessment applications, but also more successful asset management practices.
 Underground utility locating is an engineering practice that uses new and existing
technologies to accurately identify, characterize, and map underground utilities.
 Benefits include the reduction of utility conflicts, which, in turn, reduces overall project
time and cost.
 It is documented that $3.41 to $11.39 were saved in avoided costs for every $1 spent on
underground utility locating.
 Condition assessment surveys were historically carried out by sending out inspectors to
evaluate the defects inside those accessible pipes along the network.
 The fact that water and wastewater pipes are buried significantly restricts the accessibility
of these assets for condition assessment and renewal engineering
Following are the widely used Underground Utility Locating Technologies:
1. Direct Methods
2. Electrical Methods
3. Electromagnetic Methods
4. Ground Penetrating Radar
5. Potential-Based Methods
6. Pipe Tagging Methods

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7. Multisensory Technologies
Direct Methods
 Techniques that expose the underground utilities and determine the location.
 Include exploratory and vacuum excavation.
 The process starts with a simple pothole. With the mechanical or manual vacuum system
hovering over the designated surface area, the operator excavates straight down in the
ground
 All utility materials can be located.
Ease of deployment: traffic control and ground access is necessary for excavation.
Ease of interpretation of results: underground utilities are exposed, results are definite.
Capabilities: the underground utilities would be exposed; therefore the results of the surveys are
definite. The open trench could be used for further condition assessment and renewal activities.
Limitations: there is a high risk of damaging utilities if working too close. Application can be
costlier compared to other utility location techniques.
Electrical Methods
 These methods work by introducing direct current (DC) into the ground through two or more
electrodes, and then measuring the resulting voltage difference between another pair of electrodes.
The electrode pairs are moved along a surveyed line, and the electrical measurements result in a
horizontal profile of apparent resistivity.
AFFECTING FACTORS
Effective depth: up to 60 m. However, the soil resistivity is a significant limiting factor.
Applicable materials: all utility materials can be located; highly effective for metallic utilities.
Ease of deployment: electrodes to be driven into the ground, which becomes a time-consuming
and costly task when a large area has to be surveyed.
Ease of interpretation of results: highly expensive, time consuming, and needs highly-trained
operators and interpreters of data.
Capabilities: resistivity surveys can provide high quality vertical locating data for resistive soils
with conductive utilities with a high effective application depth (up to 60 m).
Limitations: resistivity methods may be useful for a utility search, but not a utility trace.
Susceptible to interference from nearby metal structures such as, fences, buried pipes, and
cables.
Electromagnetic Methods
 Frequency Domain Electromagnetics

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 Time Domain Electromagnetics
Frequency Domain Electromagnetics
 Frequency domain electromagnetic methods (FDEM) measure the electrical conductivity
of soil by determining the magnitude and phase of the induced electromagnetic current.
Frequency domain electromagnetic measurements primarily are used for profiling to detect
and map lateral changes in natural geologic and hydro geologic conditions.
AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: up to 60 m.
 Applicable materials: applicable for all utility materials.
 Ease of deployment: measurements do not require ground contact. Continuous data may
be acquired to depths of 15 m with hand-carried or vehicle-mounted equipment.
 Ease of interpretation of results: most surveys are done in the profile mode; interpretation
is usually qualitative and of the anomaly finding.
 Capabilities: these surveys are efficient and fast in the right conditions.
Limitations: effectiveness of electromagnetic measurements decreases at very low conductivities.
Time Domain Electromagnetics
 The process of abruptly reducing the transmitter current to zero induces a short-duration
voltage pulse in the ground, which causes a loop of current to flow in the immediate
vicinity of the transmitter wire. The ground resistivity causes amplitude of the current and
starts to decay immediately. The amplitude of the current flow as a function of time is
measured by measuring its decaying magnetic field using a small multiturn receiver coil
usually located at the center of the transmitter loop. This process forms the basis of
central loop resistivity sounding in the time domain
AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: up to 900 m.
 Applicable materials: applicable for all utility materials.
 Ease of deployment: measurements do not require ground contact.
 • Ease of interpretation of results: experience and sophisticated interpretation skills are
required.
Capabilities: can be used for faster surveys over larger areas.
Limitations: response from metallic structures can be very large and can make results hard to
interpret when utility density is high.
Ground Penetrating Radar
 Microwave pulses are transmitted into the ground from an antenna, and any incoming
reflections are monitored at the receiver and passed on to a computer to depict a
continuous graphic profile of the subsurface strata. Reflecting surfaces appear as bands
on the profile. The application can be a single or multichannel configuration that
increases the resolution of the survey.

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AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: depth of the GPR survey is highly site specific and is limited by signal
attenuation, which is dependent on the electrical conductivity of the subsurface materials.
The potential depth increases with decreasing frequency, and although the higher
frequency cannot penetrate as deep into the earth as the lower frequency, the higher
frequency can detect utilities with smaller diameters and provide high spatial resolution
and target definition. Penetration is commonly less than 1 m, but can be greater than 30
m.
 Applicable materials: applicable for all utility materials.
 Ease of deployment: provides continuous profile measurements and is effective for larger
surveys. The antenna may be pulled by hand or vehicle.
 Ease of interpretation of results: experience and sophisticated interpretation skills may be
required in complicated cases.
Capabilities:
 Provides subsurface information when rapidly surveying large areas with minimum
interference to traffic.
 Provides very high lateral and vertical resolution. Can be used for faster surveys over
larger areas.
Limitations:
 Clay soils and soils that are salt contaminated crated the most significant performance
limitation for GPR.
 Rocky soils are considered a limitation because of their signal scattering nature.
 High-energy consumption can be problematic for extensive field surveys. Broad
configurations of the antenna beam width can make it difficult for radar to discriminate
between closely-spaced utilities.
Potential-Based Methods
 Potential-based methods can be used to detect buried ferrous metallic objects, such as
pipelines and tanks, with contrasting magnetite content.
 Potential-based methods include magnetic and gravity potential. Magnetic potential
surveys are far more applicable than the gravity potential-based surveys.
 Magnetic potential surveys effectively detect isolated shallow ferrous metallic utilities,
and magnetized nonmetallic fiber optic cables. Pipe and cable locators are a widely used
form of magnetic potential-based technology.
AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: up to 3 m.
 Applicable materials: highly effective on metallic utilities.
 Ease of deployment: magnetic potential survey technologies can be handheld or vehicle
mounted, and measurements do not require intrusive ground contact.
 Ease of interpretation of results: although results are easily interpreted, this method can
provide inaccurate results.

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Capabilities: these surveys are efficient and fast in the right conditions.
Limitations: magnetic measurements are susceptible to interference from surrounding ferrous
features.
Pipe Tagging Methods
 Radio Frequency Identification Tags
 Sonde Insertion
Radio Frequency Identification Tags
 The radio frequency identification (RFID) electronic marking system provides accurate
location of buried infrastructure and site-specific data.
 A portable, handheld device is used to program and later find electronic markers by
transmitting a utility-specific radio frequency signal into the ground. This digital response
includes stored details such as a unique marker identification number, the owner of the
underground component, its function (splice, valve, service tee, and direction change),
and its depth/elevation below the surface.
AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: up to 7 m.
 Applicable materials: applicable for any utility material.
 Ease of deployment: tag can easily be replaced on or in close proximity to the
underground utilities.
 Ease of interpretation of results: location and other utility data can be downloaded from
the tag remotely without any training or interpretation.
Capabilities:
 substantial amount of information can be gathered about the assets with very low cost.
Each RFID ball costs approximately $15 and 600 balls are estimated to be enough to
locate and gather information for one mile of pipeline in an urban setting.
 With new advances, the depth of the assets also can be estimated.
Limitations:
 tags should be placed and programmed when the utility is in construction stage; therefore,
the owner’s commitment to application is necessary for success.
Sonde Insertion
 A sonde is a small radio transmitter inserted into a pipe. After the sonde is placed in the
pipe, a pipe locator is used to locate the sonde. The pipe’s position and the pipes location
is then marked on the ground. This process is repeated until the desired information is
received.
AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: up to 7 m.
 Applicable materials: applicable for any utility material.

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 Ease of deployment: accessibility of the utilities is important to deploy and collect the
sondes.
 Ease of interpretation of results: depths calculated from sondes should be used with
caution.
Capabilities:
 sondes are effective for most diameter pipes and can navigate through joints and elbows.
 Sondes are not affected by other nearby sources of interference, such as congested
utilities, rebar, and guardrails.
Limitations:
 sondes are reliable only for the horizontal location of the pipes.
 Sondes only provide locations of the pipes into which they are inserted, and for only that
distance for which they can be pushed or pulled.
Multisensory Technologies
 Multisensor technologies are a combination of multiple sensors working simultaneously
to provide results.
 These technologies can be two or more sensors of the same technology and/or the
application of multiple sensors from two different technologies.
 Primarily used combinations are multichannel GPR and GPR working simultaneously
with TDEM. AFFECTING FACTORS
 Effective depth: depends on the technologies employed.
 Applicable materials: applicable materials depend on the technologies employed.
 Ease of deployment: sensor platform can be deployed by survey crew or towing vehicles.
 Multisensor Technologies (cont’d.)
 Ease of interpretation of results: the simultaneous employment of these technologies
provide higher definition survey results with the combination of two or more outputs
from employed technologies.
Capabilities: the combination of two differ technologies provides a platform in which these
technologies cancel out the limitations of each other for given site conditions.
Limitations: these technologies are currently emerging and need specialized software and
experience to accurately interpret the results.
Reasons for Infrastructure Deterioration

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Following are the reasons for deterioration of infrastructure:
 Infrastructure deteriorates due to under investment in public works programs;
 The lack of good management systems for infrastructure also results in decay of
infrastructure;
 Failure to recognize the importance to the future economy of maintaining a sound physical
infrastructure also declines the serviceability of civil infrastructure;
 Cut-backs that have slashed public-works budgets may result in collapse of old and aging
infrastructure;
 Failure to replace the infrastructure as fast as it wears out;
 failure to realize that lack of physical infrastructure seriously impacts the level and types
of services government can provide to their citizens;
 tendency by national, state, and local officials to defer the maintenance of public
infrastructure; and
 increased costs to tax payers to repair and rebuild the obsolescent public infrastructure.
Types of Infrastructure in Urban and Rural Areas

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Transportation
 Ground transportation (roads, bridges, tunnels, railroads)
 Air transportation (airports, heliports, ground facilities, air-traffic control)
 Waterways and ports (inland waterways, shipping channels, terminals, dry docks, sea
ports)
 Intermodal facilities (rail/airport terminals, truck/rail/port terminals)
 Mass transit (subways, bus transit, light rail, monorails, platforms/ stations)
 Pipelines (natural gas, crude oil)
Water and Waste water
 Water supply (pumping stations, treatment plants, main water lines, wells,
mechanical/electric equipment)
 Structures (dams, diversion, levees, tunnels, aqueducts)
 Agricultural water distribution (canals, rivers, weir, gates, dikes)
 Sewers (main sewer lines, septic tanks, treatment plants, storm water drains)
 Storm water drainage (roadside gutters and ditches, streams, levees)
Waste Management
 Solid waste (transport, landfills, treatment plants, recycling facilities)
 Hazardous waste (transport, storage facilities, treatment plants, security)
 Nuclear waste (transport, storage facilities, security)
Energy production and distribution
 Fossil fuel-based electric power production (gas-,oil and coal-fueled power generation)
 Electric power distribution grid networks (high-voltage power- transmission lines,
substations, distribution systems, energy-control centers, service and maintenance
facilities)

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 Gas pipelines (gas production, pipeline, computer stations and control centers, storage
tanks, service and maintenance facilities)
 Petroleum/oil production (pumping stations, oil/gas separation plants, roads)
 Petroleum/oil distribution (marine and ground tanker terminals, pipelines, pumping
stations, maintenance facilities, storage tanks)
 Nuclear power stations (nuclear reactors, power-generation stations, nuclear-waste
disposal facilities, emergency equipment and facilities)
 Renewable energy and non-fossil fuels (infrastructure for solar power, wind power,
hydro-electric power, biofuels)
Buildings
 Public buildings (schools, hospitals, government offices, police stations, fire stations,
postal offices, prison systems, parking structures)
 Other buildings and structures—public/residential/commercial/offices (public housing,
structures, utilities, swimming pools, security, ground access, parking) Multipurpose and
sports complexes (coliseums, amphitheaters, convention centers)
 Housing facilities (public, private)
 Industrial, manufacturing/warehouse, and supply chain facilities (private)
Recreation facilities
 Parks and playgrounds (roads, parking areas, recreational facilities, office buildings,
restrooms, ornamental fountains, swimming pools, picnic areas)
 Lake and water sports (roads, parking areas, picnic areas, marinas)
 Theme parks/casinos (access roads, buildings, restaurants, security facilities, structures)
Hospitals and public health facilities (public, private) .