A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM

A.J. ASEGIEMHE
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO INVESTIGATIVE
JOURNALISM

A Practical Guide To Investigative Reporting
Article by – A.J. Asegiemhe aka Johnchaste
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TABLE OF CONTENT
1. INVESTIGATIVE AND INTERPRETATIVE JOURNALISM; AN OVERVIEW
1.1 Definition of Investigative and Interpretative Reporting
1.2 Importance of Investigative Reporting
1.3 Importance of Accuracy in Investigative Reporting
1.4 The Investigative Journalist
1.5 Qualities and Traits of an Investigative Journalist
2. SOURCES OF INVESTIGATIVE STORIES
2.1 Human sources
2.2 Documented sources
2.2.1 public record
2.2.2 Non-public record
2.3 The Tools of an Investigative Journalist
3. INTERVIEW IN INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM
3.1 How to Organize and Carryout an Investigative Interview
3.2 Investigative Interview
3.3 Methods of Asking Questions in Investigative Journalism
3.3.1 Closed-ended questions
3.3.2 Open-ended questions
3.3.3 Hypothetical questions
3.3.4 Agree/Disagree questions
3.3.5 Probes Questions
3.4 Role of Interview in Investigative Reporting
4. STEPS IN INVESTIGATING A STORY
4.1 How to Write an Investigative Story
4.2 Constrains and Obstacles of Investigative Journalism
4.3 Elements of Interpretative Stories
5. TERRAINS IN INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING
5.1 Types of Terrains
5.1.1 Familiar Terrains
5.1.2 Unfamiliar Terrains
5.1.3 Hostile Terrains
6. INVESTIGATIVE REPORTERS AND THE ETHICS
6.1 Why Ethics in Research
6.2 Journalism and the Ethical Code of Conduct
6.3 Investigative Journalism and the Nigerian Law

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
John Asekhamhe Asegiemhe who is popularly known as Johnchaste,
hails from Agenebode town in Edo State. He has a Diploma in Mass
Communication from the prestigeous Federal Poytechnic Auchi. He is
an avid reader who shows much interest in different areas/field of
study particularly History, Political Science, Literature, Philosophy,
Psycology, Sociology, Administration, International Relations and
even Theology. He has written numerous articles relating to journalism and other Social science and Art
courses namely; Chronicles and Birth of a New Nation, An Introductory Approach to The Operations of
the Mass Media in Relations to its Society, Advertsing Communication In Modern Journalism, Mass
Media and the Nigerian Laws, An Aspect of News Writing, An Introduction on the Concept of Ethics in
Journalism, Geography of Nigeria, A Critical Guide to Graphics Communication, A Moderm Approach to
Marketing Communication, A Practical View on Photojournalism, An Analytical Guide to Print Production
In Journalism, Poems, other unpublished stories and numerious motivational and inspirational quotes
with a populary one; “Hewhocontributesarecognisedideatohumanknowledgelivesasan
institution and one who dies as an institution lives a thousand years, but he who dies as
an ordinary manlivedonly once”.
He won the Mr. Talented of Mass Communication 2017/2018 Auchi Polytechnic during the departmental
day celebration 2017, he is currently the Secretary Genenral of ADOSTA (Army Day Old Student
Association) 195 Battalion Agenebode Chapter, he was the Deputy Chief Editor of the Poly-Watch
Newspapers 2018 edition , and also held the position of a class rep. during the period of 2016/2017 and
2017/2018 academic session. He is also the proprietor of Johnchaste Tutorials (JCT)) Auchi Chapter.
He has passion for teaching and has taught in both primary and secondary schools respectivey, even in
the polytechnic were he is currently a tutor for the National Diploma (ND) Mass Communication students.
When he is not reading/writing and researching, he is either sleeping or charting wih friends.
Affiliate I

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INVESTIGATIVE AND INTERPRETATIVE REPORTING;
AN OVERVIEW
This is one interesting and tough area in the field of journalism. In fact, it will interest you to
know that since the mysterious and sudden death of Dele Giwa, the father of investigative
journalism in Nigeria, no journalist has been bold enough to take after his path over the years.
One may be wondering why this particular area is so tough that even professional journalist
finds it difficult to fit in.
Investigative journalism is way advanced to normal news reporting in fact, it is salient to note
that investigative reporting is not only time consuming, but also it involves risk and exposes
the reporter to threats of any kind. Even at that, investigative journalism is an interesting area
in the field of journalism.
What makes it investigative in nature, is the elements that found itself in its definition. These
elements did not only include; it's in-depth nature but most importantly a concealed information
that has been kept away from the people it really affects and the undoubted truth which
prompted the journalist to undergo such research.
It is important to note therefore, that not all investigation is geared towards unrevealing that
which has been concealed, some investigation also tends to abreast the public on a particular
occurrence like an outbreak of decease, illnesses, new developments, innovations and
inventions, things that are important to do that can enhance education, health, income,
security, cause of an accident, fire outbreak, flooding, etc. These aforementioned also tends
to be investigative in nature as they can educate the public on the need to be safe, causes,
effects and caution to take at an outbreak of any deadly deceases (virus), insecurity, etc.
The aims of writing this article, is to abreast the students of Mass Communications on;
1. The meaning and functions for investigative and interpretative journalism
2. The significance and purpose of investigative and interpretative journalism
3. The risks involved in getting information’s that has been kept secret
4. The need to abreast the public on how the story concerns them and
5. How to carefully arrange, proper, investigate and present investigative stories
Every investigative journalist should bear in mind that, his job goes beyond merely
investigating alone, I mean; how can a lecturer introduce a topic in class without possible
explanations?
The job of investigative journalist therefore is at the end of every investigative story, explain
(interpret) the significance and of course every information he has gathered with main concern
on;
1. How it affects the public
2. What would have happened if such information was withheld from them forever
3. How it will broaden their mind of reasoning and
4. How it can or may have affected their interest, financial or health issues.

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With this aforementioned, the investigative journalist is already on his way to literary get the
attention and most importantly get through the minds of the audience to start thinking and
acting in the way he wants.
1. 1 Definitions of Investigative and Interpretative Journalism
It will be necessary to start looking at some scholarly definitions of the two variables;
Investigative and Interpretative Journalism.
"Investigative journalism reports information about publicly relevant abuses that certain
individuals and organizations want to remain secret, Silvio Waisbord (2002).
According to Robert Green, an American two-time Pulitzer prize winner for investigative
journalistic work, in Olusegun Ojomo (2008, p2); "Investigative journalism is uncovering
something somebody wants to keep secret ".
Duyile (2005) as cited by Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015, p2): "investigative reporting as the
kind of reporting that is aimed at finding out a hidden fact about a situation. He said, it is a kind
of news gathering in which the reporter probes deeply into a particular situation and assembles
the evidence that discloses whether or not there is something unusual, unethical, illegal, or
even more outrageous going on".
'Not every story is worthy of being an in-depth or investigative report. There are three main
features for an investigative story which are;
a. The subject is not just interesting, but important, significant substantive
b. The information has been kept hidden in one way or the other
c. The report is mostly some say, 51% through the reporters own efforts' Duff Wilson in
Akhagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015).
The aforementioned features identify that, the topic being investigated must and should
interest the public, it must be what has been kept secret from them, that either affect their
health or anything concerning them including financial income, etc. and lastly, the whole
research at least 51 percent must be the reporters own effort put in sourcing and gathering
the research, others can be secondary source of data collection's.
The reporter must be willing to sacrifice his time and resources for this task and most
importantly, patience is required in order to wait and get accurate facts about the whole
situation. Raw facts must be gotten.
In the words of the author of this article given in a nutshell, 'investigative journalism is the act
of gathering in-depth data on a matter that has been kept secret from the public, which can
cause arm of any kind to them if remained concealed and not revealed.
Interpretative journalism on the other hand, involves the extensive analysis and vivid
explanations of the data gathered or collected from an investigative story to the public in other
for them to fully understand and know why such information was kept secret, what it could
have caused and the effect it would have generated if it was not unravel’.

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1.2 Importance of Investigative Journalism
1. It is for the Interest of the Public
Any reporter or journalist undergoing an investigation is not to throw the entire work under the
carpet after all the in-depth research and or personal efforts. The entire research was for the
public, to educate them about a particular ill or something someone, an organizations or even
any of the government agencies and parastatal must have tried to hide from them over the
years. With this, we say the investigative report serves public interest.
Most venerable and influential individual's in a society may likely want to sponsor an
investigative story with the hope that the entire research should yield a good and credible
outcome which can either improve the living standard of the vulnerable people in the society
or the economy at large, even the government is not exempted from this matter.
2. It Increase the Patronage of a Medium
Ordinarily, many readers will rather go for a medium that don't have limitations to reporting
human interest stories. When a particular medium is resourceful and always providing what
members of the public should know, readers often go for such medium that suit their taste.
3. It Broaden the Scope of Journalism
Through an in-depth investigative report, area's most fearful to go by most daily news
coverage journalist will be unravelled and this will bring about increase in the news pole.
Also, during investigations or in the course of investigating hidden stories, the journalist is
broadening his knowledge about most things he is not exposed to, and exploit these areas’ to
widen both the freedom of his field and that of the medium.
4. It Brings Credibility to a Medium
The Media still today fight or play the conventional role of being the voice of the voiceless and
those that are marginalized in the society. Through in-depth investigation and revealing of
facts, the credibility of a medium is boosted as most citizens will see the credible work of the
media in trying to unravel the hidden truth and most other secrets concealed from them over
the years. It also brings trust to a particular medium.
5. It Brings About Development
Through the investigative report a journalist or a particular medium reveals, many will know
which areas are left untouched for development and the improvement of the common man in
the society. When most things that are hidden are revealed, response takes place almost
immediately on how to work on such area so as to enhance the standard of living for all
citizens.
6. It Brings Transparency and Accountability in Governance
One constitutional role the media is met to serve in Nigeria is that of transparency and
accountability of the government to the masses. This goes a long way in determining an ideal
democratic state and sovereign nation.
A democratic state is that which does not only allow the freedom of the press but most
saliently, allowing the media to reveal frankly the activities of the government to the masses
time after time.

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7. It Brings About Competition Among Different Media
When a particular medium picks on an investigative topic and research in-depth on it, and
report it to the public, there is no doubt that, that particular medium experiences increase in
patronage. This will prompt other young media organizations and those media that are luck
warm when it comes to investigative stories, to start working on themselves and enhance their
investigative skills professionally in order to meet the expectation of the readable audience.
This will result to boosting credibility in such medium. With this move, media competition on
investigative stories increases, while the scope of investigative journalism broadened.
1.3 Juxtaposition of Investigative Reporting and Accuracy
The media can ruin ones’ reputation just as it can build reputation and social status for
celebrities. The importance of accuracy in an investigative report must be put in proper
consideration before undergoing such an investigative research.
Journalist should not be lazy in searching for information from variety of sources and
documented materials and should not just cling to one or two source's just because it proves
true from the stand point of view. Every journalist should know that most times some
information are subject to questioning and require excesses and in depth research before
providing it to be true. Also, he should know that the individual or the organization being
investigated or undergoing investigation has enemies who may want to ruin their reputation
thereby falsifying information to the reporter when speer.
The advice to every investigative journalist is to always check, search and keep checking.
Else, any false information about an organization can lead to litigation, reprimand and even
ruin both the reputation of the journalist and that of the media organization at large, mostly
when such an individual is a prominent personality in the society.
There is no credible defence whatsoever for an incompetent journalist to give in court for the
case to be sway in his favour for such inaccuracy, because literary such thing can be referred
to as honest mistake but a deliberate action to ruin one’s reputation. This act shows the
incompetent and incapability and even luck warmness and laziness of such investigative
journalist.
Accuracy matters a lot in investigative reporting. As a journalist, you need not to be afraid of
anything not even character assassination or defamation of character if what is been published
is the truth and nothing but the truth after an in-depth research before such deduction.
1.4 The Investigative Journalist
The investigative journalist does not just emerge by fitting into the field from no were, his
experience starts from being a normal daily news reporter before eventually taking part in
investigative reporting. But it is important to note that, being an investigative journalist is way
difficult and demanding than being a mere daily/beat reporter. Therefore, it requires a lot of
professionalism and skills with even personal traits of being patience, courageous and
optimistic. We can now say an investigative journalist in a nutshell; 'is one who has been
adequately trained skilfully on how to gather an in-depth facts of an issue affecting the public
and professionally analysing them with vivid interpretation.

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1.5 Qualities and Traits of an Investigative Journalist
There are numerous qualities and personal traits required of an investigative journalist, among
which the following are the basic traits as discussed in this article. They are;
1. Reportorial Skill
Every investigative journalist most possesses this trait of being able to report in details and
clear words the findings of his investigation and how it concerns the public.
2. Courage
This field as earlier pointed and explained requires a lot of courage to be able to push further
even when other reporters are scared of going towards that area. It is important to note that
great investigative journalist today were ones who refused to give up amidst the trials on the
way and the difficult terrains they faced. Therefore, this field is not for cowardice.
3. Patience and Persistence
Sometimes, most investigative stories may prove frustrating at the initial stage. It is at this
point that the personal traits of being patience and persistent comes in. It will also interest you
to know that, most eyewitness or even victims and principal source may not want to open up
on time, some may not even want to open up at all.
All that is required is just patience and perseverance, and within a matter of time they may
start to develop little trust in you, and may want to talk to you about something, sometimes
little of what happened. Through this, emotions may drive such individual to continue talking
to the extent of you getting what you really want indirectly.
4. Leg-work
Investigative journalist are not reporters, they are vibrant and always alert, abreast and ready
for action anytime they are to be called upon. Most investigative journalist today face litigation
because of their incompetence and laziness to carry out an in-depth investigation.
5. Honesty
It is notably to know that not every investigative stories tend to uncover hidden truth, some
maybe to create an awareness about an outbreak of decease or may be something the public
are ignorant about. E.g., politically decision making process known as right to righting which
is called political culture by political scientist, and the ignorant nature of the electorates who
may not want to come out to cast their vote, which is also known as political apathy.
It is therefore the duty of the investigative journalist to educate them on the implications of not
coming out to cast their vote as it can lead to having a bad government. Honestly is the
absence of the falsification of information to suit your taste and expectations.
6. Inquisitive
In order to get to the depth of every issues/stories one is investigating on, he must possess
an inquisitive nature of wanting to know almost everything from his source. You must continue
to ask, ask and check in order to arrive at an accurate data about the investigation.

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Just as the African proverb goes; 'one who ask questions do not miss his way, get deceived
or misled'. So, asking your source a lot of questions will be able to provide enough background
for you and expose you to many information and details you were not aware of.
7. Passion for Writing
An investigative journalist is one who has passion for writing and has developed good and
credible writing skills. Over the years of being a reporter, he must have developed a
professional ways of writing to the extent of using verbs and adjectives to paint images of the
events on the minds of the reader as though they were there when the whole thing happened.
8. Friendly and Courtesy
As a reporter, if you really want to get into the interest of your sources and eyewitness, you
must be friendly and polite. Don't be too serious, as most people would rather talk to a friendly
reporter than some interrogative ones. It is therefore advised that, questions should be asked
in a polite manner rather than in a threatening and arrogant manner. With this, such an
individual would be able to develop trust in you as someone that can be talked to and trusted
as well.
9. Computer Literate
This is most required in any profession even aside journalism. Reporters gets higher hand in
getting employment, because it's not about investigating alone, one needs to edit too and at
the end send it to an editor who does the final surgery on the piece.
10. Good Knowledge of Photography and Photojournalism
Knowing how to handle a camera and take pictures that are story telling themselves is another
great advantage. Researching and writing alone, won't help without aiding it with a picture that
reflects the mood or scenario of what had happened. Pictures sometimes speaks better than
words. So, a good and well taken picture may be able to help tell the story better for the
readers to grasp. An investigative journalist who is also a good photojournalist makes a perfect
match for this job.
11. Good Interview Skills
An investigative journalist must know how to conduct credible and professional interview
section with a source so as not to appear boring, or unprofessional to the extents of the
interviewee now turning the interviewer or the reporter to an interviewee. A professional
approach towards asking questions must be adopted to suit the purpose it's serves.
Investigative journalist with good interview tips makes a good researchers and always have
the tendency of getting credible information from sources.

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Affiliate II
SOURCES OF INVESTIGATIVE STORIES
There are numerous sources of investigative stories an investigative journalist should be
aware of. These sources most times makes up the entire content of the investigation. Without
these sources available, the investigative journalist will be on the fence of issues he is faced
with and won't be able to carry out his work effectively and professionally.
These sources are mostly categorized or classified into two major classes which are;
1. Human Sources and
2. Documented Sources
Human Sources
This is a method of data collection that is based on interview in getting raw facts from either
the eyewitness or principal source. Here, there are people who are either close to the victim
or even family members. They give tend to give a clear account of the event either based on
what they have witnessed or based on personal judgemental perception. They are most
reliable as they tend to be the only primary means of data collection of raw facts which are
sometimes referred to as first-hand information.
This particular area demands a high intellectual skill for interview because, the investigative
journalist is going to get his findings through a question and answer section between him as
the interviewer and researcher and the source as the interviewee or respondent. The
followings are some human sources that are sometimes available and reliable as well;
i. Friends/Family members
ii. Enemies
iii. Victim's/Eyewitness
iv. Police
v. Somebody who Cross their Path
Friends and Family members
Talking to either friends or any of the family member of the victim who will spare you his or her
time would tend to be more revealing than any information you might have gotten else were.
Though, they may at a point try to cover or hide some wrong part of them but they may be
ready to share a lot of information with a friendly reporter.
Enemies
These are actually the right people to get information about few right deeds and many
misdeeds and wrong parts of the victim from. Sometimes, they may want to speak maliciously
and out of jealously thereby exaggerating most information and short comings of the victim.
But a good intellectual and well skilled journalist will know where to hit such individual with a
question that may prove what he has given to be either right or wrong.

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Victim's and Eyewitness
They tend to be more reliable as they are directly connected to the events itself. Sometimes,
they may want to hide their misdeeds, but a good psychological question may reveal what
they are trying to keep and when cutup, they may want to justify their short comings and the
reason behind that. The eyewitness on the other hand, may give you a detailed and analytical
account of the event, but a victim will go beyond the surface which you already know to tell
you how it happens, and what prompted the misdeeds.
Police and Other Law Enforcement Agencies
Often times, they tend to be more reliable because their mine job is to investigate most ills in
the society. So, they tend to share some information about a victim or incidents to a friendly
reporter as they may lessen the burden of further investigation for them. It is also noteworthy
to know that, most police may want to hide some misdeeds of the victim because, in most
cases they are bribed not to disclose information to anybody.
Somebody who Cross Their Path
They might be losers but they are literary like enemies who may sometimes speak out of envy,
jealousy and maliciously. They are people they may have lost a contract to, an elective and
political position or office, this may make them owe grudges against them if not for a life time.
Yet, they are reliable in telling you what they might have done to attain such position or get
the contract as the investigative stories is geared towards revealing concealed information. As
it is also interesting to know that most people will do anything and go any length to get what
they want.
Documented Sources
These documents or records about the victims. Unlike human sources, documented sources
are secondary form of data collection. They are very necessary and most times reliable in
getting an in-depth analysis of who the victim really is, what he has done in the past, where
he has been, crimes he has been convicted for, etc. These have a way in providing what the
investigative journalist have gathered from the human sources to be true or false or even
contradictory.
The followings are some written, documented record that are mostly available for an
investigative journalist to access and get more data. Though, they are classified into two
categories of;
1. Public Record
a. Property records
b. Court records
c. Loan records
2. Non-public Record
a. Investigative files
b. Past arrest and convictions
c. Banks records

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1. Public Records
They are referred to as public records because, they are made available for the public for
public assessments. Which means, anybody can get hold of them and access the information
therein. In getting them, the investigative journalist must first know that they exist and were to
find them.
a. Property record
Many investigation literary centres on land, who owns it, who buys it, how it is zoned, how it is
taxed, etc. You can find out these things from public records. Your country recorder’s office
(or its equivalent) has on file the ownership of every piece of land in the country and the story
of past ownership as well (Akhagbosu and Ikazuagbe 2015).
b. Court records
It is important to note that few people who have made name and are influential in the society
today that do not have any cases of litigation. It is advised, that the journalist go to the Federal
court Clark for search of recorded cases such as individuals who might have had cases to do
with judicial proceedings. Information gotten from there may be of help to your investigative
report.
c. Loan record
Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015) assert that; 'commercial leaders usually file statements
showing property that has been used as security for loan.
2. Non-public Record
These are information that are termed secret and not to be displayed to the public, which
means they are out of public domain, assessments and evaluations. The investigative
journalist will need to get a close friend from such place to enable him get the information
needed. They are very rich and can be able to boost up your investigation but difficult to obtain.
The followings are some of non-public record;
a. Bank record
This is the most difficult to obtain as all bankers are trained to keep their information secret. In
order to get the information needed from this terrain, one have to maintain a good relationship
with somebody working there. This could be the only way some bank information can link out.
b. Investigative files
These files can be rich in information. The investigative journalist is likely to see them only if
you have a good source in that or affiliated agency. If you do obtain such files, treat them with
caution. They will be full of unsubstantiated allegations, rumour and misinformation. Be
warned of accepting as fact anything you have not confirmed yourself.
c. Past Arrest and Convictions
This information is totally out of public assessments and can't be easily obtained. But a friendly
reporter who a good mutual friend there can be of help. That information therein is trust worthy.

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Other Sources of Investigative Journalism
According to Nwabueze (2005) in Akagbosu and Ikazuagbe (2015); the followings are some
sources of information available for a reporter, which are;
a. Newspapers and Electronic media reports
b. News breaks
c. Victim's and eyewitness
d. The Police
e. The Court
f. The Library
g. Press Conference and briefings
h. Special Sources
i. Drinking joints, handouts, and other social spots
2.3 The Reporters Tools for Investigation
Going out to cover investigative story, a reporter should be prepared with his tools intact. This
will serve as an assistance at any point in time. Nwabueze (2005) as cited in Akagbosu and
Ikhazuagbe (2015) assert that; 'investigative reporter does not operate empty handed. He
moves about with some tools. Most of the generally used by both print and broadcast
investigative reporter, while one or two could be specific to a particular category. They are as
follows;
1. Writing pen
2. Jotter
3. Tape recorder
4. Still motion camera
5. A small bag
6. Cash (money)
7. Mobile phone and
8. Personal computer (PC)

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Affiliate III
INTERVIEWING IN INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM
The importance of interview in investigative journalism cannot be overstated. It is one basic
way of getting raw facts which are considered as the primary source of data collection.
Through interview, the investigative journalist has the opportunity to engage the source (victim
or eyewitness) in an interactive section of questions and answer segment. During this section,
the reporter is known as the interviewer and while the source is known as the interviewee or
respondent.
It is a most reliable method as the investigative journalist will have to get words from the
horse's mouth. Though, it requires a lot of techniques and skills in asking interview questions
and in conducting the entire section. The reporter is required to have a little knowledge of
psychology so as to know when the source could be lying through body movements or facial
expression. Yet, it will be important to note that, some sources are professional in lying and
most times investigative journalist can’t be able to detect when they lie.
The followings are tips and guidelines on how to carry out an effective interview;
3.1 How to Organize and Carryout an Investigative Interview
In organizing an interview, the journalist must bear in mind these three stages as asserted by
Obaze and Ogunboyowa (2014). They are;
1) Research Stage
2) Setting up the interview and
3) Questions and Answers
Interview Research Stage
For a journalist to record a successful interview, he must have had a thorough research of the
issues or persons involved. These include knowing both the background of the source and
something about the subject of the story. Also, the reporter would need to the newspaper
library (morgue). In researching for interview purpose, a reporter can also find any of the
following tools useful, they are: Electronic database, Internet, Public and Private Officials,
Public libraries, Websites/blogs.
Research on the background
Check news clippings and available documented court records, campaign records or other
relevant written and online sources to familiarize you with the topic and the source. Check with
secondary sources, friends and opponents before or after you interview the subject of a story.
Ask the sources friends, Secretaries or co-workers to give anecdotes and tell you about the
person's idiosyncrasies.
Plan an interesting question to start your interview. Try to find a question or approach that
would interest the source, especially if the person is a celebrity, an athlete or an official who
has been interviewed often. These people often give standard answers to questions they
consider boring because they have been asking the same questions so many times. If you
research well, you will find some an angle to a story that might head to an unusual question
and an interesting answer.

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Identify Your Goals
What kind of information are you hoping to get from this source? Is it primarily factual, as in
interview with a police officer for a story about an accident? Or do you want reaction from the
source to an issue or to something someone else said? Is the source going to the central focus
of the story? Get a general idea of why you need this source so you can explain briefly when
you call for an interview.
Plan your questions
This step may seem premature, considering that you haven't even been granted an interview.
However, if the person refuses to see you when you call for an interview, you might be able to
ask a few questions while you have the source on the phone. If you are a good interviewer,
you can prolong the conversation and wind up with a good interview.
Prepare your list of questions in two ways. Write all the questions you want to ask preferably
in an abbreviated form. Then mark the questions you must ask to get the most crucial
information for your story. If your source refuses to grant you the time you need, you can
switch to the crucial list during your interview.
SETTING UP THE INTERVIEW
Once the reporter has completed his homework on the interview he wishes to conduct, the
next stage is set-up the interview with the source. This stage can be likened to laying the
foundation of an edifice. They went further as to citing Itule and Douglas (2008) suggesting
the following steps is setting up an interview;
1. Make an Appointment
Unlike the features which has flexible and considerable deadlines, the straight/hard news does
not give room to the reporter to book long time appointment with the source(s). Phoning or
writing in advance also helps reporters get past the secretaries, public relations officers and
others who are not interested in talking with the press.
2. Identify Yourselves
Once the source is contacted, the reporter should reveal his identity to the source as a media
practitioner. When people know they are being interviewed for publication, it becomes their
responsibility to control what they say.
3. Consider Your Source's Convenience
Always be prepared before you set up an interview because, sources tend to be more talkative
in "their own" environment. Let them decide the place and time of the interview. The point is,
the reporter is stepping into someone’s else's world; therefore, an interview should be
convenient for the source not for the reporter.
4. Describe the Story
Once the source agrees to grant an interview, the reporter should tell the source, in general
terms, something about the story and how his/her information will fit into it. It is also important
when setting up an interview to tell the person approximately how long the interview will take.
If the person will give you only a few minutes, take it. That is better than nothing.

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5. Dress the Part
There is no need to wear a coat and tie or high heels when covering a spot. If you are going
to interview someone whose loved one died, your dressing should be moderate; to identify
with the event or mood the source is. If you are interviewing a source respect by dressing
neatly. However, if you are interviewing corporate officials or people in more formal business
settings, you should dress as though you work there.
6. Be on time
Once you make an appointment for the interview, keep it. If the interview is scheduled for
11am, be there at 10:50am. You could arrive 10 to 15 minutes early, but don't arrive too early
because you could inconvenience people who are busy. And never come late. The only thing
worse than coming to an interview unprepared is showing up late or out of breath. It is
advisable that the reporter do not schedule one interview immediately after another.
THE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Interview questions can be structured depending on the type of purpose. The reporter can
begin with general questions before narrowing down his question to specific or begins with
specific and letter ask general questions. These structures are known as funnel and inverted
funnel formats respectively.
Funnel Interview
This is the most common and most relaxing for both the interviewer and the interviewee. When
using this structure, the reporter starts with background talk keeping the toughest and
threatening questions near end. This structure is used for celebrity and personality interviews.
Inverted Funnel Interview
When using this structure, the reporter asks the key questions as soon as the interview begins.
This type of interview is used with people, such as law enforcement agencies/officers or
government officers, who are experienced in fielding closed ended or adversarial questions.
Inverted funnel interviews are also used in breaking news stories when there is little time to
ask questions.
3.2 Ways to Conduct an Interview
According to Obaze and Ogunboyowa (2014, pg:107) as cited in Asegiemhe A.J. (2019);
stated the following steps on how an interview should be conducted;
1. Start out by using icebreakers: Introduce yourself and briefly state you purpose. Be
friendly. Establish rapport with some general conversation. Do not pull out your
notebook immediately. Try to sit at an angle to your source so you are not starring
directing at him or her in a confrontational manner.

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2. Put your questions in no threatening order: in most cases you will want to start with
no threatening questions. However, if you have only five minutes with a source, you
may have to ask your toughest question first or whichever one will yield you the most
crucial information for your story.
3. Ask basic questions: who, what, when, where, why and how are most basic. Then
add the “so whey” factor: Ask the significance. Who will be affected and how? This
question will give you information for your impact paragraph.
4. Ask follow-up questions: these are questions that will give you quotes and
anecdotes. Use a conversational technique. Let the interview flow naturally. When a
source answers one question, follow the trend of thought by asking why and how and
asking the source to explain or give examples.
5. Control the Interview: if your source prolongs an answer and you want to move the
interview in other direction, do not attempt. Wait for a natural pause and ask your next
question, using follow-up questions techniques.
6. Repeat question: you have asked an important or sensitive question, and the source
has given you an evasive or incomplete answer. Even a request to elaborate does not
produce a satisfactory response. What should you do? The best tactic is to drop the
question and continue the interview.
7. Ask about development: get the history of the issues if applicable. How and when
did the problem or event start? Why?
8. Construct a chronology: this tip is somewhat related to the previous point. When
appropriate, ask questions to establish a sequence of events. You don’t need to write
the story in chronological order, but you need to understand the order in which events
occurred.
3.3 Method of Asking Questions in an Investigative Interview
There are two methods of conducting an interview, which can be the structured or the
unstructured method. In investigative journalism, it is mostly advised that the journalist
carryout his interview in a structured format. What is a structured interview? Dibua V.A. (2010)
assert that; in a structured interview, the researcher or the interviewer goes to the respondent
or interviewee with set of prepared questions. These set of prepared questions act as
guidelines for the interviewer which is expected to follow strictly.
In conducting the structured interview, the interviewer or researcher can use one or two of the
following questions format;
1. Closed-ended Questions: This format of asking question requires very short
answers, or the question itself contains a choice of answers from which the respondent
will choose ("how often do you travel out of town? "do you feel good or bad about the
way things turned out?) Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015).

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2. Open-ended Questions: This format of asking questions normally gives the respondent
an open floor to add or express his/her self without limitations. Obaze and Ogunboyowa (2014)
support that; open-ended questions are designed to elicit quotes, elaboration or longer
responses.
3. Hypothetical Questions: This is the kind of question that establish a kind of situation for
the respondent to answer to it if found in such situation. Sometimes the situation may involve
dilemma, where the respondent is met to answer as if he is in that situation already. It can also
be referred to 'What if' questions.
4. Agree/Disagree or Yes/No Questions: Just as the phrase suggest, it only gives the
respondent to answer from the stipulated option provided by the researcher which can be a
'do you agree to that statement or you disagree' - 'did you made such statement, yes or no?'
5. Probes: These are questions that follow something the interviewee said. They can be
neutral ("can you tell me more about that"). Provocative ("are you saying you will never do
that"), or challenging, ("think a lot of people will find that difficult to believe "). The purpose of
a probe is to get the interviewee to give more information about what he or she has said
(Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe 2015).
3.4 Role of Interviews in Investigative Reporting
According to Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015);
i. Primary source of data collection
ii. Balancing report
iii. Backup for the main report
iv. Giving credit to a report

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Affiliate IV
STEPS TO NOTE WHEN CARRYING OUT AN INVESTIGATIVE STORY
Nwabueze (2005) as cited in Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015); according to him, reporter
can get an accurate report on any issue investigated if he or she uses these steps
appropriately:
1. Have a focus
2. Do basic research on subject of investigation
3. Visit scene of the incident
4. Speak with affected parties
5. Visit constituted authorities
6. Double check your facts
7. Collate relevant materials for final report
8. Write the final report
4.1 How to Write an Investigative Story
When writing an investigative story, the investigative journalist should bear in mind that what
he is about doing is totally different from normal daily news report. It requires professionalism
and skills in order to put all information gathered in a readable, interesting and interpretative
format.
So, an investigative journalist is to be aware of these processes in putting all the data gathered
from the investigative research, in order to complete the work, he started. The followings have
to be put in consideration by the reporter in order to have a well develop research.
1. Present a Background Information
2. Present Information in Descending Order of Happening/Time
3. Present Information in Simple Words
4. Present Information Using Actionable and Descriptive Words
5. Avoid Ambiguous and Technical Words
6. Organize the Entire Research Using the 7Cs
7. Check and Crosscheck and Confirm to Avoid Error
1. Present a Background Information
In reporting any investigative story, the investigative journalist has to first present a
background information about the situation and how it is connected to the general public. The
background information gives the audience a clear view on why the reporter had to carried out
such investigation at the first place. It is also at this point, that the investigative journalist
explains how long such information has been kept concealed and why.
In doing all these, the readers will be able to know the cause and effects such secret would
have caused if left concealed. The background information gives clarification about the entire
story and the ills behind it.

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2. Present Information in Chronological Order of Happening/Time
After gathering and analysing the background information, the next thing to do is to present all
data gathered in a descending order of time and how it happened. This will enable the reader
understand better how the entire event took place and how long it lasted before it was
eventually unrevealed.
A well-arranged account of an event will give credibility to a medium and an effective
understanding to the readers than a scattered information put admixed.
3. Present Information in Simple Words
Reporting an investigative story is not where the reporter displays his vocabulary of words and
end up not communicating. The essence of communication is understanding, and that is what
the investigative journalist should be after. All information should be presented though in a
professional style but also using everyday English as well.
4. Present Information Using Actionable and Descriptive Words
Verbs as we all know, are actionable words, while adjectives are descriptive words. A good
use of these part of speech will bring action into your investigative story and thereby not
cresting boredom in the minds of the readers.
Also, the use of adjectives will enable the reporter paints a credible imaginary image of the
event in the minds of the readers as though it's happening or being reported live inside them.
This could be achieved using descriptive words and then bringing live and characters into the
entire investigative story. It can also be called word smith (power of words).
5. Avoid Ambiguous and Technical Words
This can come from the direct source of your secondary data collection which are documented
or public record sources. Like the court, police investigative files, etc. are places were you
may likely find both technical and ambiguous jargons. In the course of gathering information,
investigative journalist come across them, but it will be good for him to look for an expert to
explain these terminologies to you by using simple words or synonyms that will clarify such
terms. In doing this, you are rest assured that your research will be free from both technical
and ambiguous jargons.
6. Organize the Entire Using the 7Cs
The 7Cs are known elements of presenting information in an understandable way. In doing
this, the readers themselves tends to answer the basic questions of news which are the 5Ws
and H. The 7Cs are; concise, correct, complete, courteous, courtesy, clear and candid. The
concise stands for being brief, straight to the point with main words. While correct stands for
facts and accuracy. Complete stands for without any linkage or missing information.
Courteous stands for presenting information with regard to the person or person's involved
irrespective of what you may have found out about them. Courtesy stands for presenting

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information in a polite manner and not been judgemental or editorializing. Clear stands for the
devoid of ambiguity and all information presented must be clear enough for the readers to
understand at ease. And lastly, candid stands for all information should be presented from
their true nature without bias.
7. Check, Crosscheck and Confirm to Avoid Error (C.C.C)
After all these efforts put together in arranging the entire research to fit in for publication, the
last thing to do is to check, crosscheck and confirm that there are no errors of facts, dates,
names, places, time, etc. For any little error of any nature can lead to litigation and reprimand.
So, to confirm well, check out for a colleague to help you go through the entire content, and
by so doing some errors you did not see will be figured out and the whole research will be
ready for publication, and thereby subjected to public assessments, evaluation and
awareness.
4.2 Constraints and Obstacles Faced by Investigative Journalist
In the course of investigation, the investigative journalist encounters different challenges and
faces numerous obstacles. These challenges and obstacles often times makes the work of
investigative journalism difficult that most journalist do run away from. They can be threatening
and demanding at the same time. But no investigative journalist can escape any of them in
the course of investigation, it tends to be the onus of the field. It is therefore advisable to know
them and also know how to tackle them when faced with any during the course of investigation.
The followings are some of the constraints and obstacles an investigative journalist is exposed
to as enumerated by Nwabuaze (2005) as cited in Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015);
1. Risk to reporter’s life
2. Hostile sources
3. Strangeness of the route to the fact
4. Orientation of security operating/public figure
5. Lack of motivation
6. Risk to life of family members of a reporter
7. Risk to life of a source
8. Risk to media house
9. Non-existence of legal guarantee of access to information
4.3 Elements of Interpreting Investigative Stories
At the beginning of this article, we discussed investigative and interpretative reporting, noting
that, interpretative reporting is whereby the investigative journalist after his investigation
interpret or explain the entire research and the data gathered therein to the general public with
their concern on the topic or how the investigation concerns them.
In interpreting an investigative story to the reading audience therefore, certain elements are
put in place to ensure the readers understand the data gathered from the investigation, the
need for the investigation and how it affects them. In order to achieved this, the followings are
put in place as outlined by Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015);

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1. The reporter’s ability to understand the piece of news and how it may be related with
other information or social events.
2. His ability to decode and explain the jargons used by people in different walks of life.
3. His ability to recognize a particular event as one of a series with both cause and
effects. That is, relating the event with something already known to the people, tracing
the cause and effects it may bring if not properly addressed or look into.
With the aforementioned, the reading public will not only understand what the research means
but most importantly, how it concerns them and what must be done to keep things right should
be the subject of discussion aftermath.

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Affiliate V
TERRAINS IN INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING
Investigations are not carried out inside the media house, obviously no! It is therefore notable
to know that all investigations are carryout in a particular terrain, location or area, which could
be a familiar place to the investigative journalist or unfamiliar and even hostile. Even at the
expense of saying this, let us begin to understand the meaning of investigative terrain
In the words of the author of this article, given in a nutshell; ‘a terrain is a particular locality,
area, environment or place an investigator is met to go about gathering data from sources,
eyewitnesses, victims, neighbours, family members, etc. known primary sources of data
collection through interview, observation; passive and active, (participant observation or mere
observation)’.
In gathering information from terrains, the investigative journalist is required to be well
prepared, ready, alert, abreast, and courageous in order to successfully carryout investigation
in such vicinity. There are some terrains that will warrant an investigative journalist to get
assistance or look for security protection from either the police in that neighbourhood or from
the local/traditional authority. Interestingly, different terrains require different methods of
investigation and mental alertness. In view of this, the followings are the different terrains an
investigative journalist will come across in the sphere of investigating a story.
1. Familiar Terrains
As the name suggest, it is place or vicinity that is very familiar to the investigator. Some may
say he might have stayed there or staying there, worked or working there. This means that
the investigator is not only familiar with such terrain but also understands the in and out of the
place, how they operate, their hide outs, their cultures, customs, traditions, and even
language. In this kind of terrain, the investigative journalist usually doesn’t have any problem
in getting the information needed, as most people are not only familiar with him but will also
share what they know about a person or any situation with the journalist without even thinking
otherwise. We can say that a familiar terrain is an advantage to the investigative journalist.
2. Unfamiliar Terrains
Just as the name implies, it is not a familiar place to the investigative journalist. It is therefore
the opposite of a familiar terrain and also a strange place for the journalist.
He does not know how things are done in such a place, how to speak their language or even
understand their customs, cultures, and traditions. It is kind of difficult for the investigative
journalist to investigate on this terrain because, he does not know the in and out of the place,
and many people with the right information may not want to open up to him seeing him as a
stranger. Since he will find it difficult investigating on such terrain as he has not been there
before nor understand anything about the place, the following solutions are stipulated
according to Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015, 60);
a. Make enquires about the place
b. Visit the police
c. See the traditional ruler
d. See the local government

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e. Get or request for a local guide
f. Go with your colleagues
g. Always wear a friendly look
h. See the public relations officer (PRO)
i. Try engage a source
j. Get an interpreter for either local transcription or for technical jargons (A.J. Asegiemhe)
3. Hostile Terrains
This involves terrain or environment that are completely unfriendly to the reporter. The
atmosphere of the environment and the people around tend to personify hostility. This hostility
could be as a result of the fact that the incident that transpired brought serious loss to the
people and they are still very angry or disturbed. This could make them transfer aggression to
a reporter Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015).
They further suggested the following tips as solutions for an investigative journalist covering
hostile terrains as in Nwabueze (2005);
1) Seek police assistance
2) See the traditional ruler
3) Check the local government chairman
4) Operate under cover
5) Consider group investigation
6) Make safety your priority
7) Consider using a local guide
8) Laisse with an inside source
9) Be careful with drinking joints and hangout

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Affiliate VI
INVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM AND THE
ETHICS CODES OF CONDUCTS
One may wonder what has law and ethics got to do with investigation. The truth of the matter
lies on the facts that, journalism is one of the different professions that does things or carryout
their action based on ethical codes of conducts and the provision of the law. With this, we are
always guaranteed of coordination and perfect work of any journalist.
So, the usefulness and the importance of law and ethics in investigative reporting cannot be
overstated. The followings therefore are some of the reasons why we have ethics in
investigative reporting as stipulated and explained by Peter Igbafe (2012, p17);
1. Norms promote the aims of the research, such as knowledge, truth and avoidance of
error. For instance, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying or misrepresenting
research data.
2. Since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among
many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards,
promote the values that are essential to collaborative work; such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
3. Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to
the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest,
the human subjects, protections and animal care and use are necessary in order to
make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable
to the public.
4. Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for researchers, and people
are more likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of
research.
5. Many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social
responsibility, human right, and animal welfare, compliance with law, and health and
safety.
After we have successfully had a critical look on the need for ethics and norms in research,
we are now going to look in depth at the provisions and specification of ethics in
research/investigative journalism.
6.1 Investigative Journalism and the Ethical Code of Journalistic Conduct
The followings are some ethical constrains and challenges faced by most investigative
journalist as stipulated and explained by Nwabueze (2005) in Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe
(2015); according to him, the various issues treated in the code constitute the basic ethical
challenges a reporter faces in field. Nwabueze (2005) listed them as they were treated in the
code of ethics for Nigerian journalist.

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1. Editorials Independence: this entails the fact that news content of a medium should
be determined by the responsibility of professional journalist and not extraneous forces
or influences.
2. Accuracy and Fairness: the investigative reporter should be fair in his coverage of
issues and also ensure accuracy of facts while attempting to unearth the hidden. He
should not have misled the public in any way just because he wants to make an impact.
3. Privacy: an investigative reporter should respect the privacy of individuals, ensure that
individual consent is sought before certain vita or sensitive information about him is
used, except, where the issue is of utmost public interest.
4. Privilege/Non-disclosure: this has to do with protection of sources. Though no law
guarantees or back up this issue, an investigative reporter is expected to protect his
source and respect agreement with them. For example, if a source wants to remain
anonymous, don’t use his name. If he agrees with you that certain portions of the
interviews or report should be expunged, respect the agreement and do so.
5. Decency: certain publications are regarded as ethically indecent and should be left
out of reports. Such facts as details of violent act, sex scenes, identification of relatives
or friends of accused persons, etc. are categorized in the code of ethic as things that
are not decent.
6. Discrimination: the investigative reporter should refrain from making discriminating,
disapproving remarks about any gender, ethic group, class of society, region, etc. the
reporter is an unbiased watchdog and should not discriminate in any manner.
7. Reward and Gratification: the code of ethics for Nigerian journalist requires that only
the media house should pay journalist for news gathering and writing, and that bribes
or gratification of any sort should be shunned by journalist.
The investigative reporter should also realize that receiving money or gift of any kind
from actors in an investigation would influence the writing of the final report.
8. Violence: journalist is not to present act of violence in a manner that supports or
glorifies them. The investigative reporter should bear this fact in mind while compiling
the final report.
9. Children and Minors: the investigative reporter and indeed every other journalist are
not to expose identities of or interview with children under 16 years of age involved in
such cases as sexual offenses, crime, rituals, etc.
10. Access to Information: the advice is that journalist should not use dishonest means
to get information but what is described as exceptional methods could be adopted if
the matter is of public importance.
11. Public Interest: this requires a reporter to champion national unity and public good
through his work.

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12. Plagiarism: the reporter should not use or copy other peoples work verbatim without
attribution. Ojo Lucky (2018) assert that, it is a literary theft. The use of an author’s
work (copy right) without his consent or acknowledgement. The profession of
journalism frowns at this habit.
13. Copyright: the reporter should adhere to the rule of copyright and ensure that proper
acknowledgement is given to originators of works.
14. Freedom of the Press: reporters should champion press freedom while practicing the
profession. He should also ensure that he meets his responsivities of the society.
6.2 Investigative Journalism and the Nigerian Law
One interesting fact of studying law is knowing it's provisions and usage were applicable. If at
all an investigative journalist don't understand or know any provision of the law, he must and
should always know and remember the provision of Chapter 1, section IV of the 1999
constitution as amended, which provide for the freedom of expression and most importantly,
the one that concerns him most, the provision of Section 22, which provides for the press,
radio, television and other mass media the freedom to uphold the responsibility and
accountability of the government to the people of the country.
These are the lawful right among others that journalist should be aware of about their
constitutional entitlement. Nevertheless, every journalist should also bear in mind that there
are limitations to that of Section 22 but not as amended in the official secret Act of 2011. The
followings are the most essential provisions and limitations of the constitution that concerns a
journalist in the field of reporting, thus;
1. Defamation
i. Libel
ii. Libel Suit Defence; justification or truth, fair comment, honest mistake, and privilege
iii. Slander
iv. Slander Suit Defence; vulgar abuse, and innuendo
3. Contempt of Court
a. Types of Contempt
b. Civil Contempt and
c. Criminal Contempt
4. Sedition
a. Sedition Suit Defence
5. Invasion of Privacy
a. Defence for Invasion of Privacy
6. Copyright
a. Defence for Copyright

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Defamation
This is a statement made against an individual which has brought him and his reputation into
public domain and disparaged. The statement may be true or untrue, but the damaged has
been done and the defamed can only call for litigation against the defendant by proving
evidence that such statement was either made or done with malicious intention or falsely.
Defamation has a way of damaging someone's image and render such person to radicle to
the right thinking members of the society, this can be said to be defamation of character.
There are basically two different types of defamation, which are 'libel and slander'. Libellous
statement is statement that are published through the media, or any medium. While
scandalous statement is not published but spoken through words of the mouth therefore
having a transient nature and not static, unlike libel that is tend to be the permanent form of
defamation.
a. Libel: libellous statement is very easy to prove in court when the plaintiff calls for
litigation. It is said to be a permanent form of defamation because it has been done
through the use of the media or through a medium and therefore exposing the plaintiff
to false light of public ridicule.
b. Slander: this has to do with spoken words which tends to be transient without leaving
a record, though they are defamatory and can cause injury to the image and reputation
of the defamed and the plaintiff can call for litigation when his/her personality as been
exposed to public ridicule.
Defence for Defamation
1. Justification or truth: it has to do with the reporter making a plea for defence that
what he published or said was based on truth to the best of his knowledge and that the
matter concerns the public. That is, the whole thing is not based on rumour but facts
and its of public interest.
2. Fair comment: this has to do with a plea made by the reporter in court that statement
was published based on observation, remark or even criticism, but all for the interest
of the public.
3. Honest mistake: this is a type of plea available for a reporter to state that there was
an error on what was published either of photographic error depicting the plaintiff or of
typographical error referring to the plaintiff. And that the error has been done, but will
be republished and every mistake will be corrected in the next publication, and that he
means no harm to the plaintiff nor his image.
4. Privilege: Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015) assert that; this could be absolute or
qualified privilege. Absolute privilege is given to person or persons involved in the
proceedings or deliberations of the executive, judiciary or legislative arm of
government.
Anything said during proceedings cannot come up as a defamatory suit. Immunity exist in such
instances.

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While qualified privilege on the other hand, is to give a person the permission to present an
account of an event or issue that may be deemed defamatory.
Example, a journalist covering the judiciary, legislative or executive, can give fair and accurate
report of the proceedings in these places and they are protected from any defamatory suit by
virtue of qualified privilege.
Contempt of Court
According to Obaze and Fashanu (2006, p66); "contempt of court is a criminal offense against
a government institution precisely the judiciary which is the third arm of a government in a
democratic society. The court hates undue interference with its proceedings, interference with
the course of Justice and the tendency to drag the authority and administration of Justice to
disrepute".
A reporter can be liable of contempt of court when he: writes inside the court during
proceedings without the permission of the court Clark, take pictures, interview, record, making
phone call, shewing gum, putting on a cap, withheld the source of an information/refused to
reveal the source of an information, etc. during the court proceedings. Contempt of court has
no defence, so every journalist should be mindful of the aforementioned. The followings are
types of contempt;
1. Criminal Contempt
In the words of Daramola (1999) in Obaze and Fashanu (2006); 'this is an act that tends, or
likely to interfere with the administration of Justice and thus, bring the administration of Justice
into ridicule. The pressman can commit this crime by the publication of materials calculated to
prejudice the conduct of legal proceedings, which are pending or imminent, or to interfere with
the administration of Justice generally, or to scandalize the court.
2. Civil Contempt
Obaze and Fashanu (2006) assert that; this involves those who disobey court orders, e.g.
verdicts, refusal to appear before the court which can lead to the issuance of a warrant arrest,
preventing a party from carryout court decisions or wilful disobedience of the court.
Sedition
Seditious statement or publications are things considered against the government of a state
or nation. In the view of Obaze and Fashanu (2006); of all the legal constraints against the
press, the law of sedition is the most important. They further assert by citing Daramola (1999);
supporting that the law of sedition exists to prevent words or publications tending to cause
hatred, ill will, contempt or disaffection against the president or governor which may lead to
public disorder or likely to incite the public to ferment trouble or to try unlawfully to overthrow
the legally constituted government.

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Defence for Sedition
According to Asegiemhe A.J. (2019); the followings are the defence available for a reporter
facing trail on a seditious suit;
1. If the writer could prove the he/she was trying to show that the president or governor of
a state was misled or mistaken in any measure or decision they may have taken.
2. That his/her intention was to point out errors or defects in government policy or the
constitution of Nigeria.
3. If he/she could show that the intentions were to persuade the citizen or other inhabitants
of Nigeria to attempt to procure by lawful means a change of any matter established by
law in Nigeria.
4. If he/she could point out any matter which are produced or having a tendency to produce
ill-feeling of classes in Nigeria with a view to remove it.
Invasion of Privacy
In Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015); invasion of privacy is a violation of a person's right to be
left alone. As a reporter, you may be risking a successful invasion of privacy suit under the
following circumstances;
1. You physically entered into a private area to get a story or picture, an act closely related
to trespass.
2. You published a story or photograph about someone that is false but not defamatory.
3. You disclosed something about an individual's private affair's that is true but also is
offensive to individual’s ordinary sensibilities.
4. You use someone's name or picture in an advertisement or for similar purpose of trade.
Defence for Invasion of Privacy
Akagbosu and Ikazuagbe (2015, p83) assert that; "the basic defence for invasion of privacy
suit is that you are a reporter covering a newsworthy situation. The courts usually protect the
press against invasion of privacy suit when it is reporting matters of legitimate public interest".
There are exceptions.
One arises when you invade someone's privacy by entering private property to get a story.
You cannot trespass on private property to get a story or take a picture even if it is newsworthy.
The court will not protect you when you are trespassing.
But Ojo Lucky (2018) supports that; privacy does not protect anyone who attends a public
function, a public party, picnic, on hospital bed, sports meetings, government sponsored
programme, a concert, cinema and any public place. Such a person is deemed to have lost
their right to privacy. This is because, privacy does not protect a person or his actions if they
are matters of public interest.

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30
Copyright
Copyright according to Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe (2015) stated that; this is the legal right a
person or an organization have on a piece of writing, music, artistic work, or any other literary
piece. The copyright law confers ownership of such works to their originators. This law
prevents reporters from copying another person's story verbatim and using a publication
without the consent of the original owner or at least acknowledging the source of the work.
Defence for Copyright
One could escape being penalized from violating this law if he is able to establish that, he had
no knowledge of the existence of the work in question (Akagbosu and Ikhazuagbe 2015).
One could also escape being penalized from violating this law if he could prove that, he only
did so for the purpose of research, private use, criticism, teaching review or for the reporting
of current or past events. With this, he may be justified against an infringement of copyright
and the case may be sway in his favour in respect to his plea judicata.

Developed in 2020
31
BIBLOGRAPHY
Asegiemhe, A.J. (2019). An Aspect of News Writing. A written Article (Handout) for the
Students of Mass Communication. Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi: Edo State.
Asegiemhe, A.J. (2019). The Mass Media and the Nigerian Law. A written Article (Handout)
for the Students of Mass Communication. Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi: Edo State.
Akagbosu, L.R. and Ikhazuagbe, M.N. (2015). Fundamentals of Investigative and
Interpretative Reporting. A Practical Approach. Benin City; Ken Prints.
Dibua, A, Victor (2010). An Introduction To Sociology. Ibadan: Safmos Pubishers Anofil Centre
Igbafe, A. Peter (2012). Research Methods In Education and Socia Sciences. Ibadan: E-watch
Print Media
Nwabueze, Chinenye (2005). The Art of Investigative Reporting. A Practical Guide. Enugu:
Nigeria. Daisy Press
Obaze A.I. and Fashanu F. (2006). Mass Communication Law and Ethics. Ibadan: Safmos
Publishers
Obaze A.I. and Ogunboyowa A.O. (2014). News Reporting: An Intermediate Approach. Auchi,
Edo State: Jes Printers and Publishers Ltd
Ojo, I. Lucky (2017). Introduction To Photography and Photojournalism. Benin City: Allen
Publications
Ojo, I. Lucky (2018). Ethics of Mass Communication. Benin City: Allen Publishers
Olusegun, W. Ojomo (2008). Constraints on the Investigative Journalist. Babcock University
Ogun State, Nigeria. https//www.researchgate.net/publication/32058580
Silvio Waisbord (2002). The Challenges of Investigative Journalism. University of Maimi Law
School: Institutional Repository. http://repository.law.maimi.edu/umlr

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