This reference is made to clarify points in conducting history. Also, this provides idea among students to be mindful of their sources in order to validate information taken from different sources. If forinstance, a student would want to know in detail how history is written and from what perspective is it taken, this source is a very good read!

1. A BOOK REPORT ON:
UNDERSTANDING
HISTORY: A PRIMER OF
HISTORICAL METHOD
AUTHOR:
LOUIS R. GOTTSCHALK

4. ABOUT THE AUTHOR
• BORN: FEBRUARY 21, 1899 IN NEW YORK,
UNITED STATES
• DIED: JUNE 23, 1975
• OCCUPATION: EDUCATOR, HISTORIAN
• EDUCATION: CORNELL UNIVERSITY (BA, MA,
AND PH.D)
• WRITTEN WORKS: THE POLITICAL CARRER
OF JEAN PAUL MARAT (DOCTORAL
DISSERTATION), JEAN PAUL MARAT: STUDY
IN RADICALISM (1972), HIS ERA OF THE
FRENCH REVOLUTION 1715-1815 (1929), LA
FAYETTE COMES TO AMERICA (1935),
LAFAYETTE JOINS THE AMERICAN ARMY
(1937), LA FAYETTE AND THE CLOSE OF THE
AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1942), LA FA
YETTE BETWEEN THE AMERICAN AND THE
FRENCH REVOLUTION 1783-1759 (1950)

5. • IS CONCERNED WITH THE PROCESS OF
WRITING HISTORY, THE METHODS THAT ARE
TO BE EMPLOYED (WHICH INCLUDES DATA
VALIDATION).
• GIVES THE ISSUES OF THE PROCESS OF
WRITING HISTORY AND PRESENTS THEM IN
A DETAILED YET COMPREHENSIVE MANNER
THAT IS INTENDED FOR THOSE WHO ARE
BEGINNERS IN THE WRITING OF HISTORY

6. PARTS OF THE BOOK
• IS COMPOSED OF TEN CHAPTERS WITH
THREE MAJOR PARTS:
– OBJECTIVES OF HISTORIANS
– METHODS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
– THEORY OF HISTORY

7. OBJECTIVES OF HISTORIANS
• HISTORY AND PATRIOTISM
– HISTORY IS USED TO TRAIN LOYAL CITIZENS
• HISTORY AND DEMOCRATIC FAITH
– PATRIOTISM CAN BE INCULCATED BY A FRANK AND UNBASHED
PREACHING OF DEMOCRATIC IDEALS
• HISTORY AS ART/ SCIENCE
– HISTORY IS AN ACT OF FAITH
– EMPLOYS THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
– HISTORIANS ARE POINTERS OF MORALS ( CONCSIOUS OR
UNCONSCIOUS.
– EVERY HISTORIAN HAS A PHILOSOPHY EVEN IF HE/SHE DENIES IT
• HISTORY,PHILOSPHY, AND ETHICS
– TRUTH DERIVED FROM HISTORY DOES NOT ONLY INCLUDE TRUTH BUT
ALSO ENCAPSULATES THE WRITER’S PHILOSOPHICAL PRINCIPLES
– HISTORIANS MUST HAVE A PHILOSOPHICAL/ETHICAL PRINCIPLE

8. HISTORY AND LITERARY STYLE
• ACCURACY AND PRECISION VS. EXPRESSION OF
FELICITY
ARE WE TO PRESENT HISTORY
IN UNIFORM DULLNESS OF
FACTS? OR HAVE IT WRITTEN
IN SUCH A MANNER THAT
HISTORY BECOMES ALIVE?

9. USE OF FOOTNOTES
• FOOTNOTES
– INDICATE THE SOURCE OF A STATEMENT.
– PROVIDES BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LEADS TO SOLVE
REPETITION OF TITLES
– SECURE GREATER ACCURACY IN WRITING
– CAN BE LENGTHY/ ARE PARAPHRASES FROM
SOURCES

10. THE ABUSE OF FOOTNOTES
• SLOVENLINESS
– ARE PATENT INSERTIONS OF AN AUTHOR PRIOR TO OR AFTER
FINAL PUBLICATION OF HIS WORK
• PEDANTRY
– THE SLAVISH ATTENTION TO RULES/DETAILS ON THE PART OF
THE AUTHOR
• FOOTNOTES ARE USED FOR IDENTIFICATION AND MOST
READERS DO NOT LIKE FOOTNOTES OR THEY IGNORE
THEM.
• DOCUMENTS ARE INTENDED FOR SCHOLARS

11. HISTORY AND POPULAR TASTE
• WHAT MAKES A BOOK POPULAR?
• WORKS OF HISTORY WRITTEN IN THE
UNITED STATES APPEAL GENERALLY TO
AMERICANS
• PREFERENCE OF WHAT IS RECENT, TIMELY,
SENASATIONAL, CLASSIC, EXOTIC, EROTIC,
AND PATRIOTIC

12. THE RELATION OF HISTORICAL METHOD TO LIFELONG
LEARNING
• EVERY MAN IS HIS OWN HISTORIAN
– EVERY MAN IS NOT ONLY A HISTORIAN OF HIS OWN BUT ALSO HAS A CHANCE
OF BEING AMONG THOSE WHOSE RECORDS WILL COME TO THE ATTENTION
OF A HISTORIAN
• ESSENTIALS OF HISTORICAL METHOD
– HISTORICAL DOCUMENT/PROOF
• ARE THEY AUTHENTIC/CREDIBLE?
• HOW MUCH OF THE CREDIBLE PARTS ARE AUTHENTIC?
• TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THESE CREDIBLE?

13. HISTORY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
• HISTORIANS CAN ALSO AIM FOR THE SCIENTIFC PROCEDURE
THAN JUST BE SCIENTIFIC
• A HISTORIAN CAN BE BOTH A SOCIAL SCIENTIST AND A
HUMANIST
• HISTORY MAY BE BOTH A SCIENCE AND A SOCIAL SCIENCE
• A SOCIAL SCIENTIST FOCUSES ON PREDICTION AND CONTROL
• A HUMANIST IS FOCUSED ON THE UNIQUE

14. 3 WAYS OF STUDYING HUMAN ACHIEVEMENT
THERE ARE THREE APPROACHES
• CRITICAL ANALYTICAL
– STUDY OF GREAT WORKS OF LITERATURE (AS A
LITERARY CRITIC)
• SUBSTANTIVE HISTORICAL
– ILLUSTARTING AN IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENT
UNRELATED TO CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL SETTINGS
• SOCIO-CULTURAL
– USE OF SITUATIONAL INTERRELATIONS, SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY/CLIMATE OF OPINION, SOCIAL ECOLOGY
(AS A SOCIAL HISTORIAN)

15. METHODS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• HISTORY IS DERIVED FROM A GREEK WORD WHICH MEANS
LEARNING.
• FOR ARISTOTLE, HISTORY IS A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF A
SET OF NATURAL PHENOMENON, RESERVED TO
CHORNOLOGICAL PHENOMENA.
• THE PROBLEM IS THE HISTORY OF MANKIND IS BEYOND
RECALL

16. OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY
• FACTS OF HISTORY ARE DERIVED FROM
TESTIMONY
• THESE ARE SYMBOLIC/REPRESENTATIVE OF
SOMETHING REAL BUT DO NOT HAVE AN
OBJECTIVE REALITY OF THEIR OWN
(SUBJECTIVE).
TO BE OBJECTIVE
– MEANS ONE MUST ACQUIRE DATA IS DETACHED
AND TRUTHFUL KNOWLEDGE THAT IS INDEPENDENT
OF PERSONAL REACTION
– IT MUST BE AN OBJECT THAT EXISTS OUTSIDE OF
THE HUMAN MIND.

17. • RECOLLECTIONS
– THE BASIS OF MANY HISTORIES
– WRITTEN OR SPOKEN
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA?
• SUBJECTIVE – INFERIOR, ILLUSORY, BASED ON PERSONAL
CONSIDERATIONS, CAN BE UNTRUE, AND BIASED
• OBJECTIVE – SUPERIOR, IMPARTIAL, JUDICIALLY DETACHED, AND
DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN
• SUBJECTIVE DATA IS NOT NECESSARILY INFERIOR BUT OBJECTIVITY IN
DEALING WITH SUBJECTIVITY SAFEGUARDS US FROM ERROR.

18. AS SOURCES
OF HISTORY
• ARTIFACTS ARE OBJECTS THAT CAN
TAKE THE FORM OF POSTSHERDS,
COINS, WRECKAGE, STRAND OF
HAIR, BOOK, OR A STAMP.
• ARE NEVER THE HAPPENINGS OF
THE EVENTS THEMSELVES.
• ARTIFACTS ARE RESULTS OF
EVENTS AND ARE NOT THE
ESSENCEOF HISTORY IN AS MUCH
AS DOCUMENTS ARE BUT THE
RESULT OF RECORD OF EVENTS

19. IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW THE NATURE OF ARTIFACTS IN HISTORY
BECAUSE THE HISTORIAN DEALS WITH:
– THE BECOMING
– THE BEING/BECOME
– THE WHY AND HOW IT HAPPENED
– THE WHAT, WHEN, AND WHERE
• ARTIFACTS CAN BE GIVEN A
HISTORICAL CONTEXT IF PLACED
IN A HUMAN SETTING BUT THERE
CAN BE NO DEGREE OF CERTAINTY

20. LIMITED HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE BY
INCOMPLETENESS OF RECORDS
• ASIDE FROM BEING UNABLE TO PUT ARTIFACTS IN
HUMAN SETTING WE ALSO DO NOT HAVE THE
ARTIFACTS BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING:
– MOST HUMAN AFFAIRS LEAVE NO RECORDS
– NO RICH SOURCE OF OBSERVED EVENTS.
– ONLY PARTS OF THE WHOLE ARE REMEMBERED
– ONLY PARTS OF WHAT IS REMEMBERED IS CREDIBLE.
– ONLY PARTS COMES TO THE HISTORIANS ATTENTION
• THE WHOLE HISTORY OF THE PAST (HISTORY AS
ACTUALITY) CAN ONLY BE KNOWN THROUGH
SURVIVING RECORDS

21. POINTS TO REMEMBER
• A RECORD OF THE PAST IS DERIVED
FROM ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE;
THESE ARE EVEN THE SCHOLAR’S
SELECTED PARTS.
• HISTORY AS ACTUALITY
– PERISHED HISTORY THAT HAPPENED
• HISTORY AS RECORDS
– SURVIVING RECORDS OF WHAT HAPPENED
• HISTORY AS TOLD
– SPOKEN OR WRITTEN HISTORY

22. HISTORY AS THE SUBJECTIVE
PROCESS OF RECREATION
• HISTORIANS CANNOT RECREATE THE PAST OF
MANKIND, ONLY IN TERMS OF HIS OWN
EXPERIENCE WHICH TAUGHT HIM THAT:
– YESTERDAY IS DIFFERENT FROM TODAY IN SOME WAYS
– HIS EXPERIENCE IS BOTH LIKE AND UNLIKE OTHER MEN
• WHAT SURVIVES IN HISTORY IS NOT ONLY
INTERPRETED IN THE LIGHT OF HIS OWN
EXPERIENCE BUT ALSO ON OTHERS

23. THE PROBLEM WITH MEMORIES
• ARE ABSTRACT
• RECONSTRUCTED MEMORIES CAN BE MORE
ABSTRACT EVEN IF IT IS REINFORCED BY
RECORDS AND RELICS
• THUS HISTORY AS ACTUALITY ARE MENTAL
IMAGES
• EVERY HISTORIANS AIM IS VERISIMILITUDE WITH
REGARDS TO A PERISHED PAST.

24. HISTORIANS MUST ACKNOWLEDGE THAT TRUTH HAS ELUDED
HIM FOREVER
• HISTORY IS SCATTERED AND
DETACHED OBJECTS TO
STUDY THAT DO NOT MAKE
UP THE TOTAL WHOLE
• HISTORIANS DEAL NOT ONLY
WITH PHYSICAL TRACES BUT
ALSO HUMAN TESTIMONY
• THE GOAL IS TO WRITE A
VERISIMILAR IMAGE OF THE
PAST.

25. CHOOSING A SUBJECT AND FINDING
INFORMATION ABOUT IT
• TO AVOID LIMITS OF SELF-EXPRESSION ONE
MUST CHOOSE HIS OWN SUBJECT
• 4 CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING A SUBJECT
– GEOGRAPHICAL
– BIOGRAPHICAL
– CHRONOLOGICAL
– FUNCTIONAL
• REDUCE THE GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE/NUMBER OF
PERSONS/SPAN OF TIME/KIND OF HUMAN
ACTIVITY TO MEET TIME CONSTRAINTS.

26. REDUCING AND EXPANDING THE
SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT
• TO REDUCE THE SCOPE OF THE
SUBJECT, ONE CAN BEGIN BY
DELIMITING THE GEOGRAPHICAL
SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT.
• TO EXPAND THE SCOPE OF SUBJECT
WITH LIMITED SOURCES BECAUSE OF
DELIMITED SCOPE ONE MAY CONSIDER
THE INCLUSION OF ROLE/ HISTORY OF
THE SUBJECT/ CONTRIBUTION OF THE
SUBJECT.

27. LIMITATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF THE
SUBJECT
• THE SUBJECT IS NOT
FAMILIAR
• THE SOURCES BELONGED
TO PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS
• SUBJECT IS
INTANGIBLE/DEBATABLE/
ANSWERABLE

28. COMPARATIVE STUDIES
• REQUIRESTRIPLE
KNOWLEDGE OF THE
VARIABLES OF THE STUDY
(A, B, AND C).
• A DIFFICULT AND TIME
CONSUMING STUDY TO
UNDERTAKE

29. AIDES IN THE CHOICE OF SUBJECT
• USE BOOKS/MATERIALS THAT CITE AREAS OF
FURTHER STUDIES
• BE SPECIFIC IN THE PARTICULARS OF YOUR
TITLE TO AVOID MISLEADING YOUR READERS.
• SOURCES ARE AVAILABLE IN LIBRARIES WHICH
CONTAIN CATALOGUES AND REFERENCE BOOKS.
• ACCESS BIBLIOGRAPHIES

30. TIPS ON NOTE-TAKING
• TAKE NOTE OF THE RELEVANT
INFORMATION
• NOTING THE EXACT WORDS FOR
FULL QUOTATION
• LANGUAGE OF THE SOURCE
MUST BE CAREFULLY COPIED
(SPELLING, PUNCTUATION,
ORTHOGRAPHY)

31. USE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES
• MAKING USE OF
MICROFILMS/MICROPRDUCTION OF AN
ENTIRE PART OF A SOURCE THAT REQUIRES
TO BE QUOTED IN WHOLE OR IN PARTS.

32. REMINDER NOTES AND
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
• REMIDER NOTES ARE NOTES OF A MATERIAL
THAT WILL NOT BE USED IN THE STUDY
• BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES ARE LISTS OF BOOKS
AND ARTICLES RELEVANT TO THE STUDY.
– 2 KINDS
• TITLES USED
• TITLES THAT WILL BE USED

33. ARRANGING NOTES
• DIVIDE NOTES INTO TWO SECTIONS; ONE FOR
THE CONSULTED NOTES AND THE OTHER
FOR THE “TO BE CONSULTED NOTES”.
• ARRANGING NOTES SHOULD BE:
– ALPHABETICAL (AUTHORS NAME)
– TOPICAL (FOR SPECIFIC TOPICS)
– CHRONOLOGICAL (FOR SEQUENCE OF EVENTS).

34. PRIMARY SOURCES
• "Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as
possible to what actually happened during an historical event
or time period."
• They are generally unpublished materials, such as manuscripts,
photographs, maps, artifacts, audio and video recordings, oral
histories, postcards, and posters.

35. SOURCES OF HISTORICAL
INFORMATION
• SURVIVING OBJECTS
• WRITTEN TESTIMONIES
• CONTEMPORARY RECORDS
• PERSONAL NOTEBOOKS AND PRIVATE MEMORANDA
• CONFIDENTIAL REPORTS
• PUBLIC REPORTS
• GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS AND COMPILATIONS
• EXPRESSIONS OF OPINION
• FICTION, SONG AND POETRY
• FOLKLORE, PLACE, NAMES AND PROVERBS

36. SECONDARY SOURCES
• THESE ARE SECONDHAND
NARRATIVES/EXPOSITIONS
• MAY BE FURTHERED IN TIME BUT MAY BE
MORE RELIABLE
• MAY BE REHASHED OR A HACKED WRITING
OF AN EXISTING WORK.
• 4 PURPOSES OF USING SECONDARY
SOURCES
– DERIVE SETTING FOR FURTHER EVIDENCE
– LEADS TO BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA
– ACQUIRES QUOTATIONS/CITATION
– DERIVE INTERPRETATION AND HYPOTHESIS
TEST/IMPROVE UPON THEM
"sources created by
someone either not
present when the
event took place or
removed by time from
the event."

37. PROBLEM OF AUTHENTICITY
• DOCUMENTS ARE OFTEN FABRICATED AND NOT GENUINE
• TESTING AUTHENTICITY INCLUDES THE EXAMINATION TO FIND
OUT WHETHER THE MATERIAL IS ANACHRONISTIC OR NOT.
– ANACHRONISTIC STYLE – USE OF IDIOMS, ORTHOGRAPHY, OR
PUNCTUATION COMMON IN A CERTAIN PERIOD IN HISTORY.
• ONE SHOULD IDETIFY THE AUTHOR OF THE DOCUMENT
• THE DOCUMENTS SHOULD BE CONSISTENT WITH THE PRESENCE
OR LACK OF ELEMENTS IN HISTORY.

38. GARBLED DOCUMENTS
• MAY BE A PART/ENTIRELY THE RESULT OF INTENDING TO
DECEIVE.
• REPEATEDLY USED FOR THE LACK OF ORIGINAL
DOCUMENT
• MAY BE MODIFIED/SUPPLEMENTED TO CONTINUE THE
ORIGINAL DOCUMENT.
• WITH PROBLEMS ON VARIED DOCUMENTS THE HISTORIAN
MUST BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY THE CLOSEST TO THE
ORIGINAL DOCUMENT.

39. RESTORATION OF TEXTS
• TO FIND THE CLOSEST ORIGINAL BY
LOOKING FOR DESCENDED DOCUMENTS
WITH CONTENTS THAT ATTRIBUTES TO THE
AUTHOR OF THE DOCUMENT.

40. SCIENCES AUXILLARY TO HISTORY
• EGYPTOLOGY AND PAPYROLOGY
• ASSYRIOLOGY
• PHILOLOGY
• EPIGRAPHY
• ANTHROPOLOGY
• PALEOGEOGRAPHY
• ARCHELOGY
• LEXICOGRAPHY
» AND MANY MORE

41. • IMPORTANT TO HISTORY AS
IT CLARIFIES /RECONCILES
VARIOUS CALENDARS
AND CONCEPT OF TIME
USED IN HISTORY
» E.G: ORTHODOX VS.
GREGORIAN CALENDAR

42. PROBLEM OF MEANING
• MEANING OF CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES CAN CHANGE
OVER TIME AND MAY POSE A CHALLENGE TO HISTORIANS.
• MEANING BETWEEN THE LITERATE AND ILLITERATE MAY
ALSO VARY
• SEMANTICS (SIGNIFICATION) AND HERMENEUTICS
(CONTEXT OF THE STATEMENT) MAY ALSO VARY
• THE CHALLENGE IS WHETHER TO TAKE MEANINGS IN
FACE VALUE OR SHOULD WE INFER?

43. IDENTIFICATION OF AUTHORS AND
OF DATES
• DONE THROUGH EXTERNAL CRITICISM
WHICH MAY INCLUDE THE SURMISING OF
HABITS, ATTITUDES, CHARACTERS,
LEARNINGS, AND ASSOCIATES OF THE
AUTHOR.

44. PROBLEM OF CREDIBILITY (INTERNAL
CRITICISM)
• HISTORIANS DO NOT ONLY SYNTHESIZE RESULTS BUT
SHOULD ALSO DO ANALYSIS OF THE DOCUMENT’S
CREDIBILITY
TERMS TO REMEMBER
• HISTORICAL FACT – A PARTICULAR DERIVED DIRECTLY OR
INDIRECTLY FROM HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS REGARDED
AS CREDIBLE.
• CREDIBLE – CLOSE TO WHAT ACTUALLY HAPPENED BASED
ON THE CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE
SOURCES WITH HIGH VERISIMILARITY.

45. QUEST FOR PARTICULAR DETAILS
• ONE MUST NOTE THAT THE WHOLE
TESTIMONY OF A SOURCE IS NOT ENTIRELY
CREDIBLE AND RELIABLE.
• THE TASK OF HISTORIANS IS TO EXTRACT
CREDIBLE PARTICULARS DESPITE THE
REPUTATION OF THE AUTHOR.

46. IDENTIFICATION OF THE AUTHOR
• DONE TO TEST THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE SOURCE
(DID THE AUTHOR MAKE THE TESTIMONY?)
• REGARDLESS OF AUTHOR REPUTATION ONE MUST
CONSIDER ALL SOURCES TO BE GUILTY OF DECEIT.
• ESTABLISH AUTHOR RELIABILITY
• WRITE ABOUT WHAT IS NOT KNOWN ABOUT THE
AUTHOR AND DO REFERENCE WORK

47. DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE
DATE
• USED FOR SOURCES THAT DO NOT
EXPLICITLY GIVE THE DATE OR TIME FRAME
OF THE EVENT.
• CONSIDER THE TERMINUS NON ANTE
QUEM (NOT BEFORE WHICH) AND
POST QUEM (NOT AFTER WHICH).

48. PERSONAL EQUATION
• THIS THE TIME FRAME OF AN EVENT
POINTS OF CONSIDERATION
• WAS THE AUTHOR OF THE TESTIMONY AN EYE
WITNESS? OR ONE OF THE AUDIENCE?
• WAS THE TESTIMONY WRITTEN CLOSE TO THE
TIME OF THE EVENT? WHAT IS TIME LAPSE
FROM THE ACTUAL EVENT WHEN THE
TESTIMONY WAS GIVEN.
• IT IS THE WITNESS AND THE DETAILS OF THE
TESTIMONY ARE SUBJECTED TO EXAMINATION
NOT THE WHOLE SOURCE.

49. GENERAL QUESTIONS TO TEST
PERSONAL EQUATIONS
• WAS THE REFERENCE A PRIMARY SOURCE?
• WAS THE WITNESS WILLING TO TELL THE
TRUTH?
• IS THE SOURCE ACCURATELY REPORTED WITH
REGARD TO THE DETAIL UNDER EXAMINATION?
• ARE THERE INDEPENDENT CORROBORATION OF
THE DETAIL UNDER EXAMINATION?

50. ABILITY TO TELL THE TRUH
• PARTLY RESTS ON THE NEARNESS
OF THE SOURCE TO AN EVENT
(GEOGRAPHICAL/CHRONOLOGICAL).
• WITNESS RELIABLITY VARIES ON:
– REMOTENESS FROM TH SCENE IN A
PLACE AND TIME
– REMOTENESS TO THE EVENT UPON
THE RECORDING OF HIS TESTIMONY.

51. STEPS TO CONSIDER TO TEST
HISTORICAL TESTIMONY
THREE MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS
• OBSERVATION
• RECOLLECTION
• RECORDING

52. ONE SHOULD ALSO CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING
IN EXAMING A SOURCE AND ACQUIRING
TESTIMONY.
•COMPETENCE- DEPENDS ON
AUTHOR EXPERTNESS, MENTAL AND
PHYSICAL STATE, AGE, EDUCATION, MEMORY,
NARRATIVE SKILLS.

53. • DEGREE OF ATTENTION – WHAT
WAS NOTICED AND UNNOTICED. USED TO
TEST CLARITY.

54. • LEADING QUESTION - IMPLYING
QUESTIONS THAT GIVE THE EXPECTED
ANSWERS (YES OR NO QUESTIONS).

55. •REASONING CIRCLE –
PREMISE BACK TO PREMISE NARRATIVES

56. TANDAAN….