HAP

1. Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 1 Introduvtion to of human
Body
Prepared By :Anjali A Sinha

2. What is anatomy?
• Anatomy is the structure of an organism and
the relationships of its parts.

3. Dissections
• We use dissections to isolate and study the
structural components or parts of the human
body.
• Gross anatomy- study of body parts visible to
the naked eye.
• Microscopic anatomy- study of body parts
using a microscope

4. Parts to microscopic anatomy
• Cytology- study of cells
• Histology- study of tissues
Other studies of anatomy:
• Developmental anatomy- study of human growth
and development
• Pathological anatomy- study of diseased body
structures
• Systemic anatomy- study of the body by systems

5. What is physiology?
• Physiology is the study of how the body
works.
Parts of physiology:
1) Organism involved
2) Organization level studied
3) Systemic function

6. Relationship between Anatomy
and Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology are always
related . Structure determines what
functions can take place. For example, the
lungs are not muscular chambers like the
heart and can not pump blood, but
because the walls of lungs are very thin,
they can exchange gasses and provide
oxygen to the body.

7. Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy
• Structures
• Shape of the body and its
parts
• Gross Anatomy can be seen
without a microscope
• Microscopic , too small to
be seen without a
microscope
Physiology
• How the body and its parts
work
• Structures determine the
function
• Functions are the processes
or jobs

8. Characteristics of Life
– Responsiveness
– Conductivity
– Growth
– Respiration
– Digestion
– Absorption
– Secretion
– Excretion
– Circulation
– Reproduction
 Characteristics of life considered most
important in humans:

9. Metabolism
• Metabolism—sum total of all physical and
chemical reactions occurring in the living body

10. Levels of organization
• Atom
• Molecule
• Organelle
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ system
• Organism

11. Levels of Organization (Figure 1-3)
• Chemical level—basis for life
– Organization of chemical structures separates
living material from nonliving material
– Organization of atoms, molecules, and
macromolecules results in living matter—a gel
called cytoplasm

12. Levels of Organization
• Organelle level
– Chemical structures organized to form organelles
that perform individual functions
– It is the functions of the organelles that allow the
cell to live
– Dozens of organelles have been identified,
including the following:
• Mitochondria
• Golgi apparatus
• Endoplasmic reticulum

13. Levels of Organization
• Cellular level
– Cells—smallest and most numerous units that
possess and exhibit characteristics of life
– Cell—nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a
limiting membrane
– Cells differentiate to perform unique functions

14. Levels of Organization
• Tissue level
– Tissue—an organization of similar cells specialized
to perform a certain function
– Tissue cells surrounded by nonliving matrix
– Four major tissue types:
• Epithelial tissue
• Connective tissue
• Muscle tissue
• Nervous tissue

15. Levels of Organization
• Organ level
– Organ—organization of several different kinds of
tissues to perform a special function
– Organs represent discrete and functionally
complex operational units
– Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance,
and placement in the body

16. Levels of Organization
• System level
– Systems—most complex organizational units of the
body
– System level involves varying numbers and kinds of
organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table
1-1):
• Support and movement
• Communication, control, and integration
• Transportation and defense
• Respiration, nutrition, and excretion
• Reproduction and development

17. Levels of Organization
• Organism level
– The living human organism is greater than the
sum of its parts
– All of the components interact to allow the human
to survive and flourish

18. Levels of Structural Organization
The human body exhibits 6 levels of
structural complexity :
1- Chemical level , the simplest level of
structural ladder .At this level atoms
combine to form molecules such as water,
sugar, & proteins
2- Cellular level the smallest units of living
things .
3- Tissue level , groups of similar cells that
have a common function (4 basic types)

19. 4- Organ level, an organ is a structure
composed of 2 or more tissue types that
performs a specific function .
5- Organ System is a group of organs that
work together to accomplish a common
purpose (each organ has its own job to do)
6- Organismal level , represents the highest
level of structural organization( total of 11
organ systems)

20. 11 Systems
Skeletal
Muscular
Cardiovascular
Nervous
Endocrine
Integument
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Lymphatic /
Immune
Reproductive

21. Body systems:The human body has 11
systems
1-INTEGUMENTARY
ORGANS
• Skin
FUNCTIONS
• Waterproofs, cushions, protects deeper
tissue
• Excretes salts & urea; pain, pressure
• Regulates body temp; synthesize vitamin
D

22. 2-SKELETAL
ORGANS
• Bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints
FUNCTIONS
• Protects & supports body organs
• Framework for muscles & movement
• Hematopoiesis; store minerals

23. 3- MUSCULAR
ORGANS
• Skeletal muscle (attached to bone)
FUNCTIONS
• Contraction & mobility (locomotion)
• Facial expression, posture
• Produce body heat

24. 4- NERVOUS
ORGANS
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & sensory
receptors
FUNCTIONS
• Fast-acting central control system
• Responds to external/internal stimuli
via nerve impulses (electrical messages)

25. 5- ENDOCRINE
ORGANS
• Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,
adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal,
ovaries, testes…..etc.
FUNCTIONS
• Slow -acting control system
• Glands produce hormones that
regulate growth, reproduction,
metabolism,…. etc.

26. 6- Circulatory
ORGANS
• Heart, blood vessels, capillaries &blood
FUNCTIONS
• Carries O2nutrients, hormones, & other
substances to and from tissue cells
• White blood cells protect against
bacteria, toxins, tumors

27. 7- LYMPHATIC
ORGANS
• Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
spleen, tonsils
FUNCTIONS
• Complements circulatory system by
returning leaked fluid back to blood
vessels
• Cleanses the blood; involved in
immunity

28. 8- RESPIRATORY
ORGANS
• Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, & lungs
FUNCTIONS
• Keeps blood supplied with O2 &
removes CO2
• Carries out gas exchanges through air
sacs in lungs

29. 9- DIGESTIVE
ORGANS
• Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, anus (liver & pancreas)
FUNCTIONS
• Breaks food down into absorbable
units that enter the blood;
indigestible food eliminated as feces

30. 10- URINARY (EXCRETORY)
ORGANS
• Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder,
urethra
FUNCTIONS
• Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the
body (urea & uric acid)
• Regulates water, electrolytes, & acid-
base balance of the blood

31. 11- REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS
• Male
– Seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, vas
deferens, testis, scrotum
• Female
– Ovaries, mammary glands, uterus,
vagina, uterine tube
FUNCTIONS
• Primary function for both sexes is to
produce offspring
• Male – testes produce sperm & male sex
hormones
• Female – ovaries produce eggs & female
sex hormones; mammary glands for
nourishment

32. Anatomical Position (Figure 1-4)
• Reference position
• Body erect with arms
at sides and palms
forward
• Head and feet pointing
forward

33. Maintaining Life
I-Necessary Life Functions : All living
organisms carry out certain vital functional
activities necessary for life, including :
1-Maintenance of boundaries: Every living
organism must maintain its inside distinct from
outside.
-All the cells are surrounded by a selectively
permeable membrane.
-The body as a whole is enclosed and protected
by the integumentary system, or skin, which
protects our internal organs from drying out,
bacteria, heat, sunlight, and chemicals .

34. 2-Movement :
-It includes the activities promoted by the
muscular system , the skeletal system
provides the bony framework that the
muscles pull on as they work.
-Movement also occurs when substances
such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are
propelled through internal organs .
- On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s
ability to move by shortening is more
precisely called contractility.

35. 3- Responsiveness or irritability, is the
ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the
environment and then respond to them.
-you involuntarily pull your hand away from the
painful stimulus .
-When carbon dioxide in your blood rises to
dangerously high levels, your breathing rate
speeds up.
Because nerve cells are highly irritable and
communicate rapidly with each other via
electrical impulses, the nervous system is
most involved with responsiveness. However,
all body cells are irritable to some extent.

36. 4-Digestion :is the breaking down of
ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules
that can be absorbed into the blood. The
nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to all
body cells by the cardiovascular system.
In a simple, one-celled organism such as
an amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion
factory,” but in the multicellular human
body, the digestive system performs this
function for the entire body.

37. 5- Metabolism is a broad term that includes all
chemical reactions that occur within body cells. It
includes breaking down substances into their simpler
building blocks (catabolism), synthesizing more
complex cellular structures from simpler substances
(anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to
produce (via cellular respiration) ATP, that power
cellular activities.
Metabolism depends on the digestive and
respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen
available to be distributed throughout the body.
Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones
secreted by endocrine system glands.

38. 6- Excretion is the process of removing excreta (ek-
skre′tah), or wastes, from the body. – The digestive
system rids the body of indigestible food residues in
feces.
-The urinary system disposes of nitrogen-containing
metabolic wastes, such as urea, in urine.
- Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration,
is carried in the blood to the lungs, where it leaves
the body in exhaled air.

39. 7- Reproduction : is making a whole new person which
is the major task of the reproductive system.
- When a sperm unites with an egg, a fertilized egg
forms, which then develops into a baby within the
mother’s body.
- The reproductive system is regulated by hormones of
the endocrine system.
- Because males produce sperm and females produce
eggs (ova), there is a division of labor in the reproductive
process, and the reproductive organs of males and
females are different .
- The female’s reproductive structures provide the site
for fertilization of eggs by sperm, then protect and
nurture the developing fetus until birth.

40. 8- Growth is an increase in size of a body part or the
organism. It is usually accomplished by increasing the
number of cells. However, individual cells also increase
in size when not dividing. For true growth to occur,
constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than
destructive ones

41. Bilateral symmetry
• Bilateral symmetry is a term meaning that
right and left sides of body are mirror images
– Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of the
body in anatomical position
– Contralateral structures are on opposite sides of
the body in anatomical position

42. Body Cavities
• Ventral body cavity
– Thoracic cavity
• Right and left pleural cavities
• Mediastinum
– Abdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavity

43. Body cavity
• Dorsal body cavity
– Cranial cavity
– Spinal cavity

45. Body Regions
• Axial subdivision
– Head
– Neck
– Torso, or trunk, and its subdivisions
• Appendicular subdivision
– Upper extremity and subdivisions
– Lower extremity and subdivisions

47. Abdominal regions
– Right hypochondriac region
– Epigastric region
– Left hypochondriac region
– Right lumbar region
– Umbilical region
– Left lumbar region
– Right iliac (inguinal) region
– Hypogastric region
– Left iliac (inguinal) region

48. Abdominopelvic quadrants
– Right upper quadrant
– Left upper quadrant
– Right lower quadrant
– Left lower quadrant

49. Terms Used in Describing Body Structure
• Directional terms
– Superior
– Inferior
– Anterior (ventral)
– Posterior (dorsal)
– Medial
 LateralLateral
 ProximalProximal
 DistalDistal
 SuperficialSuperficial
 DeepDeep

50. Body Planes and Sections
• Planes are lines of orientation along which cuts or
sections can be made to divide the body, or a body
part, into smaller pieces
• There are 3 planes:
1) Saggital plane
2) Frontal (coronal) plane
3) Transverse (horizontal) plane

51. Body Planes and Sections
• There are three major planes, which lie at right
angles to each other:
– Sagittal plane runs front to back so that sections through
this plane divide body (or body part) into right and left
sides
• If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and left
halves, the plane is called midsagittal or median sagittal
– Frontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to side) and
divides body (or part) into anterior and posterior
portions
– Transverse (horizontal) plane is a “crosswise” plane—it
divides body (or part) into upper and lower parts

52. Body Type and Disease
• Somatotype—category of body build or
physique
• Three somatotype:
1) Endomorph
2) Mesomorph
3) Ectomorph

53. Somatotypes:
• Endomorph—heavy, rounded physique with
accumulation of fat
– “Apple-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fat
in the waist than hip
• Waist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for men
• Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape”
– “Pear-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fat
in hips than in waist

54. Somatotypes Cont.
• Mesomorph—muscular physique
• Ectomorph—thin, often fragile physique
with little fat

56. Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the term used to describe the
relatively constant states maintained by the
body—internal environment around body
cells remains constant

57. • Describes the body’s ability to maintain
relatively stable internal conditions
even though the outside world is
continuously changing
• The literal translation of homeostasis is
“unchanging,”( homeo= the same,
stasis = standing still which is not
true).

58. The term does not really mean a
static, or unchanging, state. Rather, it
indicates a dynamic state of
equilibrium, or a balance, in which
internal conditions vary, but always
within relatively narrow limits. In
general, the body is in homeostasis
when its needs are adequately met
and it is functioning smoothly.

60. Homeostasis
• Body adjusts important variables from a
normal “set point” in an acceptable or normal
range
• Examples of homeostasis:
– Temperature regulation
– Regulation of blood carbon dioxide level
– Regulation of blood glucose level

62. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Communication within the body is essential
for homeostasis.
Communication is accomplished chiefly by the
nervous and endocrine systems, which use
neural electrical impulses or blood borne
hormones, respectively, as information carriers.
Regardless of the factor being regulated(the
variable)all homeostatic control mechanisms
have at least three interdependent
components .

63. The first component, the receptor, is some
type of sensor that monitors the
environment and responds to changes,
called stimuli, by sending information
(input) to the second component, the
control center. Input flows from the
receptor to the control center along the so-
called afferent pathway. The control
center, analyzes the input it receives and
then determines the appropriate response
or course of action.

64. The third component, the effector,
provides the means of response (output) to
the stimulus. Information flows from the
control center to the effector along the
efferent pathway. The results of the
response then feed back to influence the
stimulus, either depressing it (negative
feedback) so that the whole control
mechanism is shut off or enhancing it
(positive feedback) so that the reaction
continues at an even faster rate.

65. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Devices for maintaining or restoring homeostasis by
self-regulation through feedback control loops

66. Homeostatic Mechanisms
• Basic components of control mechanisms
– Sensor mechanism—specific sensors detect and react
to any changes from normal
– Integrating, or control, center—information is
analyzed and integrated, and then, if needed, a
specific action is initiated
– Effector mechanism—effectors directly influence
controlled physiological variables
– Feedback—process of information about a variable
constantly flowing back from the sensor to the
integrator

67. Label the Homeostatic Mechanisms

69. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Negative feedback control systems
– Are inhibitory
– Stabilize physiological variables
– Produce an action that is opposite to the change
that activated the system
– Are responsible for maintaining homeostasis
– Are much more common than positive feedback
control systems

70. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Positive feedback control systems
– Are stimulatory
– Amplify or reinforce the change that is occurring
– Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt
homeostasis
– Bring specific body functions to swift completion
• Feed-forward occurs when information flows ahead to
another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in
anticipation of an event that will follow

71. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Levels of control
– Intracellular control
• Regulation within cells
• Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processes
– Intrinsic control (autoregulation)
• Regulation within tissues or organs
• May involve chemical signals
• May involve other “built-in” mechanisms
– Extrinsic control
• Regulation from organ to organ
• May involve nerve signals
• May involve endocrine signals (hormones)