3. Branches of science
Introduction to HAP
• There are two branches of science.
• Anatomy
• Physiology
• It provides the information about different body parts
& their functions.
4. Scope of HAP
This subject is designed to impart fundamental
knowledge on the structure and functions of the
various systems of the human body. It also helps in
understanding both homeostatic mechanisms. The
subject provides the basic knowledge required to
understand the various disciplines of pharmacy.
5. Anatomy
Introduction to HAP
• Anatomy: It is the scientific study of structures of human body.
• Subdivisions of anatomy:
• Developmental biology: It is the study of complete development of an
individual from fertilization of an egg to death.
• Cell biology: It is the study of cell structure and functions.
• Histology: It is the study of microscopic structure of tissues.
• Gross anatomy: It is the study of cell structures without using a
microscope.
6. Anatomy
Introduction to HAP
• Systemic anatomy: It is the study of specific systems of body such as
nervous or respiratory systems.
• Regional anatomy: It is the study of specific regions of the body such as
head or chest.
• Radiographic anatomy: It is the study of body structures with the help of
x-rays.
• Pathological anatomy: It is the study of structural changes
associated with disease.
• Embryology: It is the study of first eight weeks of human
development.
7. Physiology
Introduction to HAP
• Physiology: It is the scientific study of normal functions of living
organisms and their parts.
• Subdivisions of physiology:
• Respiratory physiology: It is the study of functioning of lungs and
air passageways.
• Renal physiology: It is the study of functioning of the kidneys.
• Immunology: It is the study of defense mechanism of body against
disease-causing agents.
8. Physiology
Introduction to HAP
• Exercise physiology: It is the study of changes in cell and organ
functions as a result of exercise.
• Neurophysiology: It is the study of functioning of the nervous
system.
• Pathophysiology: It is the study of functional changes associated with
disease and aging.
• Cardiovascular physiology: It is the study of functioning of heart and
blood vessels.
• Endocrinology: It is the study of hormones and how they control body
functions.
•
9. Levels of structural organizations
Introduction to HAP
• There are six levels of
organisations.
Chemical level
Cellular level
Tissue level
Organ level
System level
Organism level
11. Levels of structural organizations
Introduction to HAP
• Chemical level:
• Very basic level
• It includes atoms (smallest unit of matter participates in chemical
reactions)
• Two or more atoms joined together to form molecules.
• Certain atoms like, C, H, O, N, P
,Ca & S are crucial for maintaining life.
• Cellular level:
• Different molecules combine together to form cells.
• Cell is the basic structural and functional units of an organism.
• Human body contains muscle cells, nerve cells & epithelial cells.
12. Levels of structural organizations
Introduction to HAP
• Tissue level:
• Different cells combines together to form tissues (groups of cells
that work together to perform a particular function).
• Human body contains 4 basic types of tissue: epithelial tissue,
connective tissue, muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
• Organ level:
• Different types of tissue combines together to form organ.
• Organs are composed of two or more different types of tissues having
specific functions and recognizable shapes.
• Examples of organs are the stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs
& brain.
13. Levels of structural organizations
Introduction to HAP
• System level:
• All the organs with common function combines together to form system.
• Above figure shows the structure of digestive system.
• Organs of digestive system are mouth, salivary glands, pharynx (throat),
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder &
pancreas.
• Organism level:
• All the parts of the human body functioning combines together to
form total organism i.e. human body.
14. Systems of human body
Introduction to HAP
Human
body
Digestive
system
Respiratory
system
Urinary
system
Nervous
system
Reproductive
system (Male&
Female)
Endocrine
system
cardiovascualr
system
Muscular
system
Lymphatic
system
Special sense
organs
15. Systems of human body
Introduction to HAP
• Nervous system:
• Organs: Brain, spinal cord and nerves
• Functions:
• It coordinatesvoluntary and involuntary actions and transmits
signals between different parts of the body.
• Cardiovascular system:
• Organs: Blood, heart, and blood vessels.
• Functions:
• Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
• Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes
away from cells. Blood components help defend against disease.
• Helps regulate acid - base balance, temperature & water content of body
fluids.
16. Systems of human body
Introduction to HAP
• Digestive system:
• Organs: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines,
and anus; accessory organs such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas.
• Functions:
• Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food
• Absorption of nutrients and Elimination of solid wastes
• Urinary system:
• Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
• Functions:
• Produces, stores, and eliminates urine.
• Eliminateswastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of
blood
• Helps maintain the acid–base balance of body fluids.
• Maintains mineral balance of body
17. Systems of human body
Introduction to HAP
•
Lymphocytes that protect against disease-causing microbes
• Respiratory system:
• Organs: Lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes
• Functions:
• Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to
exhaled air
• Helps regulate acid–base balance of body fluids
• Production of sound by vocal cord
• Lymphatic system:
• Organs: Lymph, lymph vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils.
• Functions:
• Returns proteins and fluid to blood
• Carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood
18. Systems of human body
Introduction to HAP
• Endocrine system:
• Organs: Pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus,
pancreases
thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands,
ovaries, and testes
• Functions:
• Regulates body activities by releasing hormones
• Muscular system:
• Organs: Skeletal muscle
• Functions:
• Produces body movements, such as walking
• Stabilizes body posture
• Generation of heat
19. Systems of human body
Introduction to HAP
• Special sense organs:
• Organs: Eyes, ears, skin, tongue and nose
• Functions:
• Detects changes in the body’s internal and external environments,
• Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste and Touch sensations
• Reproductive system:
• Organs: Male organs: T
estes, epididymis, ductus deferens, and
penis; Female organs: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
• Functions:
• Gonads produce gametes that unite to form a new organism
• Gonads release hormones that regulate reproduction
• Other associated organs transport and store gametes
20. Basic life processes
Introduction to HAP
• Life processes are the basic functions performed by living organisms to
survive on earth.
• Some basic life processes are:
• Responsiveness
• Metabolism
• Movement
• Growth
• Differentiation
• Reproduction
• Respiration
• Digestion
• Excretion
21. Basic life processes
• Responsiveness: It is the body’s ability to detect and respond to
changes.
• Ex- decrease in body temperature represent respond to changes.
• Metabolism: It is the sum of all the chemical processes that occur
in the body.
• Catabolism is the breakdown of complex chemical substances into
simpler components.
• Anabolism is the building up of complex chemical substances from
smaller components.
• Movement: Movement includes motion of the whole body,
individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.
22. Basic life processes
Introduction to HAP
• Growth: It is an increase in body size that results from an
increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of
cells, or both.
• Differentiation: It is the development of a cell from an
unspecialized to a specialized state.
• Ex- RBCs, WBCs and several types of cell rise from the same
unspecialized cell in red bone marrow.
• Reproduction: It refers to the formation of new cells for tissue
growth, repair, or replacement, or to the production of a new
individual.
Ex- old cells produce to new cells or parents cell produce fetus
23. Basic life processes
Introduction to HAP
• Respiration: Respiration processes involved in
the exchange of oxygenand carbon dioxide
between the cells and the external environment.
• Digestion: It involves breaking down complex ingested foods
into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
and utilized by the body for energy source.
• Excretion: Excretion is the process that
removes the waste product of
digestion & metabolism from the body.
24. Homeostasis
Introduction to HAP
• Homeostasis= Homeo (constant) + Stasis (state/condition)
• “It is the ability of body to maintain an equilibrium
(balance) in the body’s internal environment when
dealing with the external or internal changes”
• Homeostasis is a dynamic condition.
• For example, the level of glucose in blood normally stays
between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per 100
milliliters of blood.
• Each structure, from the cellular level to the system level,
contributes in some way to keeping the internal
environment of the body within normal limits.
25. An organism is in homeostatic condition when
The temperature is within standard limits
The extra and intra cellular volume should be at
optimal level
The internal environment contains optimum
concentration of gases, nutrients, ions and water.
26. Homeostasis & Body Fluids
Introduction to HAP
• An important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining the volume &
composition of body fluids (dilute, watery solutions containing
dissolved chemicals found in cells & surrounding them.
• Intracellular fluid (ICF): Present in the cells
• Extracellular fluid (ECF): Present outside the cells
• Interstitial fluid: It fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues
27. Homeostasis and Body Fluids
Introduction to HAP
• ECF differs depending on its location in the body:
• ECF within blood vessels is termed as blood plasma.
• ECF within lymphatic vessels it called as lymph.
• ECF around the brain & spinal cord known as
cerebrospinal fluid.
• ECF in joints it is referred as synovial fluid.
• ECF of eyes is called as aqueous humor.
• The proper functioning of body cells depends on
composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding them.
28. Control of Homeostasis
Homeostasis in the human body is continually being disturbed.
Some disruptions come from the external environment in the
form of physical insults such as the intense heat of a hot
summer day.
Other disruptions originate in the internal environment, such as
a blood glucose level that falls too low when you skip breakfast.
Homeostatic imbalances may also occur due to psychological
stresses in our social environment for example- work stress.
In most cases the disruption of homeostasis is mild and
temporary, and the responses of body cells quickly restore
balance in the internal environment.
29. Control of Homeostasis
However, in some cases the disruption of homeostasis may be
intense and prolonged, as in poisoning, overexposure to
temperature extremes, severe infection, or major surgery.
Our body has many regulating systems that can usually bring the
internal environment back into balance.
Most often, the nervous system and the endocrine system, working
together or independently, provide the needed corrective
measures.
The nervous system regulates homeostasis by sending electrical
signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials) to organs that
can counteract changes from the balanced state.
The endocrine system includes many glands that secrete
messenger molecules called hormones into the blood.
30. Feedback system or Feedback loop
Introduction to HAP
• The body can regulate its internal environment through
many feedback systems.
• A feedback system or feedback loop is a cycle of events in
which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated,
changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on.
• Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood
pressure, or blood glucose level, is termed a controlled
condition.
• Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called
a stimulus.
• A feedback system includes three basic components: a
receptor, a control center, and an effector.
31. Feedback system or Feedback loop
Introduction to HAP
• A receptor is a body structure that monitors changes in a
controlled condition and sends input to a control center.
• A control center in the body, for example, the brain, sets
the range of values within which a controlled condition should
be maintained (set point), evaluates the input it receives from
receptors, and generates output commands when they are
needed.
Output from the control center typically occurs as nerve
impulses, or hormones or other chemical signals.
• An effector is a body structure that receives output from
the control center and produces a response or effect that
changes the controlled condition.
32. Feedback system
A group of receptors and effectors communicating
with their control center forms a feedback system that
can regulate a controlled condition in the body’s
internal environment.
In a feedback system, the response of the system
“feeds back” information to change the controlled
condition in some way, either negating it (negative
feedback) or enhancing it (positive feedback).
33. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
A negative feedback system reverses a change in a
controlled condition. Consider the regulation of blood
pressure.
The action of a negative feedback system, by contrast,
slows and then stops as the controlled condition
returns to its normal state.
35. POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
• Unlike a negative feedback system, a positive feedback
system tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the
body’s controlled conditions.
• In a positive feedback system, the response affects the
controlled condition differently than in a negative feedback
system.
• The control center still provides commands to an effector, but
this time the effector produces a physiological response that
adds to or reinforces the initial change in the controlled
condition.
• The action of a positive feedback system continues until it is
interrupted by some mechanism.
• Example- Normal childbirth
37. Basic anatomical terminologies
Scientists and health-care professionals use a
common language of special terms when referring to
body structures and their functions. The language of
anatomy they use has precisely defined meanings
that allow us to communicate clearly and precisely.
38. Basic anatomical terminologies
Introduction to HAP
• Body Positions:
Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a
standard position of reference called the anatomical position.
In the anatomical position, the body is upright.
The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at
the sides with the palms turned forward.
Two terms describe a reclining body.
• Prone position: If the Body is lying face down
• Supine position: if the Body is lying face up
39. Basic anatomical terminologies
Regional Names
The human body is divided into several major regions that can be identified
externally.
The principal regions are the head, neck, trunk, upper limbs, and lower
limbs .
The head consists of the skull and face.
The trunk consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis.
Each upper limb attaches to the trunk and consists of the shoulder,
armpit, arm, forearm, wrist, and hand.
Each lower limb also attaches to the trunk and consists of the
buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, and foot.
40. Basic anatomical terminologies
Introduction to HAP
Directional terms:
To locate various body structures, anatomists use specific directional
terms, words that describe the position of one body part
relative to another.
Several directional terms are grouped in pairs that have opposite
meanings, such as anterior (front) and posterior (back).
They make sense only when used to describe the position of one structure
relative to another.
For example, your knee is superior to your ankle, even though both are
located in the inferior half of the body.
41. Basic anatomical terminologies
Introduction to HAP
Directional Term Definition
Superior Toward the head or upper part of a structure
Inferior Away from the head, or lower part of a structure
Anterior To the front of body
Posterior To the back of body
Medial Nearer to the midline
Lateral Away from the midline
Intermediate Between two structures
Proximal Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk
Distal Away from the attachment of a limb to the trunk
Superior Toward or on the surface of body
Inferior Away from the surface of body
43. Planes
Introduction to HAP
These are the imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts.
Planes divide the body in various ways to produce sections.
Sagittal plane
Frontal plane
Transverse plane
Oblique plane
• Sagittal plane: It is a vertical plane that divides the body or an organ
into right & left sides.
• Mid-sagittal plane: When sagittal plane passes through the midline
of the body or an organ & divides it into equal right and left sides, it is
called a mid-sagittal plane or a median plane.
44. Planes
Introduction to HAP
• Para-sagittal plane: If sagittal plane does not pass through the
midline but divides the body or an organ into unequal right & left
sides, it is called a para-sagittal plane.
• Frontal or coronal plane: It divides the body or an organ into
anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
• Transverse plane/horizontal plane/cross sectional plane: It
divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior
(lower) portions. Sagittal, frontal, & transverse planes are all at right
angles to one another.
• Oblique plane: It passes through the body or an organ at an angle
between a transverse plane and a sagittal plane or between a
transverse plane and a frontal plane.
47. Sections
Introduction to HAP
• It is a cut of the body or organs made along one of the planes.
• There are 3 sections;
• Transverse section: It is formed by a transverse plane cutting
through an object, usually at right angles to an axis.
• Frontal section: It is formed by a frontal plane cutting through
an object, dividing the body into dorsal & ventral parts.
• Midsagittal section: It is formed by a mid-sagittal plane
cutting through an object, dividing the body into right & left
parts
49. Body Cavities
Introduction to HAP
• These are spaces within the body that helps to
protect, separate & support internal organs.
Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the
various body cavities from one another.
• 2 types of body cavity;
• Dorsal body cavity
• Ventral body cavity
50. Dorsal body cavity
Introduction to HAP
• It is located near the dorsal surface of the body.
• It consists of 2 cavities.
• Cranial cavity
• Vertebral canal
• Cranial cavity: The cranial bones form the cranial
cavity, which contains the brain.
• Vertebral canal: The bones of vertebral column form
the vertebral canal, which contains the spinal cord.
51. Ventral body cavity
Introduction to HAP
• It is located near the ventral surface of body.
• It has 2 parts;
• Superior part: Thoracic cavity, Pericardial cavity, Pleural
cavity, Mediastinum
• Inferior part: Abdominal cavity and Pelvic cavity
52. Ventral body cavity
Introduction to HAP
• Thoracic cavity or chest cavity: It is formed by the ribs,
muscles of the chest, sternum (breastbone) and vertebral
column (backbone).
• It is divided into 3 parts.
• Pleural cavity: Two fluid-filled spaces called pleural cavities,
that present around each lung
• Pericardial cavity: It is a fluid-filled space that surrounds the
heart
• Mediastinum: The central part of thoracic cavity called as
mediastinum.
53. Ventral body cavity
Introduction to HAP
• Abdominopelvic cavities: Divided into 2 portions,
• Abdominal cavity: The superior portion, is called as the
abdominal cavity, contains the stomach, spleen, liver,
gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.
• Pelvic cavity: The inferior portion, is called as pelvic
cavity, contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large
intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system.
55. Body Cavities
Introduction to HAP
Cavity Description
Cranial cavity It is formed by cranial bones and contains brain
Vertebral canal It is formed by vertebral column and it contains spinal cord and beginnings of
spinal
nerves
Thoracic cavity It is called as chest cavity. It contains pleural and pericaridial cavity and
mediastinum
Pleural cavity It presents surrounding the lungs and the serous membrane of each pleural cavity
is
called as pleura.
Pericardial cavity It present surrounding the heart and the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity
is
the pericardium.
Mediastinum It is the central portion of the thoracic cavity between the medial walls of pleural
cavities. It extends from sternum to verterbal column and from first rib to
diaphragm. It contains all the structure of the thoracic cavity other than the lungs
including heart, thymus, esophgus, trachea and several large blood vessels.
Abdominoplevic
cavity
It is divided into abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.
Abdominal cavity It contains stomach, splen, liver, gall bladder, small intestine and large intestine. The
serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is called as peritoneum.
Pelvic cavity It contains urinary bladder, portion of large intestine and organs of reproduction.
56. ImportantQuestions
Introduction to HAP
giv
e
their
• LAQ:
• Enlist different systems of human body
and components and function.
• Explain different level of structural
organizations.
• Explain different body processes.
• SAQ:
• Define anatomy and physiology.
• Write a note on homeostasis and feedback
system.
• Enlist major body cavities along with their
location.
• Explain different directional planes in human
