4. Hosts
Liriomyza trifolii has been recorded from 29 families with preference for
Asteraceae including Aster spp., Chrysanthemum spp., Gerbera spp., Dahlia
spp., lettuce, celery, cabbages, spinach, beetroot, cucumbers, pumpkins, soybean,
alfalfa, bean, pea, onion, garlic, peppers, potato and tomato.
Detection and identification
Symptoms of the American serpentine leafminer, L. trifolii:
(A) adult stippling damage on spinach and (B) larvae infestation and mining damage on tomato
4
5. (C) on Bean white speckles 0.13–0.15
mm in diameter
(D) on pea leaves. stippled appearance on
foliage, especially at the leaf tip and
along the leaf margins
5
6. Morphology :
The immature developmental stages of the American serpentine leafminer, Liriomyza trifolii:
(A)egg inside a puncture on the leaf,
(B) larvae inside a leaf, behind is a trail of mines, while the dark areas are the waste products,
(C) pupa attached to the upper surface of a leaf
(D) adult dorsal view.
0.2–0.3 x 0.10–0.15mm Maggot measures up to 3mm 2.3 x 0.75 mm 2 mm in lenth
6
7. Geographical distribution
L. trifolii originated in North America and spread to other parts of the world in the 1960–1980s
Pest Distribution and Risk Atlas for Africa7
8. Figure 1. Global geographical distribution of the American serpentine leaf miner,
Liriomyza trifolii. Green points indicate countries with reported pest establishment;
yellow points are countries with reported occurrence in protected crops
(greenhouses); and red points are georeferenced distribution data. 8
9. Generation index (GI)
20–32 generations per year can develop in tropical countries
12–20 generations per year in most of the subtropical regions
3–12 generations per year in temperate zones
Changes in abundance
The native place of L. trifolii was reported to be Florida in United States of America and
Caribbean Islands (Spencer, 1973).
The first report of the occurrence of L. trifolii in India was in the Proceedings of the Annual
Castor Research Workers’ Group Meeting held at Hyderabad (DOR, 1991).
The wide host range, short life cycle and faster development of resistance to insecticides
make the management of L. trifolii very difficult.
40 per cent yield loss is caused by insect pests in vegetable production
(Krishnamoorthy and Gangavisalakshy, 2014).
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10. Phytosanitary risks
L. trifolii is listed as an A2 quarantine pest by the EPPO
Risks mapping under current and future climates
Regions with an Establishment risk index (ERI)>0.95 indicate temperature conditions where a
certain proportion of L. trifolii population is expected to survive throughout the year.
America, Asia, Africa, and Oceani and Middle East (Yemen, Oman, southern Saudi Arabia)
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11. U.S. (southern zones of California, Texas, northern Florida); northern areas of Argentina;
south of Brazil; northern and southern zones of Africa; southern China and the Middle East
(Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, some areas of Saudi Arabia)
ERI > 0.7– 0.9
11
12. U.S. (western to southern states from California to North Carolina); Central china (Sichuan
and Hubei); and Mediterranean European countries
(southern areas of Italy such as Sardinia and Sicilia, south of Portugal, Spain).
ERI of 0.6 – 0.7
12
13. Temperate regions of northern China; Canada; central and northern U.S. states
(Arkansas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, Iowa, New York); South Korea; Japan;
Russia.
ERI < 0.6 13
15. Mediterranean fruit fly
Ceratitis capitata
EPPO code : CERTCAA2 no.105.
(Ceratitis capitata)
Taxonomic Tree
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Metazoa
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Uniramia
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Tephritidae
Genus: Ceratitis
Species: Ceratitis capitata
HOSTS
C. capitata is a highly polyphagous species whose larvae develop in a very wide range of
unrelated fruits:
Apple, Avocados, Citrus, Figs, Kiwifruits, Mango, Pear, Plum. Coffee.
15
16. Native to Sub-Saharan Africa, 1749
southern France since at least 1772
Italy in 1863
Spain in 1842
Portugal in 1898
Israel in 1900
Turkey in 1904
Greece in 1915
Gasperi et al., 2002
India (MH), 1989 16
18. Egg: Very slender curved, 1 mm long, smooth and shiny white.
Larva: Length of 1st instar larva 1 mm or less, body mostly transparent;
2nd instar body partially transparent;
fully grown 3rd instar 6.8–8.2 mm.
Pupa: Cylindrical 4–4.3 mm long, dark reddish brown.
Adult: Length 3.5–5 mm, yellowish with brown tinge,
especially on abdomen, legs, and some markings on wings
18
21. Males are attracted to Trimedlure and Terpinyl acetate, but not methyl eugenol.
Ceralure is a new potent and persistent attractant for C. capitata (Avery et al., 1994).
Detection and inspection methods
MOVEMENT AND DISPERSAL
Adult flight and the transport of infested fruits are the major means of movement and
dispersal to previously uninfested areas.
There is evidence that C. capitata can fly at 20 km (Fletcher, 1989).
Control
1. Malathion is the usual choice of insecticide for fruit fly control and this is usually
combined with protein hydrolysate to form a Bait spray.
2. The techniques of Male annihilation and Sterile insect release have been used against
some populations of C. capitata.
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22. PHYTOSANITARY MEASURES
Consignments of fruits from countries where C. capitata occurs should be inspected for
symptoms of infestation those suspected should be cut open in order to look for larvae.
EPPO recommends (EPPO, 1990) that fruits of Citrus or Prunus should have been treated
by an appropriate method, e.g. in transit by cold treatment (e.g. 10, 11, 12, 14, 15 days at
0.0, 0.6, 1.1, 1.7 or 2.2°C, respectively,)
Certain types of fruits, by vapour heat (e.g. keeping at 44°C for 8 h) (USDA, 1994),
forced hot-air (Armstrong et al., 1995) or hot water treatment (Sharp & Picho-Martinez,
1989).
Ethylene dibromide was previously widely used as a fumigant but is now generally
withdrawn because of its carcinogenicity
A combination of Methyl bromide fumigation and cold treatment is also recommended
against C. capitata.
Wrapping fruits in shrinkwrap film has been investigated as a possible method of
disinfesting fruits (Jang, 1990).
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