Thane C. Heins President and CEO, Potential +/- Difference Inc. Email 1: thaneh@potentialdifference.ca‎ Cell: 613.898.1131‎ Potential +/- Difference Inc. - Pioneering Electric Vehicle Regenerative Acceleration Technology & Charging Ahead... "Nothing is too wonderful to be true" ~ Michael Faraday "Physics isn't the most important thing. Love is." ~ Richard P. Feynman

1. Advancing the Fundamental Understanding
of
Electric Generator Performance,
Electricity and Magnetism,
Newtonian Mechanics,
Energy,
and the
Physical Nature of the Universe
with the
Inclusion of the Work-Energy Principle
into
Lenz's Law of Induction
Thane C. Heins Chairman Co-Founder and CTO, Potential Difference Inc.
Abstract—this paper involves the inclusion of the work-energy principle into Lenz's law of induction. This
provides us with a completely new perspective with regards to electric generator performance, the role of
work and energy and the source of the energy required to perform work in electric generators. This process
has important implications with regards to advancing our understanding of the subjects of electric generator

2. performance, electricity and magnetism, the nature of electromagnetically induced magnetic fields, energy
(specifically the conservation of energy), Newtonian mechanics, and the physical structure of the universe.
Sir Issac Newton formulated the subject of Newtonian Dynamics in terms of the 3 laws of motion. Lenz's law
has been used by physicists since 1822 to explain how Newton's 3rd
law is expressed in electricity generation
and specifically with regards to electric generator performance. More recently Lenz's and Newton's 3rd
law
are employed colloquially in the explanation of electric vehicle regenerative braking – whereby an electric
vehicle's kinetic energy is reduced when it is converted to electrical energy and stored in an electric vehicle's
battery. We can state Newton's 3rd
law effectively, as follows: Law III: to every action there is always an
equal and opposed reaction; a force (F) acting on a body of mass (M) will be accompanied somewhere by an
equal and opposite reactive force (−F). [1] Newton's 2nd law states that the acceleration of an object is
proportional to the force acting on it, and inversely proportional to its mass. This law can be used to help
demonstrate the law of conservation of energy, which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed in
an isolated system, that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time.
In an isolated system, neither matter nor energy transfer between a system and its surroundings are
allowed. The current widely accepted understanding of our universe is that it is an isolated system, because
it contains everything by definition, and thus there can be no exchange of energy with anything. If there
could be, it would already be counted within the universe. [2] Within our known “isolated” universe and
within all the laws of physics with which we use to describe it, the overriding principle states that, no
creation of energy and no destruction of energy is allowed.
The work-energy principle's inclusion into Lenz's law of induction provides us with a very important
contribution to the continued expansion of our understanding of the relationship between work and energy
and the physical structure of our universe.
Index terms—Electric generator, generator efficiency, Lenz's law, Newtonian mechanics, electricity and magnetism,
energy, work, power, torque, electric vehicle (ev), work-energy principle, universe, isolated system, closed system,
open system, infinite system, infinite efficiency

3. Introduction
It is universally accepted that an electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical input energy to
electrical output energy. The current accepted explanation of electric generator performance is provided by
several laws of physics, including Faraday's law of induction, Lenz's law of induction, Newton's 3rd
law, and the
law of conservation of energy which all work in concert to provide an explanation of the relationship between
the magnitude of mechanical input energy and its conversion to electrical output and the process involved.
According to Faraday's law, whenever the flux threading through or linking with a closed circuit is changed, an
electromotive force (EMF or voltage) is induced which causes a current to flow in the circuit. The direction of
the induced current has a definite relation to the variation of the field that produces it. This relation is
formalized by Lenz's law of induction, which may be stated as follows: an induced emf will cause a current to
flow in a closed circuit in such a direction that its magnetic effect will oppose the change that produces it. This
rule follows directly from the law of conservation of energy: that is to cause an induced current to flow requires
the expenditure of energy. In the case of a generator, for example, when the induced current is caused to flow
through a load connected to the generator, electric energy is expended. The field produced by the current is
always in a direction so that it reacts with the main generator field, to oppose the turning action of the prime
mover driving the generator. Thus, the greater the electric energy supplied to the load, the greater is the
reaction and in turn the greater is the mechanical energy required from the prime mover. Energy must be
supplied to the generator at the same rate that it is being taken from the generator. [3]
The US patented ReGenX generator [14] introduces a load current delay into electric generator performance.
This activity has further implications with regards to Lenz's law of induction, Newton's 3rd
law, the law of
conservation of energy and the definition of our universe.
The conservation of energy is an absolute law, also known as the first law of thermodynamics, states that the
energy of a closed system must remain constant—it can neither increase nor decrease without interference
from outside. The universe itself is a closed system, so the total amount of energy in existence has always been
the same. The forms that energy takes, however, are constantly changing. [15]
We now know that the universe is expanding at a faster and faster rate—propelled by something scientists call
dark energy. This is thought to be the intrinsic energy per cubic centimeter of empty space. But if the universe
is a closed system with a finite amount of energy, how can it spawn more empty space, which must contain
more more intrinsic energy, without creating additional energy? [15]
It turns out that in Einstein’s theory of general relativity, regions of space with positive energy actually push
space outward. As space expands, it releases stored up gravitational potential energy, which converts into the

4. intrinsic energy that fills the newly created volume. So even the expansion of the universe is controlled by the
law of energy conservation. [15]
In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system
remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time. This law, means that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical
energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all forms of energy that
were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat
and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite. [4]
In physical science, an isolated system is either of the following: a physical system so far removed from other
systems that it does not interact with them. A thermodynamic system enclosed by rigid immovable walls
through which neither mass nor energy can pass. This can be contrasted with what (in the more common
terminology used in thermodynamics) is called a closed system, being enclosed by selective walls through
which energy can pass as heat or work, but not matter; and with an open system, which both matter and
energy can enter or exit, though it may have variously impermeable walls in parts of its boundaries. An isolated
system obeys the conservation law that its total energy–mass stays constant. Most often, in thermodynamics,
mass and energy are treated as separately conserved. [2]
Our universe is considered to be by definition of the word isolated, because it contains everything and thus
there can be no exchange of energy with anything. If there could be, it would be counted within the universe.
[2]
Figure 1.0 Examples of isolated, closed and open systems [2]

5. Current Model Explanations and Limitations
Electric generators are accepted as being closed systems which include an energy input and an energy output.
In electric generator operation mechanical energy is the input and electrical energy is the output. Heat and
noise are other energy conversion outputs but because they are unintended consequences and are commonly
referred to as losses in the system. Joule heating, also known as resistive, resistance, or ohmic heating, is the
process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor produces heat. Joule's first law, also
known as the Joule–Lenz law, states that, the power of heating generated by an electrical conductor is
proportional to the product of its resistance and the square of the current:
P = I^2 R [6]
Joule heating is referred to as ohmic heating or resistive heating because of its relationship to Ohm's law. It
forms the basis for the large number of practical applications involving electric heating. [10] Resistors create
electrical noise, called Johnson–Nyquist noise. There is an intimate relationship between Johnson–Nyquist
noise and joule heating, explained by the fluctuation-dissipation theorem.[5] If electric current is running
through a wire loop with a resistor in it, the current will rapidly go to zero because of the resistance. Resistance
dissipates electrical energy, turning it into heat (Joule heating). [6]
If one adds up all forms of energy that were released in a generator's conversion of mechanical to electrical
energy and the energy converted to heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of mechanical input
energy. This mechanical input energy decrease must be compensated with a mechanical energy input increase
from the prime mover if the kinetic energy of the prime mover generator system is to be maintained
Figure 2.0 Example of a closed system [15]

6. In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work
on, or to heat, the object. Energy is considered to be a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy
states that, energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. [8] A quantitative property is a
property of a physical system which exists in a range of values corresponding with a number, such that the
system can be described as having a particular number of a unit of measurement of that property. [7]
Lenz's law is also referred to as motor action in a generator. Where the prime mover is rotating the generator
in a clockwise direction, and the electromagnetic fields set up by the induced currents in the armature
windings attempt to drive the generator as a motor in a counterclockwise direction. This tendency to oppose
the prime mover is called motor action in a generator. The higher the current in the armature windings, the
stronger the motor action. [7] motor action in a generator is also often referred to as:
• Generator armature reaction
• Counter electromagnetic torque
• Magnetic effect
• Electric vehicle regenerative braking
Figure 3.0 Motor action (negative work performed) in a generator
Motor action in a generator is a counter electromagnetic torque which performs negative work against the
torque direction supplied by the prime mover. The result is additional mechanical input power must be
supplied to the generator by the prime mover if the system kinetic energy is to be maintained.

7. Motor action in a generator, or the Reaction (physics) [11] is described by the third of newton's laws of motion
of classical mechanics, all forces occur in pairs such that if one object exerts a force on another object, then the
second object exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the first. The third law is also more generally
stated as: "to every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon
each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts. The attribution of which of the two forces is the
action and which is the reaction is arbitrary. Either of the two can be considered the action, while the other is
its associated reaction. [1]
As stated previously, the electromagnetic field produced by the current is always in a direction so that it reacts
with the main generator field, to oppose the turning action of the prime mover driving the generator. Thus, the
greater the electric energy supplied to the load, the greater is the reaction and in turn the greater is the
mechanical energy required from the prime mover. Energy must be supplied to the generator at the same rate
that it is being taken from the generator. [3] If additional energy is not supplied to the prime mover and if no
additional mechanical energy is supplied to the generator's drive shaft at the same rate it is being taken from
the generator, the counter electromagnetic torque produced inside the generator will reduce the kinetic
energy of the prime mover and the generator's electrical output will drop to an undesired level. In electric
vehicle operation, motor action in a generator AKA regenerative braking will decelerate the electric vehicle
causing a reduction in the kinetic energy of the electric vehicle as the battery recharging drops simultaneously.
In US mechanical engineering, torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of
an object (in physics it is called "net torque"). The definition of torque states that one or both of the angular
velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the general term used for the tendency
of one or more applied forces to [perform work] and rotate an object about an axis, (the concept which is
called torque in physics). For example, a rotational force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill
bit accelerating from rest, results in a moment called a torque. If a torque is allowed to act through a rotational
distance, it is doing work. [8] the work being performed by the torque increases the kinetic energy of the drill
bit.
Work transfers energy from one place to another, or one form to another. Work is closely related to energy.
[12] The work-energy principle states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid body is caused by an equal
amount of positive work done on the body by the resultant force acting on that body. Conversely, a decrease in
kinetic energy is caused by an equal amount of negative work done by the resultant force. [9]

8. [9]
Newton's 3 laws are primarily about work, energy and their interactions. Law I states that: every body of mass
(M) perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state
by forces (F) impressed thereon. That is to say that, if a force does not perform work on a body with a certain
mass the kinetic energy of that body will not change. Law II states that: the alteration of motion of said body is
ever proportional to the motive force (M) impressed on the body; and is made in the direction of the right line in
which that force (F) is impressed. A body of mass (M) when acted on by a force (F) accelerates with an
acceleration (A) such that F = MA. The change in the kinetic energy of a body is dependent upon the magnitude
of the force (work performed) and the body and the mass of the body, i.e. the heavier the body the more work
is required to increase or decrease its kinetic energy. Law III states that: to every action there is always an
equal and opposed reaction; a force (F) acting on a body of mass (M) will be accompanied somewhere by an
equal and opposite reactive force (−F). [1] Newton's 3rd law of motion is ubiquitous in everyday life. For
example, when you jump, your legs apply a force to the ground, and the ground applies and equal and opposite
reaction force that propels you into the air. [17] When the subject of electricity and magnetism was being
developed, Newton's 3rd
law was transferred over into electro-mechanics to explain motor action in a
generator.
Motor action in a generator, generator armature reaction, counter electromagnetic torque, magnetic effect,
electric vehicle regenerative braking, Lenz's law and Newton's 3rd
law all refer to the exact same thing. They all
refer to the kinetic energy reduction effect that occurs during the process of electric power generation. The
effect the generator has on the prime mover and or the deceleration produced on an electric vehicle when
mechanical input energy is being converted to electrical output energy. Newton's 3 laws and the work-energy
principle both state that, work refers to an activity involving a force and movement in the direction of the force.
Energy is the capacity for doing work. You must have energy to accomplish work - it is like the "currency" for
performing work. To do 100 joules of work, you must expend 100 joules of energy. Power is the rate of doing

9. work or the rate of using energy, which are numerically the same. If you do 100 joules of work in one second
(using 100 joules of energy), the power is 100 watts. [9]
The work-energy principle and Newton's 2nd
law mathematically ensures that if we want to increase the kinetic
energy of an electric vehicle or accelerate it from an initial kinetic energy level to a higher kinetic energy level
within a specified time interval, we must perform a certain amount of positive work on that vehicle. The work-
energy principle also ensures we must expend a certain amount of energy during this process because energy
is the currency required to perform that positive work.
Conversely if we want to decrease the kinetic energy of an electric vehicle or decelerate it from an initial kinetic
energy level to a lower kinetic energy level, within an identical time interval as above, we must perform an
identical amount of negative work on that vehicle. The work-energy principle also ensures we must expend an
identical amount of energy in both cases because energy is the currency required to perform both negative
and positive work.
If all the parameters in the electric vehicle example above are the exactly the same then we can
mathematically quantify the exact energy expenditure required to perform the positive work, during
acceleration while increasing the vehicle's kinetic energy. Similarly we can also quantify the exact energy
expenditure required to perform the negative work, during deceleration while reducing the vehicle's kinetic
energy.
In electric vehicle operation it is universally accepted that the energy required to accelerate the electric vehicle
and increase its kinetic energy is provided by the chemical energy which is stored in the electric vehicle's
battery and its conversion to electrical energy which is consumed by the electric vehicle's electric motor. In
electric power generation it is also universally accepted that the energy required to maintain the kinetic energy
of the generator when current is being supplied to the load is provided by the prime mover and the input
energy source which powers the prime mover.

10. Building a New Model
The questions this paper wishes to explore are:
1) What is the energy source which is required to produce the negative work performed during
deceleration of the electric vehicle, when the vehicle's kinetic energy is reduced and what is the energy
source required for the generator to perform the negative work against the prime mover, reducing its
kinetic energy and necessitating a prime mover input increase as described previously in “motor action
in a generator?”
2) Where does this energy come from?
3) And more specifically what is the energy source which is required to produce the counter
electromagnetic torque and the rate of change of angular momentum or "net torque reduction" of an
electric vehicle's drive shaft or a prime mover's drive shaft which is connected to an electric generator
under load?
As provided previously, the definition of torque states that, one or both of the angular velocity or the moment
of inertia of an object are changing – and an identical increase or decrease in the angular velocity or the
moment of inertia of an object will require the exact same magnitude of energy. Moment is the general term
used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to [perform work] and rotate an object about an axis, (the
concept which is called torque in physics). [8]
Inclusion of the work-energy principle and expansion of Lenz's law of induction will provide the answers
required and this process will allow us to quantify the source and the nature of the energy required to perform
this negative work or kinetic energy reduction in electric power generation and electric vehicle operation.
Once again, Lenz's law states that, an induced emf will cause a current to flow in a closed circuit in such a
direction that its magnetic effect will oppose the change that produces it. [3]
“Magnetic effect” refers to the electromagnetic field created around the current bearing wires inside the
generator which make up the generator coil. “Oppose” means to actively resist or work against the rotating
magnetic field which is responsible for initiating the “change that produces it” IE. the induced EMF and current
in the first place. The resultant effect is the production of a counter electromagnetic torque and negative work
being performed on the generator's rotating magnetic field and a reduction in the kinetic energy or
deceleration of the electric vehicle and a reduction in the kinetic energy of the prime mover in electric power
generation.

11. Electric vehicle regenerative braking and motor action in a generator both refer to negative work being
performed and system kinetic energy reduction.
The answers this paper proposes are:
1. The nature of the energy source which is required to perform this negative work in both cases is
electromagnetic field energy.
2. This energy is created around the current bearing wires inside the generator.
3. This created energy source is most likely atomic interactions withing the current bearing wire. [14]
Inclusion of the work-energy principle allows Lenz's law to be restated as follows, an induced EMF will cause a
current to flow in a closed circuit in such a direction that the electromagnetic field energy created will perform
negative work and oppose the change that produces it.
This rule follows directly from the law of creation of energy. In the case of a generator, for example, when the
induced current is caused to flow through a load connected to the generator, electric energy is expended in the
load. The electromagnetic field energy created by the current is always in such a direction that it produces a
counter electromagnetic torque such that it reacts with the generator's rotating magnetic field, it reduces the
kinetic energy of the prime mover and the torque supplied by the prime mover. The counter electromagnetic
torque performs negative work in opposing the turning action of the prime mover driving the generator. Thus,
the greater the electric energy supplied to the load, the greater is the reaction (negative work performed by
created electromagnetic field energy) and in turn the greater is the mechanical energy required to be supplied
to and by the prime mover. Energy must be supplied to the generator at the same rate that it is being created
inside the generator by the electromagnetic field energy and at the same rate this created energy is performing
negative work if the kinetic energy of the system is to be maintained and not allowed to decrease. In electric
vehicle operation the created electromagnetic field energy will perform negative work on the electric vehicle's
drive shaft and it will reduce the kinetic energy of the vehicle when electric recharge current is being supplied
to the electric vehicle's battery.
Inclusion of the work-energy principle into Lenz's law of induction introduces the law of creation of energy and
it also introduces a new energy system – an infinite system where energy is being created over time.

12. Figure 4.0 Example of an infinite system; where energy out = energy in + energy created
In physics, the law of creation of energy states that the total energy of an infinite system; is said to be created
over time. This law, means that energy can and is being created and it can also be transformed or transferred
from one form to another. For instance, if one adds up all forms of energy that were transformed in the
generation of electricity or the conversion of mechanical input energy to electrical output energy, as well as the
heat and sound energy and the electromagnetically created energy which performs the negative work or
kinetic energy reduction one will get the exact increase in the energy created.
For example, if an electric generator which is said to be 98 percent efficient is placed on-load, and when it
delivers 98 watts of electric power to the load, we can mathematically deduce that the mechanical input power
in the generator's drive shaft must be increased by 100 watts. The required 100 Watt mechanical input power
increase, exactly represents the 100 Joules of energy created by the electromagnetic field energy and the 100
Watts of negative work performed against the prime mover.Figure 5.0 Energy created and work performed in
an electric generator

13. The law of creation of energy explains how negative work is being performed inside all electric generators by
the electromagnetic field energy that is being created when electric power is delivered to a load and how this
energy can be quantified. Heins law explains how this very same created electromagnetic field energy – when
delayed sufficiently in the time domain by the ReGenX Generator [14] can now be used to perform positive
work, system kinetic energy increase during electricity generation and why mechanical input energy is no
longer required during electricity generation. Why electric generators can now be made to operate at infinite
efficiency in other words. Heins-Newton's 4th
law of motion states that, when an electric generator's electric
current is delayed sufficiently in the time domain, the created electromagnetic field energy will produce an
equal and complementary reaction. This equal and complementary reaction manifests itself as a
complementary electromagnetic torque which performs positive work in the same direction as the torque
supplied by the prime mover. The kinetic energy of the prime mover is increased due to the positive work being
performed by the time delayed electromagnetic field energy created and the prime mover's input energy
consumption is reduced.
Heins' law of induction states that, according to Faraday's law, whenever the flux threading through or linking
with a closed circuit is changed, an electromotive force (EMF or voltage) is induced which causes a current to
flow in the circuit. The timing of the current dictates the direction of the induced current which also has a
definite relation to the variation of the field that produces it. This relation is formalized by Heins' law of
induction, which may be stated as follows: an induced emf will cause a current to flow in a closed circuit. When
this current is delayed sufficiently in the time domain, the timing and direction of the current and its magnetic
effect will assist the change that produces it. This rule follows directly from the law of creation of energy: that
is to cause a time delayed induced current to flow requires no expenditure of energy. In the case of a generator,
for example, when the induced current is delayed sufficiently in the time domain by increasing the generator
coil's impedance, the time delayed current is caused to flow through a load connected to the generator, and
electric energy is expended in the load. The time delayed electromagnetic field energy created by the time
delayed current and the positive work performed is always in a direction so that it reacts with the main
generator field, to assist the turning action of the prime mover driving the generator. Thus, the greater the
electric energy supplied to the load, the greater is the reaction (positive work performed, system acceleration)
and in turn no mechanical energy is required from the prime mover. Any magnitude of energy can be taken
from the generator while zero energy is required to be supplied to the generator in return because no negative
work is being performed by the created magnetic field energy.

14. Heins' law of induction, Heins-Newton's 4th
law of motion, motor action in a ReGenX generator, complementary
electromagnetic torque, and infinite electric generator efficiency can now all be observed in the US patented
ReGenX generator by Potential Difference Inc. [15]
Figure 6.0 Motor action (positive work performed) in the US patented ReGenX generator
Motor action in a ReGenX generator is a complementary electromagnetic torque produced by electromagnetic
field energy that is created. This energy performs positive work in the same torque direction supplied by the
prime mover. The result is no additional mechanical input power must be supplied to the generator by the
prime mover when the generator is delivering power to the load and operating at infinite efficiency.
Figure 7.0 Energy created and work performed in a ReGenX electric generator when operating at infinite
efficiency

15. When the US patented ReGenX Generator [14] is placed on load the created and time delayed electromagnetic
field energy performs positive work which accelerates and increases the kinetic energy of the prime mover. As
a consequence no additional input power is required to be supplied to the generator by the prime mover, no
matter how much output power is delivered by the generator to the load.
Figure 8.0 Performance Comparisons of 98% Efficient Conventional and Infinite Efficient ReGenX Generators

16. Conclusions
Inclusion of the work-energy principle into Lenz's law identifies electromagnetic fields as a form of energy
which is created and which can be quantified. The work-energy principle ensures that energy is the currency
required to perform both positive and negative work. This process introduces a new law of physics called the
law of creation of energy and it re-identifies electric generators as being infinite systems where energy is
created from within. This created electromagnetic field energy produces a counter electromagnetic torque
during electricity generation and it performs negative work against the turning action of the prime mover. The
kinetic energy of the prime mover in electricity generation and the kinetic energy of an electric vehicle during
regenerative braking are both reduced as a result of the work performed by this created energy.
The law of creation of energy also ensures that our universe is an infinite system where energy is being created
and exchanged continuously within it and where work is being performed by that created energy. This new
information may have an important impact on helping astronomers understand the creation and nature of our
continually expanding and accelerating universe. It may be able to help explain how the kinetic energy of entire
galaxies and planets within them can expand at ever increasing speeds. In addition the concept that different
universes may exist with potentially different laws of physics can now be expanded to include our own
universe.
Figure 9.0 Examples of isolated, closed, open system and infinite systems
The US patented ReGenX generator delays the generator's load current in the time domain, it produces a
complementary electromagnetic torque and the negative work which is normally performed by the created
electromagnetic field energy is reversed such that positive work is performed. This positive work negates the

17. mechanical input power increase requirement in electric power generation and it now allows any magnitude of
electricity to be generated with zero mechanical input power at infinite efficiency for ever.
In electric vehicle operation the time delayed electromagnetic field energy that is created in the ReGenX
generator performs positive work and it accelerates the electric vehicle while recharging its batteries – this
innovation is called Electric Vehicle Regenerative Acceleration. [15] The more battery recharge power delivered
to the electric vehicle's batteries the faster the batteries are recharged, the more the vehicle is accelerated and
the less plug-in recharging is required. [15]
References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolated_system
3. Eugene C. Lister, Chief Electrical Engineer The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.
“Lenz's Law of Induction” Electric Circuits and Machines Sixth Edition, page 85 1984
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluctuation-dissipation_theorem
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule_heating
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_property
8. …
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque
10. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/work.html
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_(physics)
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(physics)
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy
14. Generator and Improved Coil Therefor Having Electrodynamic Properties US20140111054A
https://patents.google.com/patent/US20140111054A1/en
15. Fact or Fiction?: Energy Can Neither Be Created Nor Destroyed Is energy always conserved, even in the

18. case of the expanding universe? https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/energy-can-neither-be-
created-nor-destroyed/
16. Closed system in thermodynamics https://www.embibe.com/study/closed-system-in-thermodynamics-
concept
17. https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/ucd_newton_lesson03