This document provides an overview of cognition and thinking. It discusses concepts like mental representations, judgment, reasoning, problem-solving strategies, and obstacles to problem-solving. It also covers expertise in thinking, comparing how novices and experts approach problems differently. Specifically, it notes that experts have more abstract mental representations and organized domain knowledge that allows them to recall and solve problems more efficiently.

1. Meghan Fraley, PhD
Skyline College
Psychology 100

2. Cogni&on'refers%to%mental'ac)vi)es'
and'processes'associated'with'
thinking,'knowing,'remembering,'and'
communica)ng'informa)on.''
! Cogni,on%can%include%reasoning,%judgment,%and%
assembling%new%informa,on%into%knowledge.%
! Cogni,on%also%supports%these%other%psychological%
processes:%a=en,on,%emo,on,%consciousness,%
percep,on,%learning,%memory,%language,%mental%
health,%and%social%interac,on.%%

3. Thinking involves not only retrieving
information but also doing something with it
Deciding something
Solving a problem
Judging something
Creating something
Finding something

4. Concepts Mental representations
Contents
of
Concepts:
Categories (dogs, books, etc.,)
Attributes (red, tall, painful)
Abstractions or non-tangible ideas (love, hate)
Procedures or processes (how to do ____)
Goals or intentions (future plans)

5. ! How is knowledge transformed and
manipulated into thinking?
Mental Representations
Judgment
Reasoning

6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-
sVnmmw6WY&list=PLLtpkqxmLd1a8RQpozpvwrQUf4ENhMjl7&index=2

7. A concept'
is'a'mental'grouping'
of'similar'objects,'
events,'states,'ideas,'
and/or'people,'etc.'
A%concept%can%
be%represented%
and%
communicated%
by%an%image,%or%
by%a%word%such%
as% chair,
party, %or%
democracy.
%

8. A prototype'is'the'best'
example'of'a'
category.'

9. Analogical: share
some of the actual
characteristics
Symbolic: stands
for some content
without sharing
any characteristics

10. ! Mental representations that resemble the
objects they represent by directly
reflecting the perceptual qualities of the
thing being represented

11. ! Expressed in the mind
as network structures
! Nodes represent
individual symbols
! Separate nodes are
connected via
associative links
! proposition, activates
the collection of nodes
that represent the
proposition and
activation spreads.

12. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ig-SVifJUKw

13. Drawing conclusions from
experience
Mental representations are used to process
and draw conclusions from evidence
We rely on shortcuts (heuristics) to be
efficient
These shortcuts are helpful and frequently
work, but can also lead to errors

14. Automatic:
Thinking that occurs as a matter of
habit;
Thinking that typically requires
little effort;
Thinking that is impacted by
existing biases;
Frequently leads to less than
optimal outcomes
Controlled:
Thinking that is goal directed
Thinking that requires intentional
effort
Thinking based on analysis of
existing biases
Frequently leads to more optimal
outcomes (better choices and
decisions)

17. Example:%thinking%that%winning%at%
a%slot%machine%is%likely%because%
we%vividly%recall%the%,mes%we ve%
won%before%(thanks%to%bells,%
lights,%and%flowing%coins)%%
We%use%the%availability'
heuris&c'when%we%es)mate'
the'likelihood'of'an'event'
based'on'how'much'it'
stands'out'in'our'mind,%that%
is,%how%much%it s%available%
as%a%mental%reference.%

19. ! Purpose: Assessing
Categories
• rule of thumb for judging
the likelihood of things in
terms of how well they
seem to represent, or
match, particular
prototypes
! BUT, some categories are
heterogenous
• may lead one to ignore
other relevant
information

20. Examples:%%
! thinking%you%can%put%
off%work%and%s,ll%get%
it%done%well%%
! thinking%you%have%
test%material%
mastered%when%you%
scan%it%and%it%feels%
familiar.%
Overconfidence'in%
judgments%refers%to%our'
tendency'to'be'more'
confident'than'correct.%
%
We%overes,mate%the%
accuracy%of%our%
es,mates,%predic,ons,%
and%knowledge.%
%

21. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bxLx-FRooY

22. ! The process of figuring
out the implications of
particular beliefs

23. We tend to search for information that is in agreement
with our biases rather than seeking to disconfirm or
disprove our biases

24. we tend to
overestimate our
ability to have
predicted events
based on knowledge
we had beforehand;
limits our ability to
learn from our errors
because we convince
ourselves that we
“knew it all the time”

25. ! We tend to base estimates on an initial experience; we
anchor our judgments on an initial piece of information
rather than consider all information
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xSe604627c

26. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xSe604627c

27. ! Choosing among
options

29. ! Belief Bias
• the tendency for one s preexisting beliefs to
distort logical reasoning
• sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem
valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
! Belief Perseverance
• clinging to one s initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited

30. ! Affective Forecasting:
• Affective forecasting (also known as hedonic
forecasting) is the prediction of one's affect
(emotional state) in the future.We aren’t really
that good at it
! Too Many Options
• All options seem less attractive, and less likely to
decide or be happy with their choice
! Reason-Based Choice
• People make choices based on whether things
are framed in terms of loss or gain

31. ! the way an issue is posed
! how an issue is framed can
significantly affect decisions
and judgments
! Example: What is the best way
to market ground beef- As
25% fat or 75% lean?

32. Problem%solving%refers%to%the%thinking%
we%do%in%order%to%answer%a%complex%
ques,on%or%to%figure%out%how%to%resolve%
an%unfavorable%situa,on.%

33. Trial%and%error%involves%trying%various%possible%
solu,ons,%and%if%that%fails,%trying%others.%
! When%it s%useful:%perfec,ng%an%inven,on%like%the%
light%bulb%by%trying%a%thousand%filaments%
! When%it%fails:%when%there%is%a%clear%solu,on%but%trial%
and%error%might%miss%it%forever%
Strategies%
for%
arriving%at%
solu,ons%
include:%
trial%and%
error%
algorithms%
heuris,cs%
insight%
An%algorithm%is%a%step%by%step%strategy%for%solving%a%
problem,%methodically%leading%to%a%specific%solu,on.%%
A%heuris,c%is%a%shortLcut,%stepLsaving%thinking%strategy%
or%principle%which%generates%a%solu,on%quickly%(but%
possibly%in%error).%
Insight%refers%to%a%sudden%realiza,on,%a%leap%forward%
in%thinking,%that%leads%to%a%solu,on.%

34. Wander%around%a%supermarket%
randomly%to%find%it.%
To%find%a%
specific%item%in%
a%supermarket%
Trial%and%
error%
Algorithms%
Heuris,cs%
Create%a%
methodical%path%to%
make%sure%you%
check%every%single%
aisle.%
Check%only%related%
aisles.%
%Where s%the%apple%
juice?%Do%I%look%on%every%
shelf%in%the%store,%or%do%I%
search%where%there%is%
similar%stuff?%

35. Automaticity / t m t s ti/ is the
ability to do things without
occupying the mind with the low-
level details required, allowing it
to become an automatic response
pattern or habit. It is usually the
result of learning, repetition, and
practice.

36. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VdrV01s3-2M

37. ! Using these
materials, how
would you
mount the
candle on a
bulletin board?

38. ! How would you
arrange six
matches to form
four equilateral
triangles?

39. There%are%certain%tendencies%in%human%cogni,on%which%make%it%more%difficult%to%find%correct%solu,ons%to%problems.%
Fixa&on/'
mental'set%
Confirma&on'
bias'
Heuris&cs'
(which%help%solve%problems%
quickly%but%can%lead%to%
mistaken%conclusions)%

40. Common Obstacles:
Mental set
Functional fixedness
Incorrect or incomplete
representation of the problem
Lack of domain knowledge
Self-handicapping
Obstacles

41. Mental'set''
The%tendency%to%
approach%problems%using%
a%mindset%(procedures%
and%methods)%that%has%
worked%previously.%
Fixa&on%%
The%tendency%to%get%
stuck%in%one%way%of%
thinking;%an%inability%
to%see%a%problem%from%
a%new%perspec,ve.%
Other'ProblemASolving'Habits!

42. ! Tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way
• Especially a way that has been
successful in the past but may or may
not be helpful in solving a new problem
Perceptual Set—perceiving the problem from only
one perspective
Response Set—accessing only one solution response
(“it’s the way we’ve always done it”)

43. ! Thinking about
something only in
terms of its
functionality, rather
than new ways in
which it could be used

44. ! Self-imposed limitations OR Self-Handicapping:
• Creating limits to protect one s status or prevent one
from failing
• May be unconscious to the individual (may be based
on perceived social status—sex, race)

45. ! Solving this
problem
requires
recognizing
that a box need
not always
serve as a
container

46. ! Solution #1:We move the
left two matchsticks, to
make a Roman numeral VI.
! Solution #2:The solution to
this is to make twelve in
Roman numerals, as
shown.The top half is VII,
or seven. Just remove the
bottom half.
! Solution #3:We spell out
NINE, as shown.

47. "When most of us look at the field of nine
dots, we imagine a boundary
around the edge of the dot array. In doing
so, we limit ourselves to trying
solutions to the puzzle that only link the
dots inside the imaginary border.
The result is futility.We can only solve the
puzzle if we realize that there is
no border."

48. ! Procedure:
• Give participants one problem to read, with a solution
• Then give them a second problem, which can be solved using
a similar solution
! 3 groups of participants
• Control group that only tried to solve the radiation problem
• A group previously given the analogous General/Fortress
problem & solution
• A group given the General/Fortress problem and told that its
solution would help in solving the radiation problem
Obstacles
Gick & Holyoak (1980)

49. 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Control Analogy Analogy & Hint
Obstacles
Gick & Holyoak (1980) Results

50. ! Similarity
! Number of examples exposed to
• Gick and Holyoak conducted a study in which the
dictator story was just one of three other stories
participants heard before radiation problem
• Only 20% got the problem correct
! Whether schema for problem is activated
• If the two problems are separated by a delay or if they
are presented in different contexts, almost none of the
participants use the analogy
Obstacles

51. Abstract Thinking Separates Experts from Novices
Experts have more abstract representations
Experts know more solutions
Not a general ability
Have an extensive knowledge that they use to organize, represent,
and interpret information in their environment
This affects their abilities to remember, reason, and solve problems

52. ! Participants were chess masters and
beginning chess players
! Studied a chess board that had the pieces
randomly displayed or a chess board with
pieces in the middle of a game.
! Beginners and experts had to recall as
many pieces as they could
Expertise

53. Experts
vs.
Beginners
Under what
condition
did the
experts
remember
more?
Expertise

54. ! Master chess players and beginning players
recalled a similar number of pieces from the
random board
! Master chess players remember
significantly more chess pieces from the
game board in play than did the beginning
chess players
Expertise

55. ! Better schemas
! Well organized knowledge
in specific domain
! Less time to set up
problem
! Select more appropriate
strategies
! Faster at solving problems
! Are more accurate
Expertise

56. ! Need'new'theories'in'all'domains'
! Is'it'possible'to'lead'people'to'beFer'
thinking?'
! Humans'are'capable'of'excellent'quality'
thinking;'thoughts?'

57. Those who make good decisions and solve problems
with higher levels of success share characteristics of
critical thinking
• Thinking is goal directed
• Thinking is based on logic and reliable information
• One’s own assumptions and biases are questioned
first
• Other’s assumptions and assertions are questioned
• Assertions are supported with valid and reliable
supporting data
• Alternative and oppositional views are considered
fairly
• Contradictory data or evidence are considered and
refuted fairly

59. How'to'use'it'
well'
When'it s'
effec&ve'How'it'may'
have'been'
adap&ve'! We%have%seen%that%
in%complex%
situa,ons,%it%helps%
to%use%careful%
reasoning%to%avoid%
mistakes%made%by%
intui,ve%judgments.%
! However,%research%
supports%the%idea%
that%some,mes%we%
need%to%let%our%
unconscious%mind%
do%some%work.%%
! Incuba&on'refers%to%
the%power%of%taking%
a%break%from%careful%
thinking,%even%to%
sleep%on%it, %to%
allow%%leaps%in%
cogni,on.%
! Judging%quickly%
what%to%eat%and%
what%might%kill%us%
might%have%helped%
our%ancestors%
survive%long%
enough%to%
reproduce.%
! The%,mes%that%our%
intui,on%was%
incorrect%may%not%
have%been%fatal;%if%
humans%%avoided%
all%red%plants%
instead%of%
poisonous%berries,%
they%might%have%
been%hungry,%but%
s,ll%alive.%
! Intui,on%is%effec,ve%
when%it%is%a%product%
of%exper&se%built%up%
from%trial%and%error;%
this%hones%one s%
judgment%to%the%
point%of%being%more%
accurate%than%logical%
analysis.%
! Examples:%knowing%
the%sex%of%a%chick,%
making%a%diagnosis,%
speed%chess,%
quarterback%
decisions%
! The%mind s%ability%
to%judge%a%situa,on%
from%experience%is%
more%efficient%than%
any%stepLbyLstep%
analysis.%%

60. Insight'and'the'Brain%
In%one%study,%par,cipants%monitored%by%
fMRI%and%EEG%were%asked,% which%word%will%
form%a%compound%word%with%the%words%
pine,'crab,%and%sauce? %
What%the%brains%did%along%with%the% aha! %
of%geYng%the%answer:%
Insight%refers%to%a%
sudden%realiza,on,%
a%leap%forward%in%
thinking,%that%leads%
to%a%solu,on.%
! We%say% aha %and%
feel%a%sense%of%
sa,sfac,on%when%an%
answer%seems%to%
pop%into%our%minds.%
! We%also%may%laugh;%
joke%punchlines%rely%
on%sudden%insight.%
1. extra%frontal%lobe%
ac,vity%
2. experiencing%the%
aha! %moment%
and%sta,ng%the%
answer%
3. a%burst%of%ac,vity%in%
right%temporal%lobe%

61. ! Process of creating something that is
original and worthwhile
! Multiple views which emphasize
• The product
• The personpersonality creating the product
• The creative process; the steps that the creative
person followed to create the product
• The creative environment
• A synthesis of all of the above