This document discusses terrestrial ecology and provides details on various terrestrial biomes. It describes the key differences between terrestrial and aquatic habitats. It then covers different terrestrial biomes in detail including tundra, alpine, forest, grassland and desert biomes. For each biome, it discusses geographical and climatic features, vegetation characteristics, and prominent animal life.

1. WILD LIFE ECOLOGY
BY
MUHAMMAD QAMAR IQBAL
03106783097
IQBALQAMAR4242GMAIL.COM
Chapter no.3 Terrestrial ecology

2. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Terrestrial ecology
Terrestrial ecology deals with ecological
study of terrestrial habitats and their
effects on the organisms living there.
biome
A major terrestrial community of the plant
and animal life.

3. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
When compared with aquatic habitats terrestrial biomes show
following differences
1) Moisture becomes major limiting factor, thus process of
evaporation and transpiration become of chief significance in life
of terrestrial plants
2) The temperature is much more variable on land than water.
3) Rapid circulation of the air throughout the globe results in a ready
mixing and a remarkably constant content of chief gases
,oxygen and carbondioxide.
4) Land is not continuous, there are important geographical barriers
to free movement
5) In terrestrial ecosystems , the soil serves two major functions, it
provides support for the living organisms and it is the source of
all essential nutrients except for carbon , oxygen and hydrogen.

4. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Classificationof terrestrialhabitat
terrestrialhabitat
Tundra biome
Alpine biome
Forest biome
Grassland
biome
Desert biome

5. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Tundrabiome
The word tundra is derived from a finish word “tunturi” meaning a
tree less plain or barren lands.
Some five millions acres of tundra, "the arctic tundra ,” stretch across
the north America, northern Europe and Siberia.
Geographicalandclimaticfeatures
 The tundra soils and subsoil are permanently frozen during
winter.
 Summer short of as 1-2 month.
 The surface layer thaws out.
 The permanently frozen deeper soil as called permafrost .
 Warmest temperature in summer averages about 10 degree
 Rainfall is scantly much of the precipitation fall in the form of
snow.

6. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
 Climatic conditions thus are not conducive to vegetation .
 Lichens, mosses, grasses and grass like herb are predominant
vegetation in summer.
Faunaof tundrabiome
 Mammalianfauna(caribou, reindeer, polar bear, arctic hare,
arctic fox, lemmings , wolves)
 Arcticbirds.(snowy owl, ducks, geese, snowy grouse, and
ptarmigans) and a no. of migratory birds comes in
summer for breeding purposes.
 Insectfauna mosquitoes, blackflies, bumble bees, dragon
flies having big swarm in summer.

7. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Alpinebiome
The region of mountain above the “timberline” contain a distinct flora
and fauna and referred as alpine biome.
Geographicalandclimaticfeatures
 Conspicuous in those whose peak reach up to the niveal or snow
zone e.g. Himalayas , the snow zone lies at the height of 3600 m
 At high altitude environment are low air density , low oxygen, low
carbondioxide, high ozone contents, high atmospheric
tranparency, cold snow cover , high wind velocity, high glare from
sky and snow and absence of trees.
 At Himalaya among vertebrates fishes , amphibians and reptiles
are totally absent except one species of frog found at 4500 m
height called Aleurphyrne.

8. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Mammalianfauna
Snow leopard, Marten, Ibex, Tibetan sheep, Yak and wild Goats.
Avianfauna
Snow patridge, and ptarmigans.
insectfauna
Insects are more abundant in this biome like Beetles, Mayflies,
Butterflies, Bees, grass hoppers.

9. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Forestbiomes
A forest may be as a large tract of uncultivated land
covered with big trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. It
depends upon number of following factors
 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Relative humidity
 Space
Classificationof forestbiomes
 Coniferous forest
 Deciduous forests
 Tropical forest

10. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Coniferousforests
Geologicalandgeographicalfeatures
 Stands of coniferous forests or “boreal forests are
located south of tundra .
 Confined to northern hemisphere.
 These extends from central Alaska across Canada
,then sweeps along the northern side of lake superior.
 In Eurasia ,this biome extends across Norway, Sweden,
Finland and Siberia.
 The term” TAIGA” is applied to the extensive belt of
northern coniferous forest.
 These forests are the major supplier of timber in the
World.

11. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Climate
 Lands of boreal forests have a cold continental type of
climate.
 Summers are short with long day .
 Winters are long with short days.
 Only 4-5 months have temperature higher than 6 degree
centigrade ,below which plant life can not grow .
 Precipitation is scanty.
 In winter , the ground is snow covered and soil freeze to
a depth of 6-8 feet.

12. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Floralcharacteristics
 These forests are characterized by
needle-leaves, cone bearing, ever green
plants.
 Millions and millions of tightly packed
conifers cover vast area of north America
and Eurasia.
 The dominant species are picea (spruce),
Abies (fir ),and Pinus (pine).

13. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Faunalcharacteristics
 Fauna is restricted , large mammals are represented by
Elks, Caribous, Reindeers, moose
 Moose is most conspicuous .
 Carnivores include Bears, Wolves, Foxes, Lynxes.
 Arboreal animals include, porcupines and Squirrels.
 Birds are represented by Grouse, Crossbills, Jays,
Wood peckers.
 Insect life is prolific in summer times , the swarm
insects attract many birds of migratory character.

14. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Deciduousforests
Geologicalandgeographical climaticfeatures
 These are found in Europe , North America , Japan, and Australia .
 Warm temperature .
 Plenty of moisture .
 Long period of sunlight during summer.
 Winter days are short , cold and air is dry.
 Water loss is greater from the surface of leaves hence the leaves
are shed and trees become bare and dormant.
 Warm summer and cold winter coupled with abundant rainfall,
varies with 75-150mm
 Temperature range from 10-20 with precipitation throughout the
year.

15. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Floralfeatures
 Floral life is as Oak, Walnut, and beech trees
are common in these forests.
 Falling of leaves during winter.
 The new foliage appears in spring. As
contrasting condition of summer and winter.
 The presence of broad leaves help the trees
to prepare starch and carry on their vital
activities at maximum rate because of warm
temperature .

16. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Faunalrepresentations
 The invertebrates are represented by the
Earthworm, Millipedes, Snails, Land
isopods, Wood boring larvae of various
insects and leaf eating insects.
 Among vertebrates ,the Salamanders , tree
frogs , turtles and rattle snakes, as reptiles.
 Horned owl, Hawks, Turkeys, Thrushes,
Wood peckers, Crested fly catchers,
amongst bird fauna.
 Mammalian fauna is represented by Deers,
pigs, Bears, Foxes, Squirrels, dormice, Wild
Boars.

17. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Tropicalforests
Geological, geographical andclimaticfeatures
 Tropical forests grow in equatorial region where
humidity is high .
 Rainfall is heavy about 160-220 cm /year
 Annual mean temperature is about 28 degree
centigrade
 They are found in South America, central Africa
, India , Malaya, East Indies and Northern
Australia.

18. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Floralfeatures
 Forest are very dense and evergreen.
 Those trees that do lose their leaves
entirely do so at irregular intervals with
no apparent regard to the climatic regime.
 Flora is highly diversified .
 A square mile area may contain several
hundreds of different species of trees .

19. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Faunalcharacteristics
 Invertebrate density and abundance are very high .
 Common invertebrates are Worms, Snails, Millipedes,
Isopods, Centipedes, Scorpions, Termites, Bugs, Beetles,
Leeches, Planarians, ants etc.
 Vertebrate fauna is represented by frogs, and toads as
amphibians and
 Chamaelons, Geckos, Agamids lizards, poisonous and non-
poisonous snakes as reptilian fauna.
 Bird fauna includes Woodpeckers, Humming birds, Parrots,
Fruit eaters, Hornbills, Cuckoos, Sunbirds.
 Great variety of arboreal , herbivores and carnivores
mammals

20. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Importantmammalianfauna ofvariousforests
 South American tropical rain forests have flat nose monkeys,
Tapirs, Sloths, Agouties, Porcupines with prehensile tails, Ilamas,
Ant eaters and Armadillos.
 central Africa have Gorillas, Rhinoceroses, Elephants, Giraffes,
Zebras, Lions, Hyaenas, Monkeys, Chimpanzees and Ant eaters.
 Indian tropical forests have Elephants, Tigers, Rhinoceroses,
Monkeys, Chevrotains, Anteaters ,Hyaenas, Lorises etc.
 Malayan and east Indies forests have Tapirs, Elephants,
Orangutan, Gibbons, Bears etc.
 North Australian forests have kangaroos, Wallabies, Tasmanian
Wolves, Opossums, Flying Phalangers etc.

21. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Grasslandbiomes
At one time grass land covered about 42% of the land surface of the
world. Today, however, much of it is under cultivation and its cover
has been reduced to 19% of the land surface of the earth.
Typesofgrasslandbiomes
1-Grassland known variously as Pairies (in North America ) Pumpas (
in South America), Steppe (in Asia) , Veldt (in South Africa) form
one group.
These are treeless grasslands and are characterized by predominance
of grasses adapted to dry condition .
2-Savanas or tropical grasslands form another group . These are
mixed tropical formations of tall grass, with shrubs and big trees.

22. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
1- geographical and climatic features
a) Grassland occur where rainfall is too low to support the
forest but higher than desert form
b) Generally rainfall 30-75 mm .
c) Grassland typically occur in interior of continents.
d) Grass land communities with limited moisture conditions
e) Irregular rainfall.
f) Sharp seasonal diurnal variations
g) Very high sun light radiations
h) Grassland soils are highly characteristic, dark in colour and
contain large amount of humus .

23. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Floralcharacteristics
 Grassland usually treeless and is not strictly true for the streams and
small rivers and are always fringed with trees.
 As the namely implies , dominant vegitation consists of grass which
can be divided into two groups .
 The tall grasses 1.5 m high found in moist areas
 The short grass grown in clumps, found in drier areas.
Faunalcharacteristics
 Typically grass land animals tends to be quite small ,with the exception of
a few very large herbivore mammals such as Bison and Pronghorn in
North America, Wild Horses , Wild ass, Antelope, in Eurasia ;Antelope and
Zebra in Africa, Kangaroos and Wallabies in Australia.
 Most herbivores of grass lands characteristically aggregate into herds or
colonies, this kind of aggregation protects from the predatory animals.
 Small predators like badgers, Foxes, Ferrests, Wolves etc.
 Among the Rodents, Mouse, Gophers, Sqirrels, Rabbits are prominent.
 Birds are Chickens, Larks ,Hawks, Owls,Pigeonsetc
 Lizards and snakes are met with in large numbers and variety.

24. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Savannasgrasslands
 Savannas cover much of central Africa , Malaysia, Northern
Australia,West Indies and parts of South America.
 Vegetation is dominated by tall perennial grasses which may reach
2 cm hight commonly referred as ELEPHANT GRASS.
 Trees are distinctive nature.
 They are relatively low growing , umbrella shaped, may deciduous
or evergreen .
 Temperature are high ,seldom falling below 21 degree centigrade.
 Rain fall in summer ranges as 38-150cm
 Three seasons are generally ,cold dry seasons, hot dry season,
warm rainy season..

25. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Faunalcharacteristicsof savannagrassland
 The fauna of savanna grass land is very much rich
compared to the other types of grass lands
 Savanna grassland mainly consists of large herbivores .
 The tropical grassland of Africa have large herbivores
like Zebras, Antelopes, Elephants, Giraffes, Gazelles,
Monkeys, Apes, Rhinoceroses, Hippopotamuses etc.
 Carnivores like Lions , Jackals, Wolves,Hyeanas etc.
 The tropical grasslands of Malaya includes Gibbons,
tapirs, Antelopes, Elephants etc.
 Australian savanna grassland , kangaroos and
Wallabies are dominant.

26. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Desertsbiomes
The geological, geographicalandclimaticfeatures
 Deserts are defined as lands where evaporation rate exceeds rainfall.
 Deserts occupy 17% of the land surface of the earth.
 Conveniently deserts biomes divided into two types as
1. Hot deserts
2. Cold deserts
 Most of the hot deserts have the rainfall less than 10 mm par year
 Important hot deserts are Sahara (Africa )Kalahari (South Africa), Arabian(Saudi
Arabia), Rajisthan ( India)Thar and Cholistan (Pakistan)Takla Makan( china ) and
many others.
 Cold deserts occur at high elevations where temperature is very low and rainfall
very scanty.
 Cold deserts occur in Laddakh (Himalyas in India region) Gobi (Mangolia ) Blivia
,and others.
 The environment is harsh because confined to the tropical region .
 Flora and fauna in this habitat have evolved ways to circumvent aridity and high
temperature.
 Animals found in this biomes are nocturnal in their habit
 Low rain fall.
 Duststorms are common in this biome.

27. TERRESTRIALECOLOGY
Floralandfaunalfeaturesandhabits
 Animal having sleeping habits at day time and mostly
nocturnal.
 Vegetation is largely composed of thorny bushes , perennial
succulent and rapidly growing herbaceous plants.
 Mostly plants are cacti , Acaia , Euphorbis ,Pricky Peers etc
 Fauna is very poor .
 Few large mammals such as Camels , Antelopes ,and
sheeps.
 Small mammals such as Rodents , of various kinds are
abundant.
 Wolves, Jackals, Foxes, etc are the carnivores.
 Reptilian fauna includes Lizards , and snakes .
 Avian fauna like patrifges , Quails, bustards, Sandgrouses
and Vultures.