Plant Manufacturing and Building Facilities Engineering

1. L | C | LOGISTICS
PLANT MANUFACTURING AND BUILDING FACILITIES EQUIPMENT
Engineering-Book
ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS AND HOW IT WORKS
MECHANICS BUILDING INSTRUMENTATION
September 2014
Supply Chain Manufacturing & DC Facilities Logistics Operations Planning Management
Expertise in Process Engineering Optimization Solutions & Industrial Engineering Projects Management

2. Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy electro statically in an electric field
All contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric
(i.e., insulator)
The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks, etc
The 'non conducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity
A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices
Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy
Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

3. Capacitor
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive
plates separated by a dielectric with permittivity ε such as air

4. Capacitor
An ideal capacitor only stores and releases electrical energy,
without dissipating any
In reality, all capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's
material that create resistance
This is specified as the equivalent series resistance or ESR of a
component. This adds a real component to the impedance:
Capacitor markings. A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its
body has a capacitance of 47 × 103 pF = 47 nF (±10%) with a
working voltage of 330 V
The working voltage of a capacitor is the highest voltage that
can be applied across it without undue risk of breaking down
the dielectric layer.

5. Capacitor
5 –
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from
its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery
Motor starters
In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not
capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one
To start the motor, a secondary "start" winding has a series non-polarized starting
capacitor to introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current
When the secondary (start) winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary (run)
winding, a rotating electric field is created
The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning

6. Capacitor
Motor starters
When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive
relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor
The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing
These are called capacitor-start motors, that have relatively high starting torque
Typically they can have up-to four times as much starting torque than a split-phase motor
and are used on applications such as compressors, pressure washers and any small
device requiring high starting torques
Capacitor-run induction motors have a permanently connected phase-shifting capacitor in
series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase
6 –

7. Capacitance Meter
Capacitance meter is a piece of electronic test equipment used to
measure capacitance, mainly of discrete capacitors
Many DVMs (digital volt meters) have a capacitance-measuring
function
These usually operate by charging and discharging the capacitor under test with a known
current and measuring the rate of rise of the resulting voltage; the slower the rate of rise,
the larger the capacitance
DVMs can usually measure capacitance from nanofarads to a few hundred microfarads,
but wider ranges are not unusual
Some more specialized instruments measure capacitance over a wide range, and can
also measure other parameters
Low stray and parasitic capacitance can be measured if a low enough range is available
Leakage current is measured by applying a direct voltage and measuring the current in
the normal way

8. Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch
Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a
switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state
relays
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power
signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and
controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal
The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated
the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit
Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations

9. Relay
A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly
control an electric motor or other
loads is called a contactor
Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a
semiconductor device to perform switching
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are
used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays"
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped
around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low
reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured)

10. Relay
The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an
air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay
pictured is closed, and the other set is open
The relay also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of
the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the
printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

11. Relay
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either
makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact
If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement
opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force,
approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position
Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters
Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly
In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it
reduces arcing

12. Relay
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed
across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field
at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike
dangerous to semiconductor circuit components
Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case
Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series
(snubbed circuit) may absorb the surge
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper
"shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle
A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid
An optocoupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used
to isolate control and controlled

13. Transistor
The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907,
propelled the electronics age forward, enabling amplified radio
technology and long-distance telephony. The triode, however,
was a fragile device that consumed a lot of power
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to
amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power
It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals
for connection to an external circuit
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current through another pair of terminals
Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power,
a transistor can amplify a signal
Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits

14. Transistor
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a
small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much
larger signal at another pair of terminals
This property is called gain
A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it
can act as an amplifier
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an
electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit
elements
Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power
applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power
applications such as logic gates.

15. Transistor
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in
voltage (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the
transistor
The transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of
the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in
Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing
current gain, some voltage gain, and some both

16. Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch
designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit
Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt
current flow
Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a
circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear
designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city

17. Fuse
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of low
resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide over
current protection, of either the load or source circuit
Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too
much current flows through it, interrupting the circuit that it connects.
Short circuits, overloading, mismatched loads, or device failure are the
prime reasons for excessive current
Fuses are an alternative to circuit breakers.
Voltage rating of the fuse must be greater than or equal to what would
become the open circuit voltage. For example If a 32 V fuse attempts to
interrupt the 120 or 230 V source, an arc may result. Plasma inside that
glass tube fuse may continue to conduct current until current eventually
that plasma reverts to an insulating gas
Rated voltage remains same for any one fuse, even when similar fuses
are connected in series. Connecting fuses in series does not increase
the rated voltage of the combination (nor of any one fuse)

18. Over Current and Current Limiting
In an electric power system, over current or excess current is a situation where a larger
than intended electric current exists through a conductor, leading to excessive generation
of heat, and the risk of fire or damage to equipment
Possible causes for over current include short circuits, excessive load, and incorrect
design. Fuses, circuit breakers, temperature sensors and current limiters are commonly
used protection mechanisms to control the risks of over current
Current limiting is the practice in electrical or electronic circuits of imposing an upper
limit on the current that may be delivered to a load with the purpose of protecting the
circuit generating or transmitting the current from harmful effects due to a short-circuit
or similar problem in the load
Current limiter Active current limiting or short-circuit protection Current limiter with PNP transistors with NPN transistors

19. Solenoid
In physics, the term refers specifically to a long, thin loop of wire,
often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a uniform
magnetic field in a volume of space when an electric current is
passed through it
A solenoid is a type of electromagnet when the purpose is to
generate a controlled magnetic field
If the purpose of the solenoid is instead to dampen changes in
the electric current, a solenoid can be more specifically classified
as an inductor rather than an electromagnet
In engineering, the term may also refer to a variety of transducer devices that convert
energy into linear motion
The term is also often used to refer to a solenoid valve,
which is an integrated device containing an electromechanical solenoid which actuates
either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid switch, which is a specific type of relay
that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to operate an electrical switch; for
example, an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear solenoid, which is an
electromechanical solenoid

20. Selenoid
Magnetic field line and density
created by a solenoid with
surface current density

21. Impedance
Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to a current
when a voltage is applied
It is necessary to introduce the concept of impedance in AC circuits because there are
two additional impeding mechanisms to be taken into account besides the normal
resistance of DC circuits:
The induction of voltages in conductors self-induced by the magnetic fields of currents
(inductance), and the electrostatic storage of charge induced by voltages between
conductors (capacitance)
The impedance caused by these two effects is collectively referred to as reactance and
forms the imaginary part of complex impedance whereas resistance forms the real part
The impedance of an ideal resistor is purely real and is referred
to as a resistive impedance

22. Impedance
Impedance is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the voltage to the current
In other words, it is the voltage–current ratio for a single complex exponential at a
particular frequency ω
In general, impedance will be a complex number, with the same units as resistance, for
which the SI unit is the ohm (Ω)
For a sinusoidal current or voltage input, the polar form of the complex impedance relates
the amplitude and phase of the voltage and current
The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (i.e., admittance is the current-to-voltage ratio,
and it conventionally carries units of siemens, formerly called mhos)
The phase angles in the equations for the impedance of inductors
and capacitors indicate that the voltage across a capacitor lags
the current through it by a phase of
while the voltage across an inductor leads the current through it
by
The identical voltage and current amplitudes indicate that the magnitude of the
impedance is equal to one

23. Radio Transmitter
A radio transmitter is usually part of a radio communication
system which uses electromagnetic waves (radio waves) to
transport information (in this case sound) over a distance.
In electronics and telecommunications a radio transmitter is an
electronic device which, with the aid of an antenna, produces radio
waves
The transmitter itself generates a radio frequency alternating
current, which is applied to the antenna
When excited by this alternating current, the antenna radiates radio
waves. In addition to their use in broadcasting, transmitters are
necessary component parts of many electronic devices that
communicate by radio, such as:
cell phones, wireless computer networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door
openers, two-way radios in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, radar sets, and navigational
beacons. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves
for communication purposes; or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters

24. Radio Transmitter
How it works
A radio transmitter is an electronic circuit which transforms electric power from a battery or
electrical mains into a radio frequency alternating current, which reverses direction
millions to billions of times per second
The energy in such a rapidly-reversing current can radiate off a conductor (the antenna)
as electromagnetic waves (radio waves)
The transmitter also impresses information, such as an audio or video signal, onto the
radio frequency current to be carried by the radio waves
When they strike the antenna of a radio receiver, the waves excite similar (but less
powerful) radio frequency currents in it
The radio receiver extracts the information from the received waves

25. Radio Transmitter
A power supply circuit to transform the input electrical power to the higher voltages
needed to produce the required power output
An electronic oscillator circuit to generate the radio frequency signal. This usually
generates a sine wave of constant amplitude often called the carrier wave, because it
serves to "carry" the information through space
In most modern transmitters this is a crystal oscillator in which the frequency is precisely
controlled by the vibrations of a quartz crystal
A modulator circuit to add the information to be transmitted to the carrier wave produced
by the oscillator. This is done by varying some aspect of the carrier wave
The information is provided to the transmitter either in the form of an audio signal, which
represents sound, a video signal, or for data in the form of a binary digital signal
In an AM (amplitude modulation) transmitter the amplitude (strength) of the carrier wave
is varied in proportion to the modulation signal

26. Radio Transmitter
In an FM (frequency modulation) transmitter the frequency of the carrier is varied by the
modulation signal
In an FSK (frequency-shift keying) transmitter, which transmits digital data, the frequency
of the carrier is shifted between two frequencies which represent the two binary digits, 0
and 1
An RF power amplifier to increase the power of the signal, to increase the range of the
radio waves
An impedance matching (antenna tuner) circuit to match the impedance of the transmitter
to the impedance of the antenna (or the transmission line to the antenna), to transfer
power efficiently to the antenna
If these impedances are not equal, it causes a condition called standing waves, in which
the power is reflected back from the antenna toward the transmitter, wasting power and
sometimes overheating the transmitter

27. Radio Receiver
The information produced by the receiver may
be in the form of sound (an audio signal),
images (a video signal) or data (a digital signal)
In radio communications, a radio receiver is an electronic device that receives radio waves
and converts the information carried by them to a usable form. It is used with an antenna
The antenna intercepts radio waves (electromagnetic waves) and converts them to tiny
alternating currents which are applied to the receiver, and the receiver extracts the desired
information
The receiver uses electronic filters to separate the desired radio frequency signal from all the
other signals picked up by the antenna, an electronic amplifier to increase the power of the
signal for further processing, and finally recovers the desired information through
demodulation

28. Electronics
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active
electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors,
diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive
interconnection technologies
Commonly, electronic devices contain an electronic circuit
consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors
supplemented with passive elements
A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity between that of a
conductor such as copper and that of an insulator such as glass
Semiconductors includes transistors, solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), quantum
dots and digital and analog integrated circuits
The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum
physics to explain the movement of electrons inside a lattice of atoms

29. Electronics
The conductivity of a semiconductor material increases with increasing temperature,
behavior opposite to that of a metal
Semiconductors can display a range of useful properties such as passing current more
easily in one direction than the other, variable resistance, and sensitivity to light or heat
Because the conductive properties of a semiconductor material can be modified by
controlled addition of impurities or by the application of electrical fields or light, devices
made with semiconductors are very useful for amplification of signals, switching, and
energy conversion
The nonlinear behavior of active components and their ability to control electron flows
makes amplification of weak signals possible. The ability of electronic devices to act as
switches makes digital information processing possible
Electronics is distinct from electrical and electro-mechanical science and technology,
which deal with the generation, distribution, switching, storage, and conversion of
electrical energy to and from other energy forms using wires, motors, generators,
batteries, switches, relays, transformers, resistors, and other passive components

30. Electronics
An electronic component is any basic discrete
device or physical entity in an electronic system
used to affect electrons or their associated fields
Electronic components are mostly industrial
products, available in a singular form and are not
to be confused with electrical elements, which
are conceptual abstractions representing
idealized electronic components
Electronic components have two or more electrical terminals (or leads) aside from
antennas which may only have one terminal. These leads connect, usually soldered to a
printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit (a discrete circuit) with a particular
function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator)
Basic electronic components may be packaged discretely, as arrays or networks of like
components, or integrated inside of packages such as semiconductor integrated circuits,
hybrid integrated circuits, or thick film devices

31. Meter instruments
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the
electric current in a circuit
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name
Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere
or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or
microammeters
The red wire carries the current to be measured.
The restoring spring is shown in green.
N and S are the north and south poles of the
magnet
A voltmeter is an instrument used for
measuring electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across
a scale in proportion to the voltage of the
circuit

32. Meter instruments
One of the design objectives of the instruments is to disturb the circuit as little as possible
and so the instruments should draw a minimum of current to operate. This is achieved by
using a sensitive galvanometer in series with a high resistance
The sensitivity of such a meter can be expressed as "ohms per volt", the number of ohms
resistance in the meter circuit divided by the full scale measured value
For example a meter with a sensitivity of 1000 ohms per volt would draw 1 milliampere at
full scale voltage; if the full scale was 200 volts, the resistance at the instrument's
terminals would be 200,000 ohms and at full scale the meter would draw 1 milliampere
from the circuit under test
For multi-range instruments, the input resistance varies as the
instrument is switched to different ranges

33. Meter instruments
An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance,
the opposition to an electric current. The unit of measurement for resistance is
ohms Ω
Electricity meters are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common
one being the kilowatt hour [kWh]. Periodic readings of electricity meters
establishes billing cycles and energy used during a cycle
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is
an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement
functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would include basic features
such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance

34. Meter instruments
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally
known as a scope, CRO (for cathode-ray oscilloscope), or DSO
(for the more modern digital storage oscilloscope), is a type of
electronic test instrument that allows observation of constantly
varying signal voltages, usually as a two-dimensional plot of one
or more signals as a function of time
Non-electrical signals (such as sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed
Oscilloscopes are used to observe the change of an electrical
signal over time, such that voltage and time describe a shape
which is continuously graphed against a calibrated scale
The observed waveform can be analyzed for such properties as
amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion and others
The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four
sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls
The display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and
vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule
In addition to the screen, most display sections are equipped with three basic controls:
a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder button.

35. Meter instruments
A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a physical quantity
In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity
of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events
Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of
measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of
measurement
Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are
the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained
All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and
measurement uncertainty

36. Meter instruments
Measuring absolute pressure in an accelerated reference frame
The principle of a mercury (Hg) barometer in the gravitational field of the earth
Considerations related to electric charge dominate electricity and electronics
Electrical charges interact via a field
That field is called electric if the charge doesn't move
If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, especially in an electrically neutral
conductor, that field is called magnetic
Electricity can be given a quality — a potential
Electricity has a substance-like property, the electric charge
Energy (or power) in elementary electrodynamics is calculated by multiplying the potential by
the amount of charge (or current) found at that potential: potential times charge (or current)

37. Meter Instruments

38. HVAC Controls Provide the answers to following questions
Home Work
DESCRIBE:
•Ohms Law
•Test Meters
•What is electricity
•How electrons move
•Electromotive force (EMF)
•How to use voltage testers
•Electron movement
•How to use ammeters
•Resistance
•How Ohm’s Law works
•How to use an ohmmeter
•Complete circuit, open circuit, closed circuit
•Power and Watts
•How wattmeters are used
•Using test meters

39. HVAC Controls Provide the answers to following questions
Hands-on exercises:
Use your own VOM multimeter
•Checking resistance (pure)
•Checking resistance (variable)
•Checking resistance (reactive)
Checking voltages
Connecting circuits
•Connecting one light bulb
•Connecting three lights in series
•Connecting three lights in parallel
Using dimmer switches

40. HVAC Controls Provide the answers to following questions
DESCRIBE:
•Power Generation and Control
•Wire sizes and insulation
•AC vs DC and series-parallel connections
•Single phase vs three phase
•Neutral vs ground
•Disconnects and transformers
•Power tools and adapters

41. HVAC Controls Provide the answers to following questions
DESCRIBE:
Solenoids and Contactors
•Electromagnetism
•How solenoids are used
•How relays are used
•How contactors are used
•Symbols used on electrical drawings
•Reading schematics and ladders diagrams
•Residential AC systems and package systems
•Single and Three Phase Motors
•Overloads and capacitors
•Single phase motors and how they work
·Shaded Pole
·Split Phase

42. HVAC Controls Provide the answers to following questions
DESCRIBE:
•Capacitor Start-induction Run
•Permanent Split Capacitor
•Capacitor Start-Capacitor Run
•How to troubleshoot motors
•Changing rotation and speed
•Disconnecting the start winding
•Dual voltage and multi-speed motors
•Three phase motors and how they work
•Y and Delta connections
•Dual voltage connections
•How to identify the nine motor leads
Line Starters and Troubleshooting
•How line starters operate
•How to select heaters
•Troubleshooting methods for line starters
•Three phase AC systems

43. L | C | LOGISTICS
PLANT MANUFACTURING AND BUILDING FACILITIES EQUIPMENT
Engineering-Book
ENGINEERING FUNDAMENTALS AND HOW IT WORKS
MECHANICS BUILDING INSTRUMENTATION
Thank You