2. Cogni&on
refers
to
mental
ac)vi)es
and
processes
associated
with
thinking,
knowing,
remembering,
and
communica)ng
informa)on.
§ Cogni,on
can
include
reasoning,
judgment,
and
assembling
new
informa,on
into
knowledge.
§ Cogni,on
also
supports
these
other
psychological
processes:
a=en,on,
emo,on,
consciousness,
percep,on,
learning,
memory,
language,
mental
health,
and
social
interac,on.
3. Thinking involves not only retrieving
information but also doing something with it
Deciding something
Solving a problem
Judging something
Creating something
Finding something
7. A concept
is
a
mental
grouping
of
similar
objects,
events,
states,
ideas,
and/or
people,
etc.
A
concept
can
be
represented
and
communicated
by
an
image,
or
by
a
word
such
as
“chair,”
“party,”
or
“democracy.
”
9. Analogical: share
some of the actual
characteristics
Symbolic: stands
for some content
without sharing
any characteristics
10. ž Mental representations that resemble the
objects they represent by directly
reflecting the perceptual qualities of the
thing being represented
11. ž Expressed in the mind
as network structures
ž Nodes represent
individual symbols
ž Separate nodes are
connected via
associative links
ž proposition, activates
the collection of nodes
that represent the
proposition and
activation spreads.
13. Drawing conclusions from
experience
Mental representations are used to process
and draw conclusions from evidence
We rely on shortcuts (heuristics) to be
efficient
These shortcuts are helpful and frequently
work, but can also lead to errors
14. Automatic:
Thinking that occurs as a matter of
habit;
Thinking that typically requires
little effort;
Thinking that is impacted by
existing biases;
Frequently leads to less than
optimal outcomes
Controlled:
Thinking that is goal directed
Thinking that requires intentional
effort
Thinking based on analysis of
existing biases
Frequently leads to more optimal
outcomes (better choices and
decisions)
15.
16.
17. Example:
thinking
that
winning
at
a
slot
machine
is
likely
because
we
vividly
recall
the
,mes
we’ve
won
before
(thanks
to
bells,
lights,
and
flowing
coins)
We
use
the
availability
heuris&c
when
we
es)mate
the
likelihood
of
an
event
based
on
how
much
it
stands
out
in
our
mind,
that
is,
how
much
it’s
available
as
a
mental
reference.
18.
19. ž Purpose: Assessing
Categories
• rule of thumb for judging
the likelihood of things in
terms of how well they
seem to represent, or
match, particular
prototypes
ž BUT, some categories are
heterogenous
• may lead one to ignore
other relevant
information
20. Examples:
§ thinking
you
can
put
off
work
and
s,ll
get
it
done
well
§ thinking
you
have
test
material
mastered
when
you
scan
it
and
it
feels
familiar.
Overconfidence
in
judgments
refers
to
our
tendency
to
be
more
confident
than
correct.
We
overes,mate
the
accuracy
of
our
es,mates,
predic,ons,
and
knowledge.
22. ž The process of figuring
out the implications of
particular beliefs
23. We tend to search for information that is in agreement
with our biases rather than seeking to disconfirm or
disprove our biases
24. we tend to
overestimate our
ability to have
predicted events
based on knowledge
we had beforehand;
limits our ability to
learn from our errors
because we convince
ourselves that we
“knew it all the time”
25. ž We tend to base estimates on an initial experience; we
anchor our judgments on an initial piece of information
rather than consider all information
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xSe604627c
29. ž Belief Bias
• the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning
• sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem
valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
ž Belief Perseverance
• clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
30. ž Affective Forecasting:
• Affective forecasting (also known as hedonic
forecasting) is the prediction of one's affect
(emotional state) in the future.We aren’t really
that good at it
ž Too Many Options
• All options seem less attractive, and less likely to
decide or be happy with their choice
ž Reason-Based Choice
• People make choices based on whether things
are framed in terms of loss or gain
31. ž the way an issue is posed
ž how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions
and judgments
ž Example: What is the best way
to market ground beef- As
25% fat or 75% lean?
32. Problem
solving
refers
to
the
thinking
we
do
in
order
to
answer
a
complex
ques,on
or
to
figure
out
how
to
resolve
an
unfavorable
situa,on.
33. Trial
and
error
involves
trying
various
possible
solu,ons,
and
if
that
fails,
trying
others.
ž When
it’s
useful:
perfec,ng
an
inven,on
like
the
light
bulb
by
trying
a
thousand
filaments
ž When
it
fails:
when
there
is
a
clear
solu,on
but
trial
and
error
might
miss
it
forever
Strategies
for
arriving
at
solu,ons
include:
trial
and
error
algorithms
heuris,cs
insight
An
algorithm
is
a
step
by
step
strategy
for
solving
a
problem,
methodically
leading
to
a
specific
solu,on.
A
heuris,c
is
a
short-‐cut,
step-‐saving
thinking
strategy
or
principle
which
generates
a
solu,on
quickly
(but
possibly
in
error).
Insight
refers
to
a
sudden
realiza,on,
a
leap
forward
in
thinking,
that
leads
to
a
solu,on.
34. Wander
around
a
supermarket
randomly
to
find
it.
To
find
a
specific
item
in
a
supermarket
Trial
and
error
Algorithms
Heuris,cs
Create
a
methodical
path
to
make
sure
you
check
every
single
aisle.
Check
only
related
aisles.
Where’s
the
apple
juice?
Do
I
look
on
every
shelf
in
the
store,
or
do
I
search
where
there
is
similar
stuff?
35. Automaticity /ˌɔːtəməˈtɪsɨti/ is the
ability to do things without
occupying the mind with the low-
level details required, allowing it
to become an automatic response
pattern or habit. It is usually the
result of learning, repetition, and
practice.
39. There
are
certain
tendencies
in
human
cogni,on
which
make
it
more
difficult
to
find
correct
solu,ons
to
problems.
Fixa&on/
mental
set
Confirma&on
bias
Heuris&cs
(which
help
solve
problems
quickly
but
can
lead
to
mistaken
conclusions)
40. Common Obstacles:
Mental set
Functional fixedness
Incorrect or incomplete
representation of the problem
Lack of domain knowledge
Self-handicapping
Obstacles
41. Mental
set
The
tendency
to
approach
problems
using
a
mindset
(procedures
and
methods)
that
has
worked
previously.
Fixa&on
The
tendency
to
get
stuck
in
one
way
of
thinking;
an
inability
to
see
a
problem
from
a
new
perspec,ve.
Other
Problem-‐Solving
Habits
42. ž Tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way
• Especially a way that has been
successful in the past but may or may
not be helpful in solving a new problem
Perceptual Set—perceiving the problem from only
one perspective
Response Set—accessing only one solution response
(“it’s the way we’ve always done it”)
44. ž Self-imposed limitations OR Self-Handicapping:
• Creating limits to protect one’s status or prevent one
from failing
• May be “unconscious” to the individual (may be based
on perceived social status—sex, race)
46. ž Solution #1:We move the
left two matchsticks, to
make a Roman numeral VI.
ž Solution #2:The solution to
this is to make twelve in
Roman numerals, as
shown.The top half is VII,
or seven. Just remove the
bottom half.
ž Solution #3:We spell out
NINE, as shown.
47. "When most of us look at the field of nine
dots, we imagine a boundary
around the edge of the dot array. In doing
so, we limit ourselves to trying
solutions to the puzzle that only link the
dots inside the imaginary border.
The result is futility.We can only solve the
puzzle if we realize that there is
no border."
48. ž Procedure:
• Give participants one problem to read, with a solution
• Then give them a second problem, which can be solved using
a similar solution
ž 3 groups of participants
• Control group that only tried to solve the radiation problem
• A group previously given the analogous General/Fortress
problem & solution
• A group given the General/Fortress problem and told that its
solution would help in solving the radiation problem
Obstacles
Gick & Holyoak (1980)
50. ž Similarity
ž Number of examples exposed to
• Gick and Holyoak conducted a study in which the
dictator story was just one of three other stories
participants heard before radiation problem
• Only 20% got the problem correct
ž Whether schema for problem is activated
• If the two problems are separated by a delay or if they
are presented in different contexts, almost none of the
participants use the analogy
Obstacles
51. Abstract Thinking Separates Experts from Novices
Experts have more abstract representations
Experts know more solutions
Not a general ability
Have an extensive knowledge that they use to organize, represent,
and interpret information in their environment
This affects their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems
52. ž Participants were chess masters and
beginning chess players
ž Studied a chess board that had the pieces
randomly displayed or a chess board with
pieces in the middle of a game.
ž Beginners and experts had to recall as
many pieces as they could
Expertise
54. ž Master chess players and beginning players
recalled a similar number of pieces from the
random board
ž Master chess players remember
significantly more chess pieces from the
game board in play than did the beginning
chess players
Expertise
55. ž Better schemas
ž Well organized knowledge
in specific domain
ž Less time to set up
problem
ž Select more appropriate
strategies
ž Faster at solving problems
ž Are more accurate
Expertise
56. ž Need
new
theories
in
all
domains
ž Is
it
possible
to
lead
people
to
beFer
thinking?
ž Humans
are
capable
of
excellent
quality
thinking;
thoughts?
57. Those who make good decisions and solve problems
with higher levels of success share characteristics of
critical thinking
• Thinking is goal directed
• Thinking is based on logic and reliable information
• One’s own assumptions and biases are questioned
first
• Other’s assumptions and assertions are questioned
• Assertions are supported with valid and reliable
supporting data
• Alternative and oppositional views are considered
fairly
• Contradictory data or evidence are considered and
refuted fairly
58.
59. How
to
use
it
well
When
it’s
effec&ve
How
it
may
have
been
adap&ve
§ We
have
seen
that
in
complex
situa,ons,
it
helps
to
use
careful
reasoning
to
avoid
mistakes
made
by
intui,ve
judgments.
§ However,
research
supports
the
idea
that
some,mes
we
need
to
let
our
unconscious
mind
do
some
work.
§ Incuba&on
refers
to
the
power
of
taking
a
break
from
careful
thinking,
even
to
“sleep
on
it,”
to
allow
leaps
in
cogni,on.
§ Judging
quickly
what
to
eat
and
what
might
kill
us
might
have
helped
our
ancestors
survive
long
enough
to
reproduce.
§ The
,mes
that
our
intui,on
was
incorrect
may
not
have
been
fatal;
if
humans
avoided
all
red
plants
instead
of
poisonous
berries,
they
might
have
been
hungry,
but
s,ll
alive.
§ Intui,on
is
effec,ve
when
it
is
a
product
of
exper&se
built
up
from
trial
and
error;
this
hones
one’s
judgment
to
the
point
of
being
more
accurate
than
logical
analysis.
§ Examples:
knowing
the
sex
of
a
chick,
making
a
diagnosis,
speed
chess,
quarterback
decisions
§ The
mind’s
ability
to
judge
a
situa,on
from
experience
is
more
efficient
than
any
step-‐by-‐step
analysis.
60. Insight
and
the
Brain
In
one
study,
par,cipants
monitored
by
fMRI
and
EEG
were
asked,
“which
word
will
form
a
compound
word
with
the
words
pine,
crab,
and
sauce?”
What
the
brains
did
along
with
the
“aha!”
of
geYng
the
answer:
Insight
refers
to
a
sudden
realiza,on,
a
leap
forward
in
thinking,
that
leads
to
a
solu,on.
§ We
say
“aha”
and
feel
a
sense
of
sa,sfac,on
when
an
answer
seems
to
pop
into
our
minds.
§ We
also
may
laugh;
joke
punchlines
rely
on
sudden
insight.
1. extra
frontal
lobe
ac,vity
2. experiencing
the
“aha!”
moment
and
sta,ng
the
answer
3. a
burst
of
ac,vity
in
right
temporal
lobe
61. ž Process of creating something that is
original and worthwhile
ž Multiple views which emphasize
• The product
• The personpersonality creating the product
• The creative process; the steps that the creative
person followed to create the product
• The creative environment
• A synthesis of all of the above
