Cognitive Process

1. UNIT- XIII
COGNITIVE PROCESS
DR. RAHUL SHARMA
PROFESSOR
PH.D. COORDINATOR
HOD OF MENTAL HEALTH NURSING
SEEDLING SCHOOL OF NURSING
JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, JAIPUR

2. ATTENTION-
It is the focus of consciousness on a particular
object or idea at a particular time, to the exclusion
of other objects or ideas.
• DEFINITION-
• Attention is defined as a process, which compels the
individual to select some particular stimulus according to
his interest and attitude out of the multiplicity of stimuli
present in the environment.
(SHARMA RN–1967)
• Attention is the concentration of consciousness upon
one object rather than upon another. (DUMVILLE–1938)

3. TYPES OF ATTENTION
* VOLUNTARY (VOLITIONAL)
* INVOLUNTARY (NON-VOLITIONAL)
• VOLUNTARY ATTENTION-
Voluntary attention demands a conscious effort on our
part. For example, solving an assigned problem in
mathematics, answering a question in an examination
needs voluntary attention. It is further subdivided into two
categories:
• IMPLICIT VOLITIONAL ATTENTION
• EXPLICIT VOLITIONAL ATTENTION

4. •IMPLICIT VOLITIONAL ATTENTION: A single
act is responsible for arousing attention. For
example, a teacher assigns practice work to
a child and warns of punishment, if not
completed.
•EXPLICIT VOLITIONAL ATTENTION: Attention
is obtained by repeated acts of will. For
example, the attention paid during
examination days for securing good grades.

5. INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION-
This type of attention is aroused without the play of will or
without making a conscious effort on our part. For
example, we give involuntary attention to loud sounds,
bright lights and strong odors, etc.
* Involuntary or non-volitional attention aroused by the
instincts is called enforced non-volitional attention. For
example, giving attention out of curiosity.
* Non-volitional attention aroused by sentiments is called
spontaneous non-volitional attention. For example, we
give somewhat automatic or spontaneous attention
towards some objects, idea, person, around which our
sentiments are formed.

6. DETERMINANTS OF ATTENTION (OR) METHODS OF AROUSING
ATTENTION (OR) FACTORS AND CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR
CAPTURING ATTENTION-
certain factors produce and control the condition of attention in a
person. these factors are classified as, external (objective)–those
found in one’s environment and internal (subjective)–those within
the person himself.
• EXTERNAL FACTORS OR CONDITIONS
• NATURE OF THE STIMULUS:. a picture attracts attention more
readily than words. among the pictures, the pictures of
human being (especially beautiful woman or handsome
men) capture more attention than those of animals or
objects. it has been found that in comparison with other
sensations, color and sound attract more attention.

7. INTENSITY OF THE STIMULUS: In comparison
to a weak stimulus, an intense stimulus
attracts more attention of an individual. Our
attention becomes easily directed to a loud
sound, a bright light or a strong smell.
SIZE OF THE STIMULUS: As a general rule
bigger size objects in the environment are
more likely to catch our attention than a
small object. A small size on a very big
background also attracts attention.

8. CONTRAST, CHANGE AND NOVELTY: Change and
variety strike attention more easily than routine.
The use of maps and charts suddenly attracts the
student’s attention, when compared to the routine
verbal talk.
Any change in the stimulation to which we have
become adapted immediately captures our
attention.
Novelty means something new or different. It
attracts attention very easily and is closely related
to change. A new building, a new teacher are all
examples of common novelty.

9. LOCATION OF THE STIMULUS: The location of
the stimulus also affects attention. For
example, it has been found in experiments
that advertisements given on the front page
or on the upper half of any page attract more
attention.
REPETITION OF THE STIMULUS: A repeated
stimulus attracts our attention. We may
ignore a stimulus at first instance but, when
it is repeated several times, it captures our
attention. A misspelt word is more likely to
be noticed.

10. MOVEMENT OF THE STIMULUS: A moving
stimulus catches our attention more quickly
than a stimulus that does not move. This is
why the pictures on a television screen or
those in a cinema hold our attention for
hours at time.
DEFINITE FORM OF THE OBJECT: A sharply
defined object attracts our attention more
than a broad indefinite object. A figure
attracts more attention than the background.

11. ISOLATION OF THE STIMULUS: Isolation is an
important external determinant of attention. A
student sitting alone in the corner of the class is
seen first (attracts more attention than others).
INTERNAL FACTORS OR CONDITIONS:
A person’s attention to a stimulus depends not
only upon the characteristics of the stimulus or the
favorable environmental conditions but also upon
his interest, motives, basic needs and urges, etc.

12. INTEREST AND ATTENTION: Interest is a very helpful factor
in securing attention. We attend to objects, in which we
are interested than those in which we are not interested.
MOTIVES: The basic drives and urges of the individual are
very important in securing attention. Thirst, hunger, sex,
curiosity, fear are some of the important motives that
exercise definite influence upon attention. When hungry
we may attend to even distasteful food but while our belly
is full we may not attend to even the tastiest one.
MENTAL SET-UP: A person always attends to those
objects, towards which his mind has set. For example, on
the day of examination the slightest thing concerning the
examination easily attracts the attention of the students.

13. PAST EXPERIENCE: Learning and previous experience
facilitate attention. If we know by our past experience that
a particular person is sincere to us, we pay attention to
what ever he advices.
EMOTION: The emotional state, in which a person
determines attention. For example, a person attends only
to bad qualities of his enemy.
HABIT: Habit is also an important determinant of
attention. A man develops the habit of attending to
necessary and desirable things and on the other hand also
develops habit of not attending to unnecessary and
undesirable things.

14. AIM: Every man has some immediate and ultimate aims.
So a student whose aim is to pass the examination will at
once attend to the textbooks or notes.
MEANING: In comparison to meaningless stimuli,
meaningful stimulus attracts more attention.
DISPOSITION (NATURAL TENDENCY) AND
TEMPERAMENT: Both are important internal factors
which attract attention. For example, a man having
a religious disposition and spiritual temperament
will attend to religious matters.

15. DURATION AND DEGREE OF ATTENTION
SPAN OF ATTENTION
It is the amount of time a person can concentrate on a
task without becoming distracted.
The maximum amount of material that can be attended in
one period of attention is called span of attention.
This can be visual attention or auditory attention. The
average human attention span is 3-5 minutes in children
and in adults maximum 20 minutes.
Shifting of attention occurs when our attention
passes from one part of the stimulus to another
part of the stimulus.

16. ALTERATIONS IN ATTENTION
DISTRACTION:
• Distraction means any stimulus whose presence
interferes with the process of attention or draws
away attention from the object which we wish to
attend.
• (HR BHATIA—1968)
• These alterations in attention reduce the
efficiency of work.

17. • SOURCES OF DISTRACTION
• The various sources of distraction is present.
They affect the individual according to his own
mental set- up and personality characteristics.
The conditions which cause distraction to an
individual may prove helpful in sustaining
attention to others.
• External factors/environmental factors
• Internal factors

18. • EXTERNAL FACTORS
• Noise, music, improper lighting, uncomfortable seats,
unfavorable temperature, inadequate ventilation,
defective methods of teaching, defective voice of the
teacher, etc.
• INTERNAL FACTORS
• Emotional disturbances, illness, boredom, lack of
motivation, fatigue, etc. The nurse should take great care
to get away all possible causes of distractions in working
area so as to sustain attention.

19. • TYPES OF DISTRACTION
• CONTINUOUS DISTRACTION
• The distraction is continuous in nature. For
example, the sound of radio played continuously,
the noise at the market place, etc..
• DISCONTINUOUS DISTRACTION
• It is irregular. For example, the hearing of
somebody’s voice every now and then. It interferes
with work because of the impossibility of
adjustment.

20. PERCEPTION
•When our sense organs come in contact with
the world and are stimulated by external
stimuli and receive sensations, it results in
perception. Perception is the interpretation
of sensory stimuli, which arrives the sense
organs and the brain. Interpretation gives
meaning to sensation and we become aware

21. DEFINITIONS
•Perception is the experience of objects,
events or relationships obtained by
extracting information from and interpreting
sensations. (JH jackson, O desiderato and
DB howieson—1976)
•Perception is an individual’s awareness
aspect of behavior, for it is the way each
person processes the raw data he receives
from the environment, into meaningful

22. PRINCIPLE OF FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP
•According to principle of figure-ground
relationship, a figure is perceived in
relationship to its background. The
perception of the object or figure in terms
of color, size, shape and intensity, etc.
Depends upon the figure-ground
relationship. We perceive a figure against a
background or background against a figure
depending upon the characteristics of the

23. FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP

24. PRINCIPLE OF CLOSURE
According to principle of closure, while confronting
an incomplete pattern one tends to complete or
close the pattern or fill in sensory gaps and
perceive it as a meaningful whole. This type of
organization is extremely helpful in making
valuable interpretation of various incomplete
objects, patterns or stimuli present in our
environment. For example, the lines in the figure
may be well perceived as letters W, M and D

25. PRINCIPLE OF CLOSURE

26. PRINCIPLE OF GROUPING:
Principle of grouping refers to a tendency to
perceive stimuli in some organized meaningful
patterns by grouping them on some solid basis like
similarity, proximity and continuity.
On the basis of similarity, objects or stimuli
which look alike are usually perceived as a unit. For
example, in the following figure vertical rows of
black dots and blank dots may be seen to form
separate groups in terms of their perception
(figure 3.3).

27. PRINCIPLE OF GROUPING:

28. PRINCIPLE OF GROUPING:
On proximity basis objects or stimuli, which
appear close to one another are likely to be
perceived as belonging to the same group.
Example: we see three sets of two lines each and
not six separate lines:

29. PRINCIPLE OF GROUPING:
The objects or stimuli are perceived as a unit or
group on the basis of their continuity. Our
attention is being held more by a continuous
pattern rather than discontinuous ones.
Example: we see a curved line and a straight line.
We do not see a straight line with small semi-
circles above and below

30. PRINCIPLE OF CONTRAST
Perceptual organization is very much affected
through contrast effects as the stimuli that are in
sharp contrast to nearby stimuli may draw our
maximum attention and carry different perceptual
affects.
Example: here the surrounding circles in A make
the central circle seem larger than the central circle
in B, even though the two are of the same size.

31. FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION-
SENSE ORGANS:
Perception depends upon the sense organs or
receptors, on which the stimuli act and sensory
neurons, which transmit the nerve current from the
receptors to the sensory area of the brain. For
example, if cones are not developed in the retina,
color cannot be perceived.
BRAIN:
Perception depends upon the functioning capacity
of sensory area and the association areas of the
brain. For example, if the auditory area is
destroyed we cannot have auditory perception.

32. MEMORY IMAGES OF THE PAST EXPERIENCE:
Memory images help us in the comprehension of
the object or stimulus before us. For example, a
child has come in contact with a horse for the first
time. He has already seen a cow. When he is asked
what it (horse) is, he may say it is a cow or like a
cow.
PERSONAL INTERESTS AND MIND SET:
We perceive those things quickly and clearly, which
are concerned with our interests and mind set.

33. ACQUIRED INTERESTS:
Our acquired interests also determine the object or
objects, which we perceive. A person, who has a
hobby of collecting stamps will quickly notice any
new stamp on a letter.
NEEDS AND DESIRES:
Our needs or desires also modify our perceptions.
Besides these, our beliefs, opinions and cultural
ideals also modify our perception of things,
situations and objects.

34. Intelligence
INTRODUCTION:
It consists of an individual’s mental or
cognitive ability, which helps the person in
solving his actual life problems and leading
a happy and well-contended life.

35. Definition:
INTELLIGENCE IS THE AGGREGATE OR GLOBAL
CAPACITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO THINK
RATIONALLY, TO ACT PURPOSEFULLY AND TO
DEAL EFFECTIVELY WITH THE ENVIRONMENT.
(WECHSLER—1944)
INTELLIGENCE IS THE ABILITY TO MASTER THE
INFORMATION AND SKILLS NEEDED TO SUCCEED
WITHIN A PARTICULAR CULTURE. (LOLURTO—
1991)

36. Classification of Intelligence:
CONCRETE INTELLIGENCE:
CONCRETE INTELLIGENCE IS RELATED TO
CONCRETE MATERIALS. THIS TYPE OF
INTELLIGENCE IS APPLICABLE WHEN THE
INDIVIDUAL IS HANDLING CONCRETE OBJECTS
OR MACHINES. THE PERSON USES THIS
INTELLIGENCE IN THE OPERATION OF TOOLS
AND INSTRUMENTS. EXAMPLE: ENGINEERS,
MECHANICS GENERALLY HAVE THIS TYPE OF
INTELLIGENCE.

37. Classification of Intelligence:
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE:
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE IS THE ABILITY OF AN
INDIVIDUAL TO REACT TO SOCIAL SITUATIONS IN DAILY
LIFE. IT INCLUDES THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND PEOPLE
AND ACT WISELY IN HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS. PERSONS
HAVING THIS TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE, KNOW THE ART
OF WINNING FRIENDS AND INFLUENCE THEM.
EXAMPLE: LEADERS, MINISTERS, SALESMEN, DIPLOMATS
ARE SOCIALLY INTELLIGENT.

38. Classification of Intelligence:
ABSTRACT OR GENERAL INTELLIGENCE:
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE IS THE ABILITY TO
RESPOND TO WORDS, NUMBERS AND LETTERS,
ETC. THIS TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE IS ACQUIRED
BY STUDY OF BOOKS AND RELATED LITERATURE.
MOSTLY GOOD TEACHERS, LAWYERS, DOCTORS,
PHILOSOPHERS HAVE THIS TYPE OF
INTELLIGENCE.

39. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence:
ACCORDING TO HOWARD GARDNER, THERE ARE EIGHT MAJOR KINDS OF
INTELLIGENCE
Type of intelligence Description
1. Musical intelligence Skills in tasks involving music. Example: Musicians
2. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence Skills in using the whole body or various portions of it, in the solution of
problems or in the construction of products. Example: Dancers, athletes,
actors, surgeons, etc.
3. Logical-mathematical intelligence Skills in problem solving and scientific thinking. Example: Scientists
4. Linguistic intelligence Skills involved in the production and use of language. Example: Literati
5. Spatial intelligence Skills involving spatial configurations, such as those used by artists and
architects
6. Interpersonal intelligence Skills in interacting with others, such as sensitivity to the moods,
temperaments, motivations and intentions of others
7. Intrapersonal intelligence Knowledge of the internal aspects of one self; access to one’s own
feelings and emotions
8. Naturalist intelligence Ability to identify and classify patterns in nature

40. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence:
ACCORDING TO HOWARD GARDNER, THERE ARE EIGHT MAJOR KINDS OF
INTELLIGENCE

41. Emotional Intelligence:
INTELLIGENCE THAT PROVIDES AN
UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT OTHER PEOPLE
ARE FEELING AND EXPERIENCING, AND
PERMITS US TO RESPOND APPROPRIATELY
TO OTHER’S NEEDS IS CALLED EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE

42. Intelligence Quotient:
THE IDEA OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT
WAS UTILIZED FIRST IN 1916 BY
STANFORD-BINET TESTS. INTELLIGENCE
QUOTIENT IS THE RATIO BETWEEN MENTAL
AGE (MA) AND CHRONOLOGICAL AGE (CA).
WHILE THE CHRONOLOGICAL AGE IS
DETERMINED FROM THE DATE OF BIRTH,
MENTAL AGE IS DETERMINED BY
INTELLIGENCE TESTS.

43. Intelligence Quotient:
IQ = MA/CA × 100
IMAGINE A 10-YEAR-OLD BOY SCORES
A MENTAL AGE OF
12.HIS IQ WILL BE
12/10 X100=120

44. LEARNING:
One of the most important characteristics
of human beings is their capacity to learn.
An individual starts learning immediately
after his birth or in a strict sense even
earlier in the womb of the mother. Our
personality–our habits, skills, knowledge,
attitudes, interests and character is largely
the result of learning.

45. Definition:
 The term learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental
requirements.
(GARDNER MURPHY—1968)
 Learning is defined as the behavioral modification which occurs as a result of
experience as well as training.
(GALES )
 Learning is defined as the process of acquisition of knowledge, habits and
attitudes.
(CROW AND CROW)

46. Types of Learning:
STIMULUS RESPONSE LEARNING:
CONDITIONING LEARNING INVOLVES THE CONDITIONING OF RESPONDENT
BEHAVIOR THROUGH A PROCESS OF STIMULUS ASSOCIATION AND SUBSTITUTION.
PERCEPTION LEARNING: SIGHT, HEARING, TASTE, SMELL AND TOUCH ARE
CONSIDERED AS THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE. ALL KNOWLEDGE IS BASED
ON SENSE PERCEPTION. THE INDIVIDUAL RECEIVES INFORMATION FROM SENSE
ORGANS AND INTERPRETS THEM IN THE LIGHT OF PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE. THE
ATTACHING OF MEANING TO SENSATION IS CALLED PERCEPTION

47. Types of Learning:
VERBAL LEARNING:
ALL LEARNING TAKING PLACE IN FORMAL EDUCATION IS VERBAL LEARNING. THE
LANGUAGE WE SPEAK, COMMUNICATION DEVICES WE USE ARE THE RESULT OF
SUCH LEARNING. SIGNS, PICTURES, SYMBOLS, WORDS, FIGURES, SOUNDS AND
VOICES EMPLOYED BY INDIVIDUAL ARE THE ESSENTIAL INSTRUMENTS IN THE
PROCESS OF VERBAL LEARNING.

48. Types of Learning:
MOTOR LEARNING:
WHEN LEARNING INVOLVES PRIMARILY THE USE OF MUSCLES, IT IS CALLED MOTOR
LEARNING. IN THIS TYPE THE INDIVIDUAL ACQUIRES NEW MUSCULAR
COORDINATION'S AS A MODE OF RESPONSE TO A SIMILAR SITUATION. LEARNING
TO WALK, SWIM, PLAY THROW BALL, PIANO ARE EXAMPLES OF MOTOR LEARNING.
CONCEPT LEARNING: A CONCEPT IS THE FORM OF A MENTAL IMAGE THAT DENOTES
A GENERALIZED IDEA ABOUT THINGS, PERSONS OR EVENTS. IN LEARNING A
CONCEPT, AN INDIVIDUAL TRIES TO FIND OUT SOME COMMON PROPERTY IN A
GROUP OF OBJECTS

49. Types of Learning:
PROBLEM SOLVING LEARNING:
PROBLEM SOLVING LEARNING IS A HIGHER TYPE OF LEARNING. THIS LEARNING
REQUIRES THE USE OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES LIKE THINKING, REASONING,
GENERALIZATION, IMAGINATION, ETC.
ATTITUDE LEARNING: MUCH OF OUR LEARNING IS BASED ON ATTITUDES. BECAUSE
OF FORMATION OF ATTITUDES WE SHOW FAVORABLE OR UNFAVORABLE
RESPONSES TO VARIOUS OBJECTS, PERSONS OR SITUATIONS. THE INDIVIDUAL
LEARNS A SUBJECT BASED ON HIS ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE SUBJECT.

50. Types of Learning:
PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING:
IN PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING, LEARNING TASKS ARE PRESENTED IN SUCH A WAY
THAT THEY MAY BE LEARNED BY REASON OF THEIR ASSOCIATIONS. KRISHNA, A
BOY’S NAME MAY BECOME EASY TO REMEMBER IN A PAIRED ASSOCIATION WITH
LORD KRISHNA.

51. MEMORY :
Memory plays a very important role in our learning and psychological growth.
Through memory of our past experiences, we handle new situations; it helps us in our
relearning problem solving and thinking. Memory is regarded as a special ability of
our mind to conserve or store what has been previously learned or experienced to
recollect or reproduce it after sometime. Memory is a complex process, which
involves learning, retention, recall and recognition.

52. Definition:
• Memory consists in remembering what has previously been learned.
(WOODWORTH AND MARQUIS—1948)
 The power that we have to ‘store’ our experiences, and to bring them into the field
of consciousness sometime after experiences have occurred, is termed memory.
(RYBURN—1956)

53. Types of Memory:
 IMMEDIATE MEMORY OR SENSORY MEMORY
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)
 LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM

54. Types of Memory:
 IMMEDIATE MEMORY OR SENSORY MEMORY:
which helps an individual to recall something a split second after having perceived it.
Immediate memory is needed, when we want to remember a thing for a short time
and then forget it. For example, we look up a telephone number from the directory
and remember it, but after making the call, we usually forget it.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY:
Short-term memory (STM) holds a relatively small amount of information, about
seven items, for a short period of (20–30 seconds) time .

55. Types of Memory:
 LONG-TERM MEMORY:
Long-term memory (LTM) has the unlimited capacity to store information for days,
months, years and even a lifetime. With the help of LTM we can store, retain and
remember most of the things in our life, at record notice make things quite easy.
Long-term memory can be categorized into declarative and procedural memory.

56. Types of Memory:

57. Thinking:
Thinking is a complex mental activity. It is symbolic in character, initiated by a
problem, which the individual is facing, involves the response of the individual to this
problem.
DEFINITION:
THINKING IS A PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS, IN WHICH WE USE IDEAS OR SYMBOLS
IN PLACES OF OVERT ACTIVITY.
(GILMER—1970)

58. Types of Thinking:
PERCEPTUAL OR CONCRETE THINKING:
Perceptual thinking is the simplest form of thinking. The basis of this type of thinking
is perception, example interpretation of sensation according to one’s experience.
CONCEPTUAL OR ABSTRACT THINKING:
It is an abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts, the generalized ideas and
language.
REFLECTIVE THINKING OR LOGICAL THINKING:
Reflective thinking aims at solving complex problems rather than simple problems. It
requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences and finding new ways of
reacting to a situation

59. Types of Thinking:
CREATIVE THINKING:
Creative thinking is important aimed at creating something new. It is in search of new
relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events
and situations.
CRITICAL THINKING:
Critical thinking is a higher order well-disciplined thought process, which involves the
use of cognitive skills like conceptualization, interpretation, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation for arriving at an unbiased, valid and reliable judgment of the gathered or
communicated information or data as a guide to one’s belief and action.

60. Aptitude:
APTITUDE MEANS QUICKNESS IN LEARNING
AND UNDERSTANDING. IT MAY BE A NATURAL
TALENT OR AN ACQUIRED ABILITY. IT IS THE
SPECIAL APTNESS OR FITNESS
FOR A SPECIAL ABILITY, SUCH AS MECHANICAL,
MUSICAL, ARTISTIC, SCHOLASTIC OR RELIGIOUS.

61. Aptitude:
DEFINITION:
AN APTITUDE IS A COMBINATION OF CHARACTERISTICS
INDICATIVE OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S CAPACITY TO ACQUIRE
(WITH TRAINING) SOME SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE, SKILL
OR SET OF ORGANIZED RESPONSES, SUCH AS THE
ABILITY TO SPEAK A LANGUAGE, TO BECOME A
MUSICIAN, TO DO MECHANICAL WORK.
(FREEMAN—1971)

62. Types of Aptitude:
MANUAL APTITUDE: It indicates motor abilities or skills required for
semi-skilled occupations.
MECHANICAL APTITUDE: This aptitude involves the ability to
understand and solve problems involving mechanical relationships
and arrangements such as those, which occur in the adjustment,
repair and assembly of machinery.
CLERICAL APTITUDE: This aptitude indicates different abilities like
perceptual, intellectual abilities, mental skills and motor skills.
OTHER TYPES OF APTITUDE: Are musical, graphic,
Scholastic/professional aptitudes.