Attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of English in universities toward World Englishes in the classroom.pdf

1. VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES
****************
DƢƠNG HUYỀN THẮM
ATTITUDES OF VIETNAMESE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN
UNIVERSITIES TOWARDS WORLD ENGLISHES IN THE CLASSROOM
(THÁI ĐỘ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC TRƢỜNG ĐẠI
HỌC CỦA VIỆT NAM VỀ WORLD ENGLISHES TRONG LỚP HỌC)
M.A. COMBINED PROGRAM THESIS
Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
HANOI – 2016

2. VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES
****************
DƢƠNG HUYỀN THẮM
ATTITUDES OF VIETNAMESE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN
UNIVERSITIES TOWARDS WORLD ENGLISHES IN THE CLASSROOM
(THÁI ĐỘ CỦA GIẢNG VIÊN TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC TRƢỜNG ĐẠI
HỌC CỦA VIỆT NAM VỀ WORLD ENGLISHES TRONG LỚP HỌC)
M.A. COMBINED PROGRAM THESIS
Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60140111
Supervisor: Đỗ Thị Thanh Hà, PhD.
HANOI – 2016

3. i
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP
This is to certify that the thesis entitled ―Attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of
English in universities toward World Englishes in the classroom” has been written
by me and the work in it has not previously been submitted for a degree. In addition, I also
certify that all information sources and literature have been indicated in the thesis.
Hanoi, August 2016
Dƣơng Huyền Thắm

4. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express the deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Đỗ Thị Thanh
Hà, for her invaluable encouragement and useful comments and advice during the whole
process of this master thesis. Without her immense help, this study could not have been
completed.
Also, I am thankful to all my lecturers at Faculty of Post Graduate Studies,
University of Languages and International Studies, VNU for their great support and
suggestions.
Finally, my special thanks go to my beloved family and friends for their love, care
and support during my MA course, especially on the completion of this thesis.
Hanoi, August 2016
Dƣơng Huyền Thắm

5. iii
ABSTRACT
The growth of English worldwide has led to the emergence of English
as a Lingua Franca (EFL) in English Language Teaching (ELT). This study
concentrates on cognitive and behavioral aspects of teachers‘ attitude towards
ESL and EFL
A questionnaire was delivered to 111 teachers from seven state
universities in Vietnam; a semi-structured interview then was carried out with
eleven volunteer teachers. Data reveal the following phenomena which apply
for both Outer and Expanding Circle varieties. First, the vast majority of
Vietnamese teachers are aware of English varieties and/or implications of
EFL/EIL in TESOL. Second, they express a positive opinion towards both
Outer Circle and Expanding Circle varieties of English and the introduction of
them to students. They also believe that it is important to introduce these
varieties. Finally, the study indicates that teachers are likely to introduce these
varieties to students but it depends on many variables. Implications of this
study are expected to be beneficial for researchers, educators, and policy
makers in ELT, especially in ELT in Vietnam,

6. iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Number of participants in each university
Table 2: Biographic Information of Participants
Table 3: Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often
with
Table 4: Outer Circle varieties are wrong English
Table 5: Outer Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students.
Table 6: Importance of being aware of Outer circle varieties of English
Table 7: Likeliness of introducing Outer varieties of English to students
Table 8: How teachers would introduce Outer circle varieties to students
Table 9: Expanding Circle varieties are wrong English
Table 10: Expanding Circle varieties of English should be introduced to
students.
Table 11: Importance of being aware of Expanding circle varieties of English
Table 12: Outer vs. Expanding
Table 13: Likeliness of introducing Expanding Circle varieties of English to
students
Table 14: How teachers would introduce Expanding Circle varieties to
students

7. v
LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS
Figure 1: The Kachru‘s Circle
Figure 2: The Kachru‘s Circle revised
Figure 3: The British Empire at its greatest extend Table 1: Number of
participants in each university
Chart 1: Varieties of English teachers are teaching
Chart 2: Vietnamese students will use English to communicate more often
with
Chart 3: Outer Circle varieties are wrong English
Chart 4: Outer Circle varieties of English should be introduced to students.
Chart 5: Importance of being aware of Outer Circle varieties of English
Chart 6: Likeliness of introducing Outer Circle varieties of English to students
Chart 7: Expanding Circle varieties are wrong English
Chart 8: Expanding Circle varieties of English should be introduced to
students.
Chart 9: Importance of being aware of Expanding circle varieties of English
Chart 10: Likeliness of introducing Expanding Circle varieties of English to
students

8. vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
WEs World Englishes
ELT English Language Teaching
ENL English as a Native Language
ESL English as a Second Language
EFL English as a Foreign Language
EIL English as an International Language
ELF English as a Lingua Franca
NS Native speaker
NNS Non-native speaker
TESOL Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

9. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP.......................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS ................................................................................. v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................vii
Chapter I - INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 1
Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 4
2.1. An Overview of World Englishes ........................................................................... 4
2.1.1. The Concept of World Englishes...................................................................... 4
2.1.2. Models of World Englishes and Kachru's Circle............................................... 5
2.1.3 The past, present, and future of English worldwide ........................................... 9
2.1.4. English in South East Asia ............................................................................. 13
2.1.5 The implications of World Englishes for ELT ................................................. 16
2.1.6. ELT in Vietnamese context ............................................................................ 20
2.2. Attitude and the importance of studies on attitude................................................. 22
2.2.1. Concept, components, and measurement of attitude ....................................... 22
2.2.2 The importance of studies on attitude.............................................................. 24
2.3. Overview of previous researches on attitude toward WEs ..................................... 25
2.3.1. Studies on attitude toward WEs...................................................................... 25
2.3.2. Studies on attitude toward WEs in Vietnam.................................................... 27
2.4. Concluding remarks.............................................................................................. 28
Chapter III: Research Methodology................................................................................. 30
3.1 Research questions ................................................................................................ 30
3.2. Participants........................................................................................................... 30
3.3. Data collection procedure ..................................................................................... 32
3.3.1. Survey ........................................................................................................... 32
3.3.2. Interview........................................................................................................ 34
Chapter IV: Findings and Discussion............................................................................... 36
4.1. Attitudes towards Outer Circle varieties................................................................ 36

10. viii
4.1.1. Cognitive attitude........................................................................................... 39
4.1.2. Behavioral attitude......................................................................................... 44
4.2. Attitudes towards Expanding Circle varieties........................................................ 46
4.2.1. Cognitive attitude........................................................................................... 46
4.2.2. Behavioral attitude......................................................................................... 53
Chapter V: CONCLUSION............................................................................................. 60
5.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................ 60
5.2. Recommendation.................................................................................................. 63
5.3. Limitations of the study ........................................................................................ 64
REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 66
APPENDIXES ...................................................................................................................I

11. ix

12. 1
Chapter I - INTRODUCTION
English has become the international language which performs the role
of a lingua franca for global communication. The number of non-native
speakers of English exceeds that of native speakers. Braine (2006) estimated
that ―80 per cent of the English speakers in the world are non-native English
speakers.” Together with this phenomenon is the rise in number of countries
which adopt English as a Second/Foreign language and use it in the new era
and influence it in their own way. As a result, English has been transformed
into Englishes (i.e. different varieties of English) and non-native speakers of
English are predicted to ―decide the global future of the language” (Crystal
2000, p.10).
World Englishes refers to at least two senses: Englishes of different
areas in the world (the Caribean, East, South, and West Africa, and Asia, etc.)
and the field of study Englishes worldwide (Bolton & Kachru 2005).
Since its background was constructed by Kachru, Crystal, Bolton, Jenkins,
and other scholars several decades ago, a considerable number of researchers
have contributed to the recognition of World Englishes and its study. Thus,
the field of World Englishes has been expanded with new branches and more
interest from scholars such as Jenkins, Seidlhofer, Firth, etc. on Phonetics and
Phonology, Pragmatics, Lexicogrammar; Jenkins, Matsuda, Timmis, etc. on
teachers‘ and learners‘ attitude, and so on.
Teachers‘ and learners‘ attitude is one of the key factors that contribute
to shape the future of English language teaching and learning of a country, as
Kachru & Nelson stated:
―It is essential for us to have more sociolinguistic information about the
attitudes towards, and domains and functions of English in each context,
especially as the use of English intersects with local languages. Users‘ and

13. 2
policy-makers‘ attitudes have impacts on the domains and functions of the
language, and all three — attitudes, domains and functions — together
determine the future developments in nativization and acculturation of the
medium.‖ (Kachru & Nelson 2011, p.323)
Therefore, attitudes have attracted attention from a great number of
researchers in different countries, such as Chiba, Matsuura, & Yamamoto
(1995), Kawanami & Kawanami (2009), and Tokuboto & Shibata (2011) on
Japanese‘s attitude. Another example is Ahn (2014) on Korean‘s. However, a
small number of studies have been done on attitude of Vietnamese teachers
and learners toward World Englishes.
In Vietnam, English has become the primary foreign language and the
teaching and learning of English is encouraged by the government all over the
country. Therefore, the number of Vietnamese with the ability to speak
English has been significantly increased. However, few researches have been
done about the English of Vietnamese, which belongs to The Expanding
Circle in Kachru‘s model of English, or attitude of Vietnamese towards
Englishes.
This study, based on background theory and researches on attitude
towards different varieties of English in other countries, aims to fill in the gap
in the study of the attitudes towards World Englishes in Vietnam. It is an
attempt to describe the attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English
towards the introduction of World Englishes into English teaching and
learning in Vietnam.
Therefore, the results of this study would contribute to the description
of what Vietnamese teachers think about the introduction of World Englishes
to their students. Findings of the research would also have implications on
ELT in Vietnam in terms of the teaching and learning of EIL. Last but not

14. 3
least, it would provide empirical evidence to support or decline results of
previous researches on attitudes of Vietnamese teachers and students, for
example, Ton & Pham (2012), Ngo (2012), Tran & Moor (2015).
The research concentrates on describing attitudes of teachers of English
in Vietnamese universities, with focus on leading universities in foreign
languages and international studies. They are the ones with the most influence
to current situation and future direction of ELT in Vietnam. The goal of the
research is interpreted into two research questions as following:
1. What are attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English towards the
introduction of Outer Circle varieties of English to their students?
2. What are attitudes of Vietnamese university teachers of English towards the
introduction of Expanding Circle varieties of English to their students?
The thesis has the following chapters:
Chapter I: INTRODUCTION, presents statement of the problem and
rationale for the study, aims, scope, significance, and outline of the study.
Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW, clarifies theoretical background
and related studies relevant for the research.
Chapter III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, elicits information
related to research questions, research methods, data collection, data
procedure, and data analysis.
Chapter IV: FINDINGS AND DISSCUSION includes the core of the
study. Their results of the survey and interview will be presented and
discussed to describe teachers‘ cognitive and behavioral attitude.
Chapter V: CONCLUSION, summarizes essential findings, provides
some linguistic and pedagogical implications, and gives suggestions for
further studies.
Besides, there are REFERENCES and APPENDIXES at the end of the research.

15. 4
Chapter II: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. An Overview of World Englishes
2.1.1. The Concept of World Englishes
World Englishes (WEs), also alternatively used in singular form by a
number of scholars, has been used to present a number of concepts. Different
scholars suggest and favor different terms which are often duplicated and
overlapping, though confusions and misinterpretations are probably limited as
Jenkins (2006) pointed out. For example, World English(es), Global
English(es), English as an International Language, English as Global
Language, etc. This section, therefore, is an attempt to briefly summarize
them and identify one that would be the most appropriate and beneficial for
purposes of this paper.
Bolton (2006, p.241) summarized three major interpretations of WEs
among “a plethora of terminology”. First, the notion of WEs includes ―a
wide range of differing approaches to the description and analysis of
English(es) worldwide.” In other words, WEs in this broad sense refers to
different varieties of English worldwide and the branch of research on issues
related to them.
Second, the term specifies varieties of English in former British
colonies including English in the Caribbean, West and East Africa, and some
countries and territories in Asia. This sense is regularly used in both research
works of the field, such as in Jenkins (2006), and teaching methods
publications, such as Celce-Murcia et. al. (2014). Within the scope of this
terminology, WEs refers to the varieties of English which are also indicated
as ―New Englishes‖ by scholars such as Crystal (1997, 2003) and Schneider
(2011), as Kachru‘s ―Outer Circle‖, or as English as a Second Language
(ESL).

16. 5
Third, WEs is used to describe the “pluricentric approach” (Jenkins
2006, p. 159) of Kachru and the Kachruvian scholars. This approach
inclusively explores aspects of global Englishes with respect to their
diversities.
To serve the purposes of this research, the researcher would like to
adopt the term WEs to refer to varieties of English in former British colonies
and in countries where English is used as a foreign language. That means
Kachru‘s Outer and Expanding Circle, or ESL and EFL. Other terms such as
non-native varieties of English would also be used simultaneously.
2.1.2. Models of World Englishes and Kachru's Circle
English has spread to almost every part of the world together with the
rapid globalization and industrialization of the world‘s economy. It has been
globalized and become the lingua franca for the purpose of international
communications. Meanwhile, it has also been localized by a growing number
of speakers and their cultures; thus different varieties of English, or Englishes,
were created. Scholars hold different opinions toward the glocalization of
English; however, Englishes flourish and attempts to distinguish them have
yet withered away.
Native vs. Non-native
The most commonly-known model of Englishes is probably the Native
– Non-native model which categorize Englishes into English as a Native
Language (ENL), English as a Second Language (ESL), and English as a
Foreign Language (EFL).
This model, based on the ―long-asserted requirement of exposure in
early childhood‖ (Kachru &Nelson, 2011), is a pioneer attempt to
differentiate Englishes.

17. 6
 ENL refers to English in countries where English is used by the
majority of population as the primary language for every aspect of life,
for example, The United Kingdom and The United States.
 ESL is the varieties of English in countries where English is used as an
important language in communication. In those countries, English
could be the official language (for instance, Singapore) or not (for
example, Malaysia).
 EFL, which has highest number of speaker, refers to varieties of
English in countries where English is used primarily in education and
international communication. In everyday situations, a native language
is in charge.
It does have, however, its own issues. The first one is that it suggests a
sense of superiority of ENL over ESL and EFL (Kirkpatrick 2007), and
apparently, also ESL over EFL. This distinction also affects the learners‘
advance contact with English, learners‘ expectation of success, average level
of achievement, and learners‘ and teachers‘ goals for success (Strevens, 1992,
cited in Kachru & Nelson, 2011, p. 26).
Kachru’s Model of World Englishes, or Kachru’s Circle
Based on ―types of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the
functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages
(B. Kachru (1985, p.12), he proposed a model of World Englishes in which he
divided Englishes into the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding
Circle.

18. 7
Fig. 1: The Kachru‘s Circle, cited in Graddol (2007, p. 100)
Kachru himself, as cited in Kirkpatrick (2007, p.28), explained his
Circle as followed. First, Inner Circle includes “traditional cultural and
linguistic bases of English,” like British English, American English, etc.
Second, Outer Circle indicates “institutionalized non-native varieties in the
regions that have passed through extended period of colonization,” for
example, South Africa, Malaysia, India, etc. Finally, Expanding Circle refers
to English in countries where it is used “essentially in EFL context.” In other
words, English is used primarily in educational context and in global
communication (Schneider, 2011); and another language (in this case is the
native language) plays its irreplaceable role in everyday life situations.
The Kachru‘s Circle is probably the most influential model by far for
researchers of World Englishes. One advantage of this model over the Native
– Non-native one is that it does not suggest inequality among varieties of
English (Kachru & Nelson, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2007). This implication of

19. 8
equality, as stated by Schneider (2011, p. 32), contributes to the increase of
“self-confidence in localized varieties of English and strongly influenced
language teaching and applied linguistics.” In fact, through recognition and
description of English in pluralistic context, it proposes and enhances the
diversities of English.
This model, on the other hand, has its limitations as varieties of English
changes together with its rapid expansion. For example, a number of
researchers (Graddol, 2007; Jenkins, 2008; Schneider, 2011) stated that the
boundary among circles has been blurred and the Circle has failed to take into
account growing phenomena like bilingualism.
Kachru, therefore, proposed a revised model of Englishes based solely
on user‘ proficiency of English.
Fig. 2: The Kachru‘s Circle revised, cited in Graddol (2007, p. 100)
However, this revised model has not received plethora of applications
in the field; thus not as influential as its old version.
Generally, multiple models of English varieties have been proposed
and discussed. However, the two model summarized above are the most
common and influential ones to scholars of the field. To serve the purposes of
this study, the researcher would like to adopt the Kachru‘s Circle of Inner,

20. 9
Outer, and Expanding Circle. First, this model categorizes Englishes
varieties and proposes equality while retaining diversity as well as the culture
associated with them, which other models such as the revised version has
failed to describe. Second, its disadvantages is not a considerable hindrance
because the study does not particularly involve with bilingualism. Finally,
World Englishes/Global English(es) is a new concept to many of the teachers
in Vietnam; therefore, this model, which based on the ENL-ESL-EFL model
would become more familiar to them.
2.1.3 The past, present, and future of English worldwide
This section provides a brief review of the historical background for the
spread of English worldwide and description of current situations and
predictions about the future of English.
The spread of English worldwide
Crystal (2003, p.59) addressed two primary elements for the current
status of English as a global language: the expansion of the British colonial
power and the emergence of the United States as the leading economic power.
The spread of English globally started in the 16th
century along with the
expansion of the British Empire to North America, the Caribbean, and
Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, South Asia, and South East Asia.
Fig. 3: The British Empire at its greatest extend (Schneider 2011, p. 50)

21. 10
After the Empire collapsed in the end of the 19th
century, some
countries like the U.S., Canada, Australia, New Zealand continued to use
English as their main language, which created new versions of ―native
English.‖ In some other colonies, English was adopted as the official
language (Singapore), or continued to be used as an alternative language
beside their mother tongue (India, Malaysia, South Africa, etc.).
In the 20th
century, the rise of the United States further encouraged the
use of English as a lingua franca for the purpose of international
communication worldwide. Thus the role of English in this century is settled.
English in the present
It is undeniable that English is a global language. Schneider (2011)
estimated that there were approximately 350 and 380 million speakers of
English as the first language, 600 million of speakers of English as a second
language, and 500 million and 1500 million speakers of English as a foreign
language at various levels fluency. This number is rapidly growing as more
and more countries, especially in Asia, adopt English as their primary foreign
language, for example, China and Vietnam.
Schneider also described two main trends in the development of
English: Internationalization and Localization. First, English is being
internationalized, associated with the term English as an Internal Language,
English as a Global Language, or English as a Lingua Franca regardless of
origins and other social factors related to the speakers. In fact, the majority of
communication is among non-native participants and between non-native and
native participants, which was caused by the fact that the number of non-
native speakers of English nowadays exceeds that of native speakers. EIL or
ELF has received considerable attentions from researchers and multiple works
on the topic have been published on its characteristics and implications in

22. 11
ELT, for example, Jenkins (2006, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2012), Seidlholfer
(2003, 2009), Kirkpatrick (2007, 2012).
The other trend, which seems to contradict the first one, is the
“localization, indigenization, and nativization of English” (Schneider 2011,
p.53). As English spreads to different cultures, it develops its own forms
under the influence of local languages and cultures, thus generates localized
English, or English in the Outer and Expanding Circle. In the Outer Circle,
this localized English is cherished by indigenous people and becomes the
―symbol of regional identities” (p. 54). In other words, these speakers
consider this English part of their characteristics and use it to distinguish
themselves from other speakers of English. In the Expanding Circle,
especially in East Asia, younger speakers seem to be promoting their
localized English as a mean to express their own identity, as well as to
establish their global identity (Jenkins 2009c, p.54). A large number of
researches have been carried out on non-native varieties of English, for
example, Kirkpatrick (2012a, 2012b), Bolton (2002), and contributors from
different countries.
The future of English
Current developing trends of English may lead to different outcome for
the future of the language. There are both optimistic and less optimistic
predictions on the position of English in the future and for speakers of the
language in all three Circles.
As Jones and Bradwell (2007, p.19) describe have described, British
and other native-speaking countries may meet three challenges in the future.
First, it is the “risk of becoming outdated and possibly resented.” Second, it
is possible that they will miss out on opportunities that knowing another
language may bring. Finally, it may be disadvantaged for them to “operate

23. 12
multilingually in a globalised world” compared with other non-native
speakers. In other words, speakers of English in Outer and Expanding Circle,
who are bilingual or trilingual and experienced in a multi-lingual and multi-
cultural environment, will be in favored position in competition for
opportunities in a flatten world. Graddol (2007, p. 117) also confirmed that
the cultural flows are now multi-directional and that native speakers may be
seen as “an obstacle to the free development of global English”.
In Outer and Expanding Circle, Graddol has emphasized that English is
growing vigorously, especially in Asia where English is becoming “an Asian
lingua franca” or English as an Asian language. Moreover, it is expected that
speakers of English will signal their identity through their English accent and
a non-native accent will no longer be seen as “a sign of poor competence.”
This means that the status of non-native speakers will be enhanced. English
will no longer be the language of native speakers; instead, it will truly become
the language of the world.
On the other hand, there might be a more pessimistic vision for
English. Ostler (2010) has pointed out that English might lose its position as a
lingual franca, if its localization process creates new varieties which is
intelligible for speakers of other varieties – the same case as Latin in ancient
time. However, he has also stated out that this scenario is unlikely to happen.
In conclusion, the past and the present of English demonstrate the fact that the
expansion of English has been and is inevitable, and that this expansion is
likely to continue in the future. English is becoming a global language. There
are positive expectations for the future of English and its international
speakers. English as a global language may become barriers for the
development and integration of countries with lower proficiency of English.

24. 13
2.1.4. English in South East Asia
Due to the dominance of ASEAN (Associations of Southeast Asian
Nations) in the region, this chapter will focus on status of English in the
education system and in societies of ASEAN countries.
English functions as the lingua franca for the political, economic, and
cultural co-operations of ASEAN members. It was stated in Article 34 of
ASEAN Charter (2008) that “The working language of ASEAN shall be
English.” Therefore, it is vitally important for citizens of ASEAN countries to
learn English and those who speak fluent English will certainly have
advantages over those who do not.
The majority of countries in the South East Asia belong to the
Expanding Circle, except for Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and
Brunei which were former colonies of the British Empire, and by definition
belong to the Outer Circle of World Englishes.
Outer Circle Countries
In Outer Circle countries in South East Asia, English is used as a
second language, mostly by the middle and upper classes. Governments of
these countries are implementing bilingual or multi-lingual language policy to
ensure that their future generations are able to use English and their mother-
tongue.
Singapore
English is the dominant language of the country and is used widely in
every aspect of their citizens‘ life. Schneider (2011, p.159) reported that it has
become the native language for a large number of young Singaporean. He
also stated that there is “a recognizable standard form” of Singaporean
English being used along with an “informal indigenous variety” which is
usually referred to as Singlish (p.160). This highly localized variety, which is

25. 14
usually used in everyday communication, is prevented by the government
(Hung 2009, Schneider 2011). In education, the government of Singapore
promotes a language policy that all subjects are taught in English while other
languages become subjects. In other words, Singaporean children are
expected to learn at least two languages (English and their mother-tongue).
Malaysia
Bahasa Malaysia or Malaysian was adopted as the official language
after the country regained their independence in 1957. The role of English
was decreased and nowadays it is used prominently by people with wealth
and status.
In education, Malaysian is used as the medium of instruction in the
education system. English had been used as the medium of instruction for
several years until its implementation was terminated in 2012, because
students from disadvantaged backgrounds could not keep up with
mathematics and science when they are taught in English (Kirkpatrick 2012b)
The Philippines
In the Philippines, the national language is Tagalog, or Filipino while
there are 100 languages spoken in different regions of the Philippines
(Kirkpatrick 2012b). According to Schneider (2011), approximately 75% of
the population is able to use English and more than 50% speaks the language.
In education, the government attempts to implement a multi-lingual language
policy which emphasizes the role of mother-tongue as the language of
instruction.
Brunei
In Brunei, English and Malay are the most popularly used languages. In
the education system, the government implements a bi-lingual language
policy of English and Malay with the former being the primary medium of

26. 15
instruction from the fourth year of Primary school, and the latter in Primary 1
to 3.
Expanding Circle Countries
All other countries in South East Asia belong to the Expanding Circle.
In these countries, English is becoming the tool for communication – the
lingua franca within and beyond ASEAN.
Indonesia
Indonesia was colonized by the Dutch. Bahasa Indonesia became the
official language of Indonesia after its independence. Alongside Bahasa
Indonesia, English is the second most important language in high school‘s
curriculum (Alisjahbana 1990, cited in Y. Kachru & Nelson 2011). However,
unlike other Expanding Circle countries in ASEAN, English is not
compulsory in primary‘s curriculum (Kirkpatrick 2012b).
Thailand
The dominant languages of Thailand are standard Thai and English.
Being the only country which had not been colonized by European countries
through trade and foreign relations, Thailand introduced English as a
mandatory subject in the curriculum from 1913 to 1977 (Pongtongchareon,
1999, cited in Y. Kachru & Nelson 2011). Nowadays, English is the primary
foreign language in schools (Kirkpatrick 2012b).
Laos
Lao is used as a lingua franca for the country and English is the
primary foreign language in the education system.
Cambodia
The majority of Cambodian speaks Kh‘mer. English, as other countries
in the region, is considered highly important for the competitiveness of the
country in the era of globalization.

27. 16
In general, in Outer Circle countries, English either serves as the
official language or the second most popular language in society. A bilingual
language policy is adopted with one language being the majority‘s mother
tongue, and the other being English. In Expanding Circle countries, English is
the predominant foreign language and the teaching and learning of English is
actively promoted by governments.
2.1.5 The implications of World Englishes for ELT
The expansion of different varieties of English worldwide has created a
new branch of Applied Linguistics with the name of World English(es) or
Global English(es). The trend has influenced the field of English Language
Teaching to some extent, for example, tests and teaching materials begin to
have speakers from all circles, etc. This section briefly discusses its influence
and implications in ELT.
Models of English in ELT
According to Kirkpatrick (2007), two major models of English are
currently being applied in ELT: the Exonormative native model and the
Endonormative nativised model.
Exonormative native model
The majority of countries in Outer and Expanding circle adopt the
native speaker model, or the ―Standard English,‖ for their English language
classroom due to their ―prestige and legitimacy,‖ the availability of materials,
and political reason. This model advantages the British and American
language teaching industry, and native speaker teachers, while disadvantages
non-native speaker teachers, and majority of students. It could severely
damage students‘ motivation to use English because it is not possible for
learners to achieve a native-like accent of English. (Kirkpatrick 2007, Y.
Kachru & Nelson 2011). In other words, it is not appropriate for the majority

28. 17
of learners in non-native countries.
Endonormative nativised model
This model is primarily adopted in Outer circle countries. It includes
the teaching and learning of a localized model of English which ensures
intelligibility in international communication, while retains local linguistic
and cultural features. It is beneficial for local teachers and local education
system and advantages the students in certain context because of its nativised
features. A disadvantage is that the local variety might not have been
―codified,‖ and there might be a lack of teaching materials.
In Expanding circle, disadvantages of this model might outweigh its
advantages. However, it is still possible for these countries are able to use a
―codified nativised variety of English‖ (p. 191) if the two Expanding Circle
country shares a large number of linguistic and cultural features with the
Outer circle one. For example, SEAMEO has established Regional Language
Centre with the goal to ―promote collaborative ELT within ASEAN.‖
Implications of WEs in ELT
The belief that native varieties of English, particularly British and
American English, should be the ultimate goal for learners of the language
has dominated the field of ELT during its history. Despite the absolute
dominance of native varieties of English, scholars have pointed out that this
belief does not have empirical validation (Y.Kachru & Nelson 2011) and the
“preference for particular varieties [of English] over others is based on
prejudice” (Kirkpatrick 2006, p. 15).
They have also argued that learners of English should be equipped with
the ability to “communicate effectively across linguistic and cultural
boundaries” (Kirkpatrick 2006, p. 15) due to the fact that the number of
speakers in Outer and Expanding Circle far exceeds that of the Inner Circle.

29. 18
To reach this goal, different suggestions have been made. One growing trend
in recent years in ELT is to promote the teaching and learning of English as a
Lingua Franca or English as an International Language with supports from a
large number of leading scholars.
Seildhofer (2003) went as far as suggesting that EIL should be
considered as the major, or alternative, option instead of ENL in curricula of
European countries. Also, the demand for English will remain and that
English should be re-conceptualized as EIL.
Kirkpatrick (2006) stated that the goal of this approach was that learners
attain the ability to communicate successfully across cultures. For this
purpose, he suggested a curriculum through which students could perceive
linguistics features that interfere with interlocutors‘ intelligibility, understand
cultural differences and their importance in intercultural communication, and
apply communicative strategies.
He argued that this model would concentrate on linguistics features,
cultural features, and communicative strategies. It would also motivate
learners by setting attainable goals for their learning progress, i.e. becoming
competent users of English in global context.
McKay (2012) elaborated this approach and suggested that a ―socially
sensitive and responsible‖ EIL pedagogy should take into account the
following principles:
 the promotion of multilingualism and multiculturalism;
 localized L2 language planning and policies;
 the development of an awareness of language variation and use for all
students;
 a critical approach to the discourse surrounding the acquisition and use
of English;

30. 19
 equal access to English learning for all who desire it; and
 a re-examination of the concept of qualified teachers of English.
(p. 42, 43)
In addition, Matsuda (2003) proposed four specific ways to teach EIL.
First, there should be interaction with EIL users (i.e. non-native users who use
English to communicate with other non-native users). Second, assessment
should focus on the effectiveness of communication (i.e. the ability to deliver
the message). Third, teaching materials representing EIL users should be used
in the classroom. Finally, teachers of English should be trained to teach EIL.
At lower levels, Jenkins (2006) suggested that learners‘ awareness could be
raised through exposure to different varieties of English.
Even though there have been controversial opinions about EIL/ELF,
most scholars agree that teachers and students should develop awareness of
varieties of English to meet the needs of intercultural communication (Bolton
2004, Jenkins 2006, Y. Kachru & Smith 2008, Y. Kachru & Nelson 2011,
Kirkpatrick 2012, etc.).
Jenkins (2006, p. 173) stressed that:
“Teachers and their learners ….. need to learn not (a variety of) English, but
about Englishes, their similarities and differences, issues involved in
intelligibility, the strong link between language and identity, and so on.”
It is clear that the native speaker model of English, or Standard English,
remains the ideal choice of most countries in Outer and Expanding circle.
However, the World English paradigm has brought to ELT new approaches
such as EIL/ELF, which promotes learners‘ awareness of different varieties of
English, equip them with intercultural communication strategies, and
contribute to shaping their identity as users of Global English.

31. 20
On the other hand, as Timmis (2002) pointed out, some students want
to learn native varieties of English and this defines the varieties of English
that teachers provide. Therefore, features like teachers and students‘ attitudes
in local contexts should be taken into account when new approaches to ELT
are applied.
2.1.6. ELT in Vietnamese context
Vietnam has a long history of being dominated by China, which
resulted to the influence of Chinese to the language of Vietnamese and the
introduction of Chinese as the primary foreign language in Vietnam
throughout its history. In 19th
century, the country was colonized by France
and French became the language of instruction in schools and universities
(Dang 1986, cited in Denham 1992). The 20th
century witnessed the changes
of the primary language being taught in Vietnamese schools from French
(under colonization period) to Russian (before Doi Moi), to English (after the
Doi Moi in 1986) (Do, 2006). Since then, the amount of English learners in
Vietnam has tremendously increased. In the present, English is the
compulsory foreign language for ninety per cent of children in Vietnamese
schools (Kirkpatrick, 2012b); in colleges and universities where all students
are required to learn a foreign language, ninety per cent of them choose to
learn English (Le, 2007).
With the integration of Vietnam into the global labor market, it is
essential for Vietnamese learners of English to be able to function in
international communication cross the border of cultures and languages. The
government provides strong supports towards the teaching and learning of
English in Vietnam, especially in tertiary level. The launch of Project
―Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education
System, Period 2008-2020,‖ which is usually referred to as National Project

32. 21
2020, is an evidence of the government‘s determination to improve the
country‘s foreign language competence. The project stated:
“by 2020 most Vietnamese students graduating from secondary,
vocational schools, colleges and universities will be able to use a
foreign language confidently in their daily communication, their
study and work in an integrated, multi-cultural and multi-lingual
environment, making foreign languages a comparative advantage of
development for Vietnamese people in the cause of industrialization
and modernization for the country.‖
(Decision 1400/QĐ-TTG dated 30 September, 2008 of the Prime
Minister on the Approval of the Project entitled ―Teaching and
Learning Foreign Languages in the National Education System, Period
2008-2020).
In other words, Vietnamese students are expected to be able to use a
foreign language - usually English - confidently in cross-cultural
communications (i.e. to become inter-cultural speakers) in order to work in an
international environment. One of the key factors to achieve this expectation,
according to Savignon and Berns (1984), as cited in Y.Kachru & Smith
(2008), is to be able to accommodate with different varieties of English.
However, similar to the majority of countries in the Expanding Circle,
Vietnam is applying the Exonormative native model English language
teaching. It means that native varieties of English, especially British English
and American English, are primarily used in the education system, colleges,
and universities. Learners are extensively exposed to Native and Standard
English and intensively learn to use them. Moreover, most school students
spend most of their time learning grammar and reading in order to achieve a

33. 22
high score on the English test in the National University Entrance Exam
which concentrates mainly on grammar and vocabulary, reading and writing,
and pronunciation.
Listening and Speaking are not taken into account. And most students
graduated from high schools, especially ones in rural areas, are not able to
communicate using English.
In general, Vietnam has gone through its history with different
predominant foreign languages from Chinese, French, Russian, to English.
For the near future, the Vietnamese government aims to create intercultural
speakers of English to compete in the world labor force market. However, in
the education system, the Exonormative native model of English is adopted;
and students and teachers focus on aspects which could help students pass
exams, such as grammar and reading.
2.2. Attitude and the importance of studies on attitude
2.2.1. Concept, components, and measurement of attitude
The concept of attitude
A definition of attitude which was commonly accepted by scholars is
the one by Sarnoff, cited in Garrett (2007, p. 116) as ―a disposition to react
favourably or unfavourably to a class of objects.‖ In other words, a person
may hold positive or negative attitude towards an object or a behavior.
Depends on attitudes, a person is likely to response differently to different
objects. Additionally, attitude is formed through social interactions (Day
1982) and it is not likely for attitude to be modified in later years (Sears
1983), as cited in Garett (2007,p.116).
Components of attitude
Attitude is generally considered to consist of three components:
cognitive, affective, and behavioural. Cognitive component of attitude refers

34. 23
to opinions and beliefs that a person has. Affective component is a person‘s
feelings and evaluation of an entity. Behavioural component indicates how a
person is likely to behave. However, the relationships among these
components are ―moderate‖ and researchers are advised to measure each of
them or specify which of them is their focus (Breckler 1984, p. 1203).
The measurement of attitude
According to Krosnick et. al (2005), the purpose of measuring attitude
is to identify “the stable construct underlying responses.‖ It means that
researchers should be aware of how different responses are created in order to
determine what the stable attitude behind them is.
According to Garrett (2007, p. 116), three necessary methods to
measure attitude include the societal treatment approach, the direct approach
and the indirect approach. The societal treatment approach involves methods
which primarily draw out attitude based on observation and analysis of social
sources. The direct approach refers to methods in which participants are asked
to “report self-analytically what their attitudes are” through surveys. This
measurement is particularly beneficial and has been popularly applied in
measuring language attitude. However, results from the direct approach may
be altered by biases like acquiescence bias (people response with what they
think the researcher is looking for) and socially desirable responses (people
response with what they think they should response, rather than what they
actually think). A typical example of the indirect method is the MGT
(matched-guise technique). In a research on accents using MGT method,
listeners listen to the same person imitating different accents uttering the same
speech, which makes them think that they are listening to different people.
The consequence is that, as all other speech features are controlled, any

35. 24
difference in evaluation must be caused by listeners‘ judgment on accents.
MGT has produced surprising findings in research on language attitude.
In this study, the direct approach has been applied, particularly a survey with
Likert-type items and an interview were used to collect data. This indirect
method was adopted for two reasons. First, it is the most convenient and time-
saving when it comes to investigating attitudes of a large population. Second,
even though it has weaknesses, this method has been widely applied in a great
number of studies on language attitudes in the world and in Vietnam, such as
Timmis (2002), Jenkins (2008), Young & Walsh (2010), Ton & Pham (2010),
Groom (2012), Ahn (2014), etc.
2.2.2 The importance of studies on attitude
The study of attitudes is an important topic in social sciences,
especially in the fields of linguistics and sociolinguistics. In particular,
learning about attitudes of learners and teachers play significant roles in ELT.
Some of them include motivating students and localizing ELT approaches.
First, language attitudes may result to stereotypes of its speakers and
influence learners‘ motivations of learning the language (McKenzie 2008a, as
cited in Tokumoto & Shibata 2011, p.392). In other words, when learners
have positive attitudes to a language, it is more likely that they will build a
positive image of themselves as speakers of that language, and have stronger
motivations to learn it.
Second, by taking into account attitudes of teachers and students, the
researchers could avoid “a patronizing approach” in the implications of
EIL/EFL in ELT (Taylor 2006, as cited in Ton & Pham 2010, p. 49). It means
that attitudes may provide researchers with information so that they could
localize innovative ELT approaches for specific teaching contexts.

36. 25
Therefore, more empirical studies need to be done in order to provide detailed
descriptions of teachers‘ and students‘ attitude towards WEs in different
contexts, including Vietnam.
2.3. Overview of previous researches on attitude toward WEs
2.3.1. Studies on attitude toward WEs
Over the years, researchers from all over the world have attempted to
explore people‘s attitudes towards different varieties of English, especially
learners‘ and teachers‘. Empirical researches have shown that there is
generally prejudice against non-native varieties of English and rejection of the
teaching and learning of EFL worldwide. However, young learners of
English, especially in Asia, seem to begin to form their identity as speakers of
English while retaining their L1 identity.
Based on 180 survey responses from teachers in 45 countries and 400
survey responses from students in 14 countries, Timmis (2002) has come to
the conclusion that some students still desire to have native-like English
regardless their perception of who they use English to communicate with. The
teachers, on the other hand, seem to be ―moving away from native-speaker
norms faster than students are‖ (p. 258). He has also noted that learners‘
aspiration for native-like English is possibly the consequence of their
idealization rather than practical goals.
In Europe, an online survey of 127 participants from different European
countries shows that the majority of is in favor of native models of English. In
fact, the result shows that many of them would like to be able to speak like a
native speakers, while others would like to ―speak English that in grammar
and lexis resembles a native variety and can be understood by NSs and NNSs
of English alike” (Groom 2012, p. 53). It is not clear if these participants are
learners of English; however, the survey shows that they do use English to

37. 26
some extent at home, at work/school/university, and in communication
socially.
Young & Walsh (2010) interviewed 26 teachers of English who were
studying for a Master or Ph.D degree in the same university in the UK. The
result shows five main findings. First, all teachers are not aware of the variety
of English that they learned in their country. Second, the majority of teachers
identify the English they teach as British, American, Standard, or Formal
English. Third, all teachers strongly states that they would like to teach
Standard English. Fourth, all teachers are interested in the theory of EIL/EFL,
but are not fully aware of EIL/EFL ―content, lexis, and pronunciation‖ for
classroom activities. Finally, all teachers expect to teach American English in
the future.
In Asia, Jenkins (2008) interviewed a group of young learners from
different countries about their attitude towards different Englishes. The result
shows that most students express preference of native accent over non-native
accents. They also show contradictory views about their own accent. One on
hand, they are proud of their own accent and consider it part of their identity;
on the other hand, they strive for a native-like accent.
These findings are supported by a qualitative research on 12 young learners in
Japan. S. Kawanami & K. Kawanami (2009) reported that the dominance
model of English in ELT in Japan is still the prestigious native-like models.
However, in the future, Japanese young learners of English might be able to
identify themselves as speakers of English and acknowledge their variety as
legitimate. This might be done through developing awareness of different
varieties of English and learning to respect the differences.
Tokumoto & Shibata (2011) surveyed 128 English-major university students
from three Asian countries including Korea, Japan, and Malaysia, on the self-

38. 27
perception of their pronunciation. Their work shows that, while learners from
both countries consider native English their ideal model, Korean learners
seem to have negative attitudes towards their own accent, while Japanese
learners ―consider their pronunciation intelligible to some extent‖ (p.406).
Malaysian learners, on the other hand, express confidence in their own
variety of English.
In 2014, a survey on 204 participants followed by 25 interviews on
teachers of English in Korea was implemented. The result indicates that the
majority of participants seem to have a positive attitude towards Korean
English (Ahn 2014).
In general, there has been a great deal of controversies in attitudes
towards World Englishes. While students and teachers begin to realize the
existence of different varieties, the vast majority of them are still in favor of
the native model of English, commonly British and American. There are,
however, a number of young learners who would like to retain their L1 accent
in English as part of their identity in the era of globalization.
2.3.2. Studies on attitude toward WEs in Vietnam
While attitudes towards World Englishes in East Asia have been
extensively investigated, there are only a few researches on similar topics in
Vietnam. The following academic works are the first looks at teachers and
students‘ attitudes towards WEs in Vietnam.
A study on 150 students majoring in English and 80 university teachers
of English in Central Vietnam shows that many students and teachers are
aware of the fact that they will use English with NNS more than with NS.
However, most students still wish to learn native-like pronunciation and
grammar, and teachers teach exclusively native varieties of English (Ton &
Pham 2010).

39. 28
Their findings were supported by another research in Hue University.
Ngo (2012) has investigated 106 students and 25 teachers in Hue University,
Vietnam and reported that both participating students and teachers prefer
Standard English. The research also indicates that teachers seem to accept and
support EFL, but reject it in ELT. This rejection of ELF in the classroom is
because of the lack of material, the schools‘ goals, or the popularity of native-
based tests.
Tran & Moore (2015) has studied attitudes of 76 teachers in 26
different Vietnamese universities/colleges. The result of this study shows that
teachers consider the introduction of WEs in ELT in Vietnam “important and
necessary” (p.113). Nevertheless, there are challenges which prevent them
from doing so. They include the lack of teaching materials, extra time and
effort, teacher‘s lack of awareness on WEs, and students‘ preference on native
varieties.
In conclusion, similar to other countries in the world, Vietnamese
teachers and learners seem to have controversial opinions on World Englishes
and the teaching and learning of EIL/EFL. As there have been only a few
studies on the topic in the context of Vietnam, it is necessary to have more
researches on the topic to build a more detailed picture of attitudes towards
WEs in Vietnam.
2.4. Concluding remarks
In the modernization, English has become the global language and this
trend is expected to continue. A lot of methods to categorize English varieties
have been proposed, including the Kachru‘s Circle model which is adopted
for this research because of its advantages.
Researchers have suggested EIL/EFL as a new approach for ELT
which respects different varieties of English and emphasizes intercultural

40. 29
communication competence. Even though there have been disagreements in
terms of EFL/EIL principles, most scholars agree that English varieties should
be introduced to students.
In Vietnam, the education system retains the use of native English
(mainly British and American English) with little focus on language skills. In
recent years, the government invests a great deal of effort in the teaching and
learning of English, expecting Vietnamese youth to be able to communicate
confidently in English in international context. Therefore, it is necessary for
learners to be aware of different varieties of English in order to support their
study and form their intercultural competence.
The study of attitude is a popular topic on ELT because it has great
influence on the teaching and learning process. Attitude is generally accepted
as having three components: Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral. The study
applied the indirect method (survey and interview) to measure Cognitive and
Affective aspects of attitude.
EFL/EIL is still a new concept for Vietnamese teachers of English. It is
important to explore attitudes of Vietnamese teachers towards this approach.
There have been, however, a small number of researches on attitudes of
Vietnamese university teachers and students. Therefore, it is necessary to
have more research on teachers and students‘ perceptions and attitudes
towards English varieties and the introduction of English varieties. This study
aims to describe attitudes of state university teachers, with focus on those
whose students major in English and/or TESOL, to fill in the gap in language
attitude research in Vietnamese context.

41. 30
Chapter III: Research Methodology
3.1 Research questions
The study aims at describing part of attitudes of Vietnamese university
teachers of English towards the introduction of World Englishes to students. It
is specifically translated into two research questions:
1. What are attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of English in universities
towards the introduction of Outer Circle varieties of English to their
students?
2. What are attitudes of Vietnamese teachers of English in universities
towards the introduction of Expanding Circle varieties of English to their
students?
3.2. Participants
Participants of the study are 111 Vietnamese teachers of English from 7
state universities in Vietnam. They are in charge of teaching students majored
in English Language or English Language Education. Participants were
chosen based on theconvenience sampling followed by the selective sampling
process due to four reasons. First, time and resources to carry out the study
are limited. Second, the distance between locations of universities
investigated in the study and location of the researcher is highly considerable.
Third, it is difficult to contact with teachers and access their profile. Finally,
teachers may not be available for the questionnaires and/or the interview.
In the first stage, questionnaires were sent to the teachers.A brief explanation
of Kachru‘s Circle was included at the beginning of the questionnaires, and
then participants were asked to answer three knowledge-check questions to
ensure that they had adequate comprehension of the term World Englishes
and Kachru‘s Circles. It meant that they were able to recognize which circle

42. 31
an English variety belongs to. In the second stage, responses from participants
who did not answer all three questions correctly were removed from the data.
In the end, a total of 98 valid responses were considered valid and were used
for analysis.
University No. of
Participants
1. University of Languages and International Studies
– VNU
20
2. Hanoi University of Education 9
3. Hanoi University 17
4. School of Foreign Languages – Thai Nguyen
University
12
5. University of Foreign Language Studies – Da Nang
University
20
6. University of Foreign Languages – Hue University 12
7. University of Pedagogy – Ho Chi Minh city 8
Total 98
Table 1: Number of participants in each university
82.7% of participants are female, compared with 17.3% of male
participants. 21.4% of participants have less than 5 years of experience,
44.9% of them have 5 – 10 years, and 33.7 % have more than ten years of
experience. 16.3% of participants have a Bachelor degree; 75.5% of them
have a Master degree, and 8.2% have a Ph.D. degree.
No. of Participants Percentage
(%)

43. 32
Gender Female 81 82.7
Male 17 17.3
Experience Less than 5 years 21 21.4
5 - 10 years 44 44.9
More than 10
years
33 33.7
Highest
Qualification
Bachelor 16 16.3
Master 74 75.5
Ph.D. 8 8.2
Age Under 25 8 8.2
25 – 40 76 77.6
Above 40 14 14.2
Table 2: Demographic information of participants
3.3. Data collection procedure
Data were collected in sequential procedure through a survey and semi-
structured interviews.
Data were collected during a period of three months, a survey was sent
to the participants to collect quantitative data. Then, a group of respondents
was interviewed to elaborate findings of the questionnaires, and to explore
reasons and beliefs underlying the attitudes measured by the survey. The
survey was in English, the interview was in Vietnamese and English.
3.3.1. Survey

44. 33
The questionnaire was delivered to participants through online methods
and hard copies. 111 responses were collected from seven universities. 98 of
them were valid.
The survey included Likert-type questions, close-ended questions, and
open-ended questions. Items in the survey were adapted from questionnaire of
previous studies on attitude of teachers and students towards varieties of
English including Groom (2012), Rousseau (2012), and Tran & Moore
(2015). Items which were not useful for answering research questions were
removed. All questions were written in English and designed in multiple-
choice format to increase the questionnaires‘ consistency.
The questionnaires were divided into three main parts. The first part
included six questions to ensure of teachers‘ understanding of World
Englishes to increase reliability of respondents‘ answer.
A brief explanation of the Kachru‘s Circle was attached below
Question 1 to ensure that participants were able to recognize the Circles and
varieties of English they refer to before moving onto Question 2. Question 2,
3, 4 were designed to check participants‘ understanding of varieties of
English. Participants were asked to choose the correct Circle (Inner, Outer,
Expanding) for three varieties of English (British, Singaporean, Vietnamese).
Survey response of participants who did not answer Question 2, 3, 4 correctly
were counted as invalid.
The second part was designed to collect data on teachers‘ attitudes
towards the introduction of WEs to their students. This part consists of 10
questions. Eight of them are Likert-type questions to measure attitudes with
focus on cognitive and behavioral components. Questions 7 – 10 were
designed to measure cognitive aspect of attitude (i.e. what participants think
about varieties of English), particularly their perception of non-native
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45. 34
varieties and the importance of introducing these varieties to students.
Question 11 - 12 were used to measure behavioral attitudes, that is how likely
it is for participants to introduce non-native varieties of English to their
students. Question 13 and 14 were multiple choice questions to identify
methods which teachers think they would use to introduce WEs.
The third part was to collect participants‘ biographic information
including gender, teaching experience, institutions, and academic degree.
Data from the questionnaires then were presented in tables and chart to
answer the research questions. A chi-squared test was run to test if there was
statistically significant difference between attitudes towards Outer and
Expanding Circle. An online calculator provided by Preacher (2001) on the
website http://www.quantpsy.org/chisq/chisq.htm was used for the test with
data of Outer circle as Observed, and data of Expanding Circle as Expected.
3.3.2. Interview
In addition to the questionnaires, data were collected through semi-
structured interviews.
One male and ten female interviewees were selected with convenience
sampling method from participants of the survey who volunteered to join the
interviews and from the researcher‘s professional connections. There was at
least one interviewee from each of the seven universities.
Participants were asked to write their email in the questionnaire if they
were willing to participate in the interview so their consent form was not
needed. Other interviewees had their consent form recorded in the interviews.
Interviewees were interviewed through Facebook call, Skype, or phone call
after they completed the questionnaires.
The interviews were mostly in Vietnamese with academic terms being
in English. The interviewees were asked to translate their answers into
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46. 35
English when the researcher was not clear about the opinion they were trying
to express.
The interview was divided into two sections. In the first sections,
teachers answered questions about their information including teaching
experience, etc. In the second section, participants answered questions
prepared in advance by the interviewer. Depends on the situation, the
interviewer also asked additional questions accordingly.
All interviews were recorded, transcribed, grouped and translated into
English by the researcher. Data then analyzed to answer the research
questions.
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