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1. Creativity in Business
Guest Editor
Fredricka K. Reisman, PhD

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2014 KIE Conference Book Series:
Creativity in Business
Research Papers on Knowledge, Innovation and Enterprise Volume II
© 2014 International Conference on Knowledge, Innovation & Enterprise
© 2014 Individual Authors
ISBN 978-1-85924-296-4

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KIE Conference Books

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CONTENTS
Preface
JAMES OGUNLEYE. Application of Creativity in Business, 6
Chapter 1
FREDRICKA REISMAN. Overview and Application of Creativity to Enhance
Innovation in Business and Education, 9
Chapter 2
NICHOLAS M. STAICH. The Root of Creativity: The Effect of Perspective
on Creativity, 29
Chapter 3
STEPHEN R. GROSSMAN. Cruising to Aha!, 40
Chapter 4
DON AMBROSE. Invigorating Innovation and Combating Dogmatism Through
Creative, Metaphorical Business Leadership, 52
Chapter 5
KUAN CHEN TSAI. A Review of Creativity in Entrepreneurship Literature, 68
Chapter 6
PHILIP DENNETT. A Socratic Approach to Managing Creativity in Business, 80
Chapter 7
ANDRÉ P. WALTON. The Individual Versus the Group—A unique approach
to the origins of creativity, 94
Chapter 8
ANNA WALKER AND MARK BATEY. Taking a multilevel approach to creativity
and innovation, 112
Chapter 9
STEVE HALLIDAY & BEN P. FRASER. Mystery, Surprise, and Discovery:
The Neglected Power of Indirect Communication, 129
Chapter 10
TARA GREY COSTE & CASSANDRA GREY COSTE. Marginalized?! The New
Creative in the New Corporate Reality, 141
Chapter 11
MICHAEL BROWN & CHRIS WILSON. Creative Dynamics: Artistic Production
As A Model of Creative Interaction, 149

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CONTENTS
Chapter 12
JULIO C. PENAGOS-CORZO. Creativity as an Attitude: an Approach to
the Origins of Creativity, 162
Chapter 13
STEVE HALLIDAY. When “Ahead of His Time” Means “Behind the Eight Ball”, 172
Chapter 14
CHRIS WILSON & MICHAEL BROWN. The Business of Invention: Considering
Project Management in the Arts and Industry, 185
Chapter 15
ELISABETTA FRICK, STEFANO TARDINI & LORENZO CANTONI. Lego Serious Play
applications to enhance creativity in participatory design, 200
Chapter 16
PATRICK A. VAN DER DUIN & MIKE SHULMEISTER. Developing local policies for
initiating and implementing creative-sector based cross-innovations: Findings from
the Amsterdam-region, 212

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A REVIEW OF CREATIVITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP LIT-
ERATURE
ABSTRACT The linkage between entrepreneurship and creativity has been discussed ex-
tensively in the literature. Though various relationships between entrepreneurship and
creativity have been asserted in the literature, it remains to be seen to what extent this
relationship actually exists. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to identify the role
of creativity in the entrepreneurship literature. After reviewing 79 articles, three broad
themes surfaced in the literature: personality and motivation, education and training, and
globalization and the economy. The implication of this study is that entrepreneurship edu-
cation is a promising industry for the future, to which more funding, research, and re-
sources should be allocated as the role of the entrepreneur becomes ever more significant
in society. Hopefully, this review will also provide a useful reference-point for future re-
searchers seeking to uncover other possible research avenues, as well as inspire educators
and entrepreneurs to make more productive use of their creative toolboxes.
Introduction
The linkage between entrepreneurship and creativity has been discussed extensively in the
literature (DiPietro, 2003; Farahmand, Tagizadeh, & Kheirandish, 2011). Farzaneh et al.
(2010) state that “creativity and innovation are considered to be inseparable from entrepre-
neurship, which is in turn manifested in the act of starting up and running an enter-
prise” (p. 5372). This is echoed by Miranda, Aranha, and Zardo’s (2009) declaration that
“creativity is at the heart of an entrepreneur’s search for meaning” (p. 523). Given this atti-
tude among scholars of entrepreneurship, creativity tends to be viewed as either an implicit
or an explicit attribute by which entrepreneurship can be defined. For example, Bruyat and
Julien (2001) note that “entrepreneurship is concerned first and foremost with a process of
change, emergence and creation: creation of new value, but also, and at the same time,
change and creation for the individual” (p. 173). Carland, Carland, and Hoy (1989) define
entrepreneurship as “a role that individuals undertake to create organizations” (p. 64). Kao
(1993) believes that “entrepreneurship is the process of doing something new and some-
thing different for the purpose of creating wealth for the individual and adding value to
society” (p. 69). Shane and Venkataraman (2000) attempt to provide a definition of the full
entrepreneurship cycle, and argue that the field of entrepreneurship consists of “the study
of sources of opportunities; the processes of discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of op-
portunities; and the set of individuals who discover, evaluate, and exploit them” (p. 218).
While the above-named scholars have embraced the idea of creativity as blending into the

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perspective of entrepreneurship or even defining it, several others (e.g., Fontela, Guzmán,
Pérez, & Santos, 2006; Rennie, 2008) go even further in equating entrepreneurial behavior
to creativity. They assert that entrepreneurship is a creative action. Following this line of
argument, some authors propose the notion of creative entrepreneurship (De Miranda,
Aranha, & Zardo, 2009) or entrepreneurial creativity (Penaluna, Coates, & Penaluna, 2010).
In creative entrepreneurship—as described for example by De Miranda et al’s (2009) tri-
ple helix model—creativity is viewed as the cornerstone for innovation and entrepreneu-
rial activity. They identify three building blocks (people, environment, and culture) as key
elements for creative entrepreneurship, and argue that a creative entrepreneur should pos-
sess four characteristics: vision, difficulty in valuing the intangible, relation of intensity and
emotion to the soul of the business, and connecting creation and innovation (for a detailed
discussion see pp. 527-531). Entrepreneurial creativity, meanwhile, as defined by Amabile
(1997), is “the generation and implementation of novel appropriate ideas to establish a new
venture” (p. 20). For Amabile, motivation is the driving force for the actualization of en-
trepreneurial vision. As a consequence, she proposes three aspects of motivation that affect
entrepreneurial creativity: intrinsic, controlled extrinsic, and synergistic (informational or
enabling) extrinsic motivation.
Though various relationships between entrepreneurship and creativity have been as-
serted in the literature, it remains to be seen to what extent this relationship actually ex-
ists. In statistical terms, the magnitude of this connection in the literature needs further
clarification. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to identify the role of creativity in
the entrepreneurship literature. Hopefully, this review will also provide a useful reference-
point for future researchers seeking to uncover other possible research avenues, as well as
inspire educators and entrepreneurs to make more productive use of their creative tool-
boxes.
Method
Literature Search
To cover the entrepreneurship literature on creativity as exhaustively as possible, several
different search strategies were used. First, the ABI/Inform Complete, EBSCOhost, and Pro-
Quest Dissertation & Theses databases were searched to identify studies on the relationship
between entrepreneurship and creativity. In addition, searches were carried out within a
number of top-tier journals including Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psy-
chology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, and Organizational Behavior
and Human Decision Processes. Several keywords were used to this search, including entrepre-
neurship, entrepreneur, creativity, and innovation, while the dates of publication were limited
to 1990 to 2012. A preliminary database of 222 articles was established for further inspec-
tion.
To further the goal of the current study, the following inclusion criteria were devel-
oped. The abstract was first reviewed. Studies were included if they dealt fundamentally
with the relationship between entrepreneurship and creativity. If an article mainly ad-
dressed entrepreneurship or related issues, but did not incorporate creativity into its analy-
sis, it was excluded—for instance, when the idea of creativity was raised only in the discus-
sion or conclusion section (e.g., Pruett, Shinnar, Toney, Llopis, & Fox, 2009). Addition-

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ally, if the focus of an article was not on entrepreneurship but on creativity, it was not con-
sidered for further analysis. For example, some authors (e.g., Sullivan & Ford, 2010) used
creativity assessment in their research and the idea of entrepreneurship was one of the
components of the instrument, but their overall purpose did not relate to the goal of the
current study. After we applied these decision rules, the final database consisted of 79 arti-
cles for further analysis.
Coding of Studies
After all relevant journal articles were selected, each was coded as follows: (a) author, (b)
date of publication, (c) published information, (d) abstract, (e) methodology, and (f) key
words provided by the author(s). All of the coding was first keyed in Microsoft Excel and
then transformed to HyerRESEARCH 3.5 (2013) for further data analysis. A qualitative
content analysis of this dataset was used to investigate possible themes.
Inspired by McNaught and Lam’s (2010) use of word clouds to generate a preliminary
analysis of qualitative data visually, the abstracts of all 79 articles were run through the
online Wrodle system (http://www.wordle.net). In the word-cloud methods, each word
is treated as a unit of the analysis and then is assessed for its frequency in the text.
Results
Figure 1 illustrates this brief glimpse of the data, and reveals some meaningful keywords:
entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial, entrepreneurs, creativity, innovation, business, education, opportu-
nity, training, learning, and performance. These keywords can be further divided into two
distinct but interrelated dimensions: (a) entrepreneurship and business development, and
(b) creativity and innovation.
Figure 1: Wordle word clouds generated from our raw data.
In order to understand some important features of the literature, three variables were se-
lected for further analysis. As Table 1 indicates, during the 22-year period covered by the
examined literature, the great majority of studies took place in the 2000-2012 (94%).
Over the same 22-year period, the idea of entrepreneurship has also broadened and be-
come integrated into other fields. Scholars have coined a variety of terms reflective of this

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phenomenon, such as cultural entrepreneurship (Hjorth, 2011), social entrepreneurship
(Bradley, McMullen, Artz, & Simiyu, 2012), international entrepreneurship (Styles & Sey-
mour, 2006), public entrepreneurship (Klein, Mahoney, Mcgahan, & Pitelis, 2010), cor-
porate entrepreneurship (Kearney, Hisrich, & Roche, 2008), strategic entrepreneurship
(Ireland, Hitt, & Sirmon, 2003), and creative entrepreneurship (De Miranda et al., 2009).
Table 1
As far as methodology is concerned, most of the studies were from non-empirical para-
digms: with two-thirds being based either on theory and prior literature (52%) or on quali-
tative approaches (14%). Within this non-empirical category, a number of studies were
based on case studies (e.g., Nytch, 2012) or model building (e.g., Turnbull & Eickhoff,
2011). Among the empirical studies, most authors used survey instruments to measure the
behaviors associated with entrepreneurship (e.g., Farrington, Venter, & Neethling, 2012).
On the whole, it appears from the literature that more emphasis on quantitative methodol-
ogy is needed.
The studied aspects of the relationship between entrepreneurship and creativity can be
divided into three broad groups: personality and motivation, education and training, and
globalization and the economy. The following discussion will further elaborate upon these
three topics.
Personality and Motivation. This category of the sampled research seeks to understand
or define who is an entrepreneur and to identify what antecedents contribute to becoming
one. This body of literature derives from personality psychology, and focuses on measuring
the relationship between entrepreneurial personalities and business performance. Taken
together, its findings reveal that several salient traits tend to be present in successful entre-
Summary of Characteristics of the 79 Articles
Category n (%)
Decade Overview
1990-1999 5 (6%)
2000-2012 74 (94%)
Methodology
Empirical study 27 (34%)
Qualitative study 11 (14%)
Theory & literature review 41(52%)
Topic
Personality & motivation 25 (32%)
Education & training 29 (36%)
Globalization & economics 25 (32%)

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preneurs: need for achievement, flexibility, creativity, innovation, and courage in the face
of risk (Alvarez & Urbano, 2012; Apergis & Pekka-Economou, 2010; Halim, Muda, &
Amin, 2011; Hildebrando, 2003). These qualities function as crucial motivation to entre-
preneurial activity, affecting the decision-making process, opportunity recognition, and
implementation orientation (Kinghorn, 2008; Pretorius, Millard, & Kruger, 2006). In
sum, creativity has been found to have a positive association with entrepreneurial behav-
iors. Most importantly, it appears that entrepreneurs have a tendency to defy norms and a
desire to transform conventional ways of thinking into new horizons.
Education and Training. This line of inquiry underpins the notion that creativity is
an important ingredient in entrepreneurship education, whether for the promotion of en-
trepreneurship creativity (e.g., Sarri, Bakouros, & Petridou, 2010) or entrepreneurial creativity
(e.g., Chen & Yan-Jun, 2009). One the one hand, it holds that the development of creative
competency should be considered an important component in the higher education cur-
riculum, not only for enhancing learning experiences but also for boosting entrepreneurial
potential. Therefore, some scholars, operating within the constructivist paradigm, support
the use of creativity-enhancing training programs on facilitating learning of nascent entre-
preneurs (e.g., Leach, 2009; Lourenço & Jayawarna, 2011; Penaluna, Coates, & Penaluna,
2010; Turnbull & Eickhoff, 2011). On the other hand, entrepreneurship education, for
nascent entrepreneurs, can include useful resources for mapping a variety of possibilities
and ventures. For example, Antonites (2004) points out that creativity, innovation, and
opportunity findings are important issues for entrepreneurship training. Heinonen, Hytti,
and Stenholm (2011) found creativity is associated with opportunity-search strategies for
generating business ideas. Accordingly, pedagogic approaches and curriculum development
underlining the cultivation of creativity have become an important agenda for business
schools (Benson, 1993; Boyle, 2007; Penaluna & Penaluna, 2009). Beyond the sphere of
education, the design of training interventions surrounding creativity and innovation are
also important components of organizational development (Elenurm & Alas, 2009; Sarri et
al., 2010). To sum up: the leading concern for educators is how to enhance students’
learning fruits. Curriculum design and instruction should be carefully crafted in order to
keep a balance between analytical and creative approaches, both of which are suitable to
tapping the mind for entrepreneurial thinking (Binks, Starkey, & Mahon, 2006; Kirby,
2004).
Globalization and the Economy. In this stream of research, creativity is treated as a
mediating or moderating variable between entrepreneurship and economic development.
More specifically, this type of research focuses on the linkages between and among entre-
preneurship, creativity, and regional, national, and global business operations and market-
ing (Hall & Rosson, 2006; Hatzikian & Bouris, 2007; Styles & Seymour, 2006; Vliamos,
2008). Gantsho and Karani (2007) argue that supporting entrepreneurship and innovation
will enable a society to create incentives for advancing economic development. Monahan,
Shah, and Mattare (2011) found that the character of the national economy has a profound
effect on entrepreneurship success. DiPietro (2003) argues that the extent to which crea-
tivity is emphasized can determine the economic progress of a nation. Part of the reason for
this is that creativity is treated as a beneficial vehicle whereby entrepreneurs can overcome
unique challenges, especially in the new-venture context (Fillis & Lee, 2011). At the same
time, it is presumed that the nation should provide an entrepreneurship-friendly environ-
ment to facilitate entrepreneurship activities, which in turn create wealth for the nation by

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exploiting visible and invisible resources. More specifically, this triangular linkage between
entrepreneurship, creativity, and the economy can be manifested in three dimensions: an
entrepreneurial mindset, an entrepreneurial culture, and entrepreneurial leadership
(Ireland, Hitt, & Sirmon, 2003). In brief, whether approaching the subject via the lens of
micro- or macro-observation, these scholars make a contribution to the critical analysis of
the influence of the entrepreneurship phenomenon on national socio-economic develop-
ment (Imas, Wilson, & Weston, 2012). It is believed that policy-makers and practitioners
should also concern themselves with how to create new ventures for the common good.
Most importantly, all stakeholders should be drawn to the same platform to discuss the
development of industries and related issues.
Discussion and Implications
A major finding of this meta-analytic review is a possible link between entrepreneurship
and creativity. A root the assumption of the entrepreneurship literature, both theoretical
and empirical, is that creativity is the prerequisite for entrepreneurship. As we have seen,
three broad themes surfaced in the literature: personality and motivation, education and
training, and globalization and the economy. Under third torch of analysis, it seems to pave
the way for the legitimation of the concept of creativity in the entrepreneurship literature.
The specific role of creativity for entrepreneurship has become the center of attention,
gaining its status as a serious scholarly research topic, and enjoying much public interest.
Creativity per se can be viewed as a spirit of entrepreneurship (Buchholz & Rosenthal,
2005), which is manifested as a mediating or moderating variable for entrepreneurship
success and economic development. On the one hand, empirical evidence indicates a posi-
tive relationship between entrepreneurial behaviors and creative thinking. This feeds an
argument that successful entrepreneurs are more likely to exhibit creative and flexible
thinking, which allows them to come up with unique solutions while facing various chal-
lenges. On the other hand, it is argued that creativity should be integrated into entrepre-
neurship education, and more specifically, that the ideas of creativity and entrepreneurship
are two key elements for the business curriculum. Therefore, it is held to be beneficial to
cultivate entrepreneurial and creative behavior among business students. Taken as whole,
entrepreneurs equipped with creativity can attain a high ratio of success amid the turbu-
lence of the global business world.
In terms of the construct of creativity in the entrepreneurship research, it is clear that
this domain is still expanding, and indeed remains in a fledging stage. With the trend of
globalization, moreover, researchers should be aware of the culturally nuanced feelings of
diverse groups toward the idea of entrepreneurship. With regard to empirical research in
particular, the causal inference between entrepreneurship and creativity is still weak. The
absence of this causal link makes our understanding of the entrepreneurship landscape in-
complete. In this review, only two studies (Antonites, 2004; Leach, 2009) utilized experi-
mental methodology. Thus, for future entrepreneurship researchers, pursuing causality
more aggressively is needed. A possible focus could be a much more rigorous assessment of
the direct or indirect effects of creativity on entrepreneurship. To this end, cross-field,
cross-cultural, and cross-methodology approaches should all be considered.
For practitioners and educators, the implication of this review is quite clear: entrepre-
neurial skills are teachable. Creativity is one of key parameters of entrepreneurial skills.

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Thus, it is suggested that building creative competency is necessary for their toolboxes.
There are a large number of resources available in the creativity literature and in the mar-
ket. Entrepreneurs can take advantage of this abundant reservoir in order to maximize
their efforts for success. Education is an important means for potential entrepreneurs to
cultivate and develop their repertoire. As a result, entrepreneurship education is a promis-
ing industry for the future, to which more funding, research, and resources should be allo-
cated as the role of the entrepreneur becomes ever more significant in society.
Author’s Brief Bio
Kuan Chen Tsai has a Doctor of Philosophy in Organizational Leadership from University
of the Incarnate Word. He has over 30 articles and his research interests focus on creativ-
ity, adult learning, and organizational behavior. As a social scientist, he has conducted a
series of experiments to investigate creativity in children and adults. He can be reached at
tsaikuanchen@gmail.com
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*Leach, C. E. (2009). An investigation of training in creative problem solving and its relationship
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113-125.
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entrepreneurial innovation. Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 13(5), 11-18.
*Penaluna, A., Coates, J., & Penaluna, K. (2010). Creativity-based assessment and neural
understandings. Education & Training, 52(8), 660-678.
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*Sarri, K. K., Bakouros, I. L., & Petridou, E. (2010). Entrepreneur training for creativity
and innovation. Journal of European Industrial Training, 34(3), 270-288.
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tional entrepreneurship. International Marketing Review, 23(2), 126-145.

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