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1. Association of Household Pond Fish Production with Fish Consumption,
Dietary Diversity and Nutritional Status of Reproductive Age (15-49)
Women in Three Selected Woreda's of Southern Nations, Nationalities
and People's Region, Ethiopia
M.Sc. THESIS
DARASA TAMIRU DESTA(B.Sc.)
HAWASSA UNIVERSITY
College of Agriculture
Hawassa, Ethiopia
January, 2017

2. Association of Household Pond Fish Production with Fish Consumption,
Dietary Diversity and Nutritional Status of Reproductive Age (15-49)
Women in Three Selected Woreda's of Southern Nations, Nationalities
and People's Region, Ethiopia
BY: DARASA TAMIRU (B.Sc.)
MAJOR ADVISOR: GORDON ZELLO (PhD)
CO-ADVISOR: FIKADU RETA (M.Sc.)
TAFESSE KEFYALEW(M.SC.)
A Thesis Submitted to the School of Nutrition, Food Science and
Technology
HAWASSA UNIVERSITY
College of Agriculture
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of
Science in Applied Human Nutrition
Hawassa, Ethiopia
January, 2017

3. School of Graduate Studies
Hawassa University
Advisor's Approval Sheet (Submission sheet -I)
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Association of Household Pond Fish Production
With Fish Consumption, Dietary Diversity and Nutritional Status of Reproductive Age (15-
49) Women in Three Selected Woreda's of Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's
Region, Ethiopia” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Applied Human Nutrition, graduate program of the School of
Nutrition, Food Science and Technology and has been carried out by Darasa Tamiru, under
our supervision. Therefore, we recommended that the student has fulfilled the requirements
and hence hereby can submit the thesis to the institute.
Submitted by:
Darasa Tamiru (B.Sc.) _______________ _________
Name of student Signature Date
Approved by Advisors:
Gordon Zello (PhD) ________________
Name of major advisor Signature Date
Fikadu Reta (M.Sc.) _______________ ___________
Tafesse Kefyalew (M.Sc.) _______________ ___________
Name of co-advisor Signature Date

4. School of Graduate Studies
Hawassa University
Examiner's Approval Sheet (Submission sheet -II)
We, the undersigned, members of the board of Examiners of the final open defense by
Darasa Tamiru have read and evaluated his thesis entitled “Association of Household Pond
Fish Production with Fish Consumption, Dietary Diversity and Nutritional Status of
Reproductive Age (15-49) Women in Three Selected Woreda's of Southern Nations,
Nationalities and People's Region, Ethiopia”, and examined the candidate. This is,
therefore, to certify the thesis has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Science in Applied Human Nutrition.
_______________________ _______________ ________
Name of Chairperson Signature Date
______________________ _______________ ________
Name of External Examiner Signature Date
______________________ _______________ ________
Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date
_____________________ _______________ ________
Name of Major Advisor Signature Date
______________________ ______________ ________
Name of Co-Advisor Signature Date
Final approval and acceptance of the thesis is contingent upon the submission of the final
copy of the thesis to the School of Graduate Studies (SGS) through the School of Graduate
Committee (SGC) of the candidate's school.
__________________________ ______________ _________
School of Graduate Studies (SGS) Signature Date

5. I
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been submitted and
presented for any academic degree award in any other university, and all sources of
material used for this thesis have been dully acknowledged.
Darasa Tamiru(B.Sc.) _____________ ___________
Name of student Signature Date
Place: Hawassa University, College of Agriculture, School of Nutrition, Food Science and
Technology.

6. DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis for my father TAMIRU DESTA, my mother CHALTU TOLERA, my
brother ASSEFA TAMIRU and his wife DADITU FEYISSA for their love and dedication
in all my life.

7. iii
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
First and for most I give honor to God, the supreme for every protection he did to me. I
would like to pass my special thanks to my advisors Dr. Gordon Zello and Mr. Fikadu
Reta and Tafesse Kefyalew for their unreserved help throughout my whole work starting
from the topic selection to the final work of this thesis. My gratitude also goes to
University of Saskatchewan, Canada for financial support of this study and Hawassa
University for allowing me to join the program, giving this golden chance and coverage of
all financial expenses during stay throughout the period of this study. I am grateful to
SNFST colleagues of Hawassa University, Kebele administrators of the study area, data
collectors and study participants for their cooperation to the successful accomplishment of
this thesis in the study area. My special appreciation goes to Mr. Eshetu Lukas, Mr.
Mengistu Feseha and Mr. Mesfin Eshete and all the rest of my friends for their valuable
feedbacks.
Lastly, I would like to thank my family for their endless supports and encourage.

8. iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists
BMI Body Mass Index
CF Crude Fat
CP Crude Protein
CSA Central Statistical Agency
ETB Ethiopian Birr
FAO Food and Agricultural Organizations
FGD Focused Group Discussion
FP Fish Producers
HHs Households
IRB Institutional Review Board
KII Key Informant Interview
NFP None Fish Producers
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
SARI Southern Agricultural Institute
SNFST School of Nutrition, Food Science and Technology
SNNPR Southern Nation, Nationality and People's Region
SPSS Statistical Packages for Social Sciences
UNICEF United Nations Children Fund
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
WDDS Women Dietary Diversity Score
WHO World Health Organization

9. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION.....................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................iii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..............................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................x
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT..........................................................................................................................xii
1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background..................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem .............................................................................................................3
1.3 Significance of the study..............................................................................................................4
1.4 Objectives.....................................................................................................................................5
1.4.1 General objective .........................................................................................................5
1.4.2 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................5
1.5 Research hypothesis.....................................................................................................................5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................6
2.1 Overview of under nutrition and fishery......................................................................................6
2.2 Status of aquaculture....................................................................................................................8
2.3 The nutritional value of fish.......................................................................................................10
2.3.1 Proximate composition of fish ...................................................................................11
2.4 Direct and indirect contribution of fishery.................................................................................13
2.4.1 Direct contribution to dietary intake through fish consumption ................................13
2.4.2 Indirect contribution through household income .......................................................14
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................................................................17
3.1 Study area...................................................................................................................................17

10. vi
3.2 Source and study population......................................................................................................18
3.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria .................................................................................................19
3.4 Study design...............................................................................................................................19
3.5 Study period...............................................................................................................................19
3.6 Sample size ...............................................................................................................................19
3.7 Sampling techniques ..................................................................................................................20
3.8 Instruments................................................................................................................................22
3.9 Data collection ..........................................................................................................................23
3.10 Variables ..................................................................................................................................23
3.11 Data collectors..........................................................................................................................24
3.12 Quality control .........................................................................................................................24
3.13 Ethical consideration...............................................................................................................24
3.14 Data management and analysis ................................................................................................25
3.15 ProximateAnalysis ...................................................................................................................25
3.16 Operational definitions.............................................................................................................29
4. RESULTS .........................................................................................................................30
5.1 Quantitative findings..................................................................................................................30
5.1.1 Socio demographic and economic characteristics of the respondents .......................30
5.1.2 Household pond fish production, marketing and related information of respondents
.............................................................................................................................................33
5.1.3 Household food security status ..................................................................................34
5.1.4 Fish consumption, dietary diversity and related information of the respondents. ....35
5.1.5 Association of household pond fish production with fish consumption frequency .37
5.1.6 Association of household pond fish production with WDDS of the respondents....39
5.1.7 Association of household pond fish production and nutritional status as measured by
BMI.....................................................................................................................................40
5.1.8 Proximate composition of Nile tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus), fish from the study
area......................................................................................................................................41
5.2. Qualitative findings...................................................................................................................42
5.2.1 Focused Group Discussion Results............................................................................42
5.2.1.1 Fish availability and sources..................................................................................42

11. vii
5.2.1.2 Contribution of household pond fish production for the women ............................43
5.2.1.3 Factors affecting fish consumption .........................................................................44
5.2.1.4 Thoughts and need for fish production in the community .....................................46
5.2.2 Key informant interview results.................................................................................46
5.2.2.1 Historical Background and objectives of aquaculture in SNNPR..........................47
5.2.2.2 Opportunities and challenges for the community to produce a fish........................47
5.2.2.3 Fish consumption and related factors in the study area ..........................................48
6. DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................50
7. STRENGTH AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ...................................................54
8. CONCLUSIONS ..............................................................................................................55
9. RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................56
REFERENCE.......................................................................................................................57
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................64
ANNEX 1: Questionnaires in Amharic Version..............................................................................64
ANNEX 2: Questionnaires in English Version...............................................................................78

12. X
LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
Table 1: Socio- demographic and economic characteristics of the respondents by FP and
NFP, 2016 …………………………......…………………………………………………..32
Table 2: Household pond fish production and related information of respondents by FP,
2015/2016(n=61)………………….....……….……………………...………...……….….33
Table 3: Prevalence of food insecurity status among FP and NFP, 2016……………..….34
Table 4: Fish consumption, dietary diversity and other information of FP and NFP
respondents, 2016……………………………………………………………..…………...36
Table 5: Association of household pond fish production with fish consumption frequency
of respondents, 2016…...……………………………………………………………...…...38
Table 6: Association of household pond fish production with the women dietary diversity
score of respondents, 2016...………………………….…………………………………...39
Table 7: Anthropometric measurements of the respondents, 2016……...………………..40
Table 8: Mean ± SD proximate nutrient composition of Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis
Niloticus fish fillet in wet basis…..…………………..…………………………………...41

13. XI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure 1: Frame work for roles of fish-related activities and interventions in improving
nutritional status………………………….………………………………………………..16
Figure 2: Schematic representation of sampling technique, Sidama and Gedeo zones,
SNNPR…………………………………………………………………………………….21

14. XII
Association of Household Pond Fish Production with Fish Consumption, Dietary
Diversity and Nutritional Status of Reproductive Age (15-49) Women in Three
Selected Woreda's of Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Region, Ethiopia
By: Darasa Tamiru (B.Sc.)
Major advisor: Gordon Zello (PhD)
Co-advisor: Fikadu Reta (M.Sc.)
Tafesse Kefyalew(M.Sc.)
ABSTRACT
In the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People's Region, Ethiopia, farmers started
producing fish using household ponds through support of governmental institutions.
However, studies identifying association of household pond fish production with fish
consumption, dietary diversity and nutritional status of the women and proximate nutrient
composition of fish from the pond has not been yet done in Dara, Dila Zuria and Wensho
Woreda's. As step to fill the evidence gap, the researchers collected both quantitative and
qualitative data using multistage sampling method. A total of 178 reproductive age women
participated in the study (61 from fish producing and 117 from none fish Producing
households). Fish consumption frequency was measured using three consumption patterns
(i.e. frequent eaters, occasional eaters and non-fish eaters). Women's dietary diversity
score was assessed by 9 food group with reference period of 24 hour. Nutritional status of
the women was determined using body mass index. In addition, focus group discussion and
key informant Interview were done to obtain in depth information about pond fish
production and consumption. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fish samples were
collected in triplicate both from the farmer's pond and Hawassa Lake. Proximate
composition was determined following the procedure of AOAC. Chi-square test was used
to check the association between nominal explanatory and outcome variables. Independent
sample t-test was used to see mean difference of height, weight and body mass index of the
reproductive age women and proximate nutrient composition of fish fillet. Ordinal
regression was used to see the association of household pond fish production fish and
consumption frequency. Multivariate linear regression model was used to compare dietary
diversity score. Respondents from none pond fish producing households were less likely to
consume fish frequently (OR=0.044, p<0.001) than those pond fish producing households.
The mean (±SD) women dietary diversity score among pond fish producing households
was significantly higher than their counterparts (P<0.001). No difference (p>0.05) in
mean height, weight and body mass index was noted between respondents of pond fish
producing and none producing households. Mean difference (p<0.05) in Moisture, Crude
Protein, Crude Fat and Ash precentages were noted between pond and Lake Hawassa Nile
tilapia fish fillet. The finding suggests household pond fish production is associated to fish
consumption frequency and women dietary diversity score, even if no difference was
observed about its effect on nutritional status of women. Therefore, more nutrition
sensitive fish production interventions are recommended to maximize impact of fish
production on nutritional status of women and improve the proximate composition of the
fish being produced.
Keywords: Dietary diversity, Fish fillet, Nile tilapia, Nutritional status, Pond fish,
proximate composition, Women

15. 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Fish is aquatic animals which contain a high level of protein (17-29%) with an amino-acid
profile, similar to that of the meat of land animals. The flesh of a fish is also readily
digestible and immediately utilizable by the human body, which makes it suitable for
complementing the high carbohydrate diets. The interventions of food-based strategies
which promote production and consumption of locally available nutritious foods have
utilized fish instead of supplement distribution as a sustainable way of tackling
micronutrient deficiencies (Roos et al., 2007 b).
In addition to this direct contribution to dietary intake, fish is sold, contributes to
household food security indirectly through increasing household income which can be
utilized to purchase other food commodities, including lower cost staple foods (Béné et
al., 2007). Also, seasonal availability of fish is often different from crops, reducing
seasonal vulnerability of the rural poor by extending availability of income and food to
the lean season (Islam, 2007). Food based approaches have focused on increasing
the intake of nutrient-dense fish to address an immediate determinant of under
nutrition, while interventions in fishing and aquaculture activities have often focused
on improving household food security, however, these two approaches are in fact
closely linked.
Aquaculture in Ethiopia remains more potential than in actual practice, despite the fact that
the country's environmental and socio-economic conditions support its development (FAO,
2005a). The consumption and demand for fish as a cheap source of protein is on the
increase in Ethiopia. But the fish supply in most cases comes from the major lakes and

16. 1
river in the country. Like other sub-Saharan African countries, fisheries from natural water
bodies have failed to meet the ever growing demand for fish. Despite the country's huge
aquaculture potential, the contribution of aquaculture towards food and nutrition security is
insignificant (MoARD, 2008). Therefore, the importance of aquaculture development for
poverty mitigation and food self-sufficiency in the country could not be over emphasized
(Kassahun, 2012).
Fresh fish is produced in the great rift valley lakes and in some other northern parts of the
country. Price wise, fish is relatively expensive compared with the local prices of
vegetables and grains on a unit weight basis, but it is frequently less costly than alternative
animal protein sources. With increased marketing efforts and increase in supply, the
demand for the fish product could be tremendously increased from the current level. The
demand for fish is higher than supply especially in Ethiopian fasting season. This is
because of religious influences on consumption patterns; the demand for fish is only
seasonal. During lent, Christians who abstain from eating meat, milk, and eggs consume
fish, since fish is the substitute of meat (Assefa, 2013).
Even though the demand for fish in the country is increasing, the supply side is not
increasing with large opportunities to produce. As mentioned, the potential productions in
Ethiopia are major lakes, reservoirs, dams, small water bodies and rivers. But fish
production using pond is has not been practiced in the country. In the southern nation,
nationalities and region, aquaculture production is very low and not well document about
the production, marketing system and overall consumption for the community. However,
now this day's, above 60 farmers in Sidama and Gedeo zones of southern Ethiopia are
producing fish using constructed ponds on their farms with the effort of southern
agricultural research institute(SARI) and Universities. As the result of previous work

17. 2
conducted by SARI over the last three years, it is known that, the demand for fish culture,
especially Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is increasing in the region (SARI,
unpublished data). For this reason, SARI has established a research and fish breeding site
near Lake Hawassa (for breeding Nile Tilapia and African Catfish) and the regional bureau
of agriculture established a Nile Tilapia breeding site near Lake Chamo at Arba-Minch.
Currently, fingerlings are produced from the breeding site and disseminated to farmers
together with technological advice, continues follow-up and support, leading to substantial
increase in fish production in the region. To this end, no investigations have been reported
in the region.
On the other hand, the proximate nutrient composition of fish varies greatly from species
to species and from one individual to another based on by both exogenous and endogenous
factors. Significant changes in whole body composition or in the composition of specific
organs or muscle tissues could be due to diet of the fish (composition, frequency) age,
feeding frequency, migration, ration, season, sex, starvation, geographical localities and
temperature(Huss, 1995). However, in the study area, no so far studies have reported as the
farmers are feeding the fish from the locally available feeds. In addition no comparison has
been made towards the proximate nutrient composition with the wild fish so as to improve
the fish nutrient quality.
Therefore, the evidences of household pond fish production and its association with
consumption of fish, dietary diversity and nutritional status of women are crucial for
further action to increase the production and consumption in the region.

18. 3
1.2 Statement of the problem
Fish constitute the lowest source of calories in Sub-Saharan African countries. It
contributes to less than one percent of total calories consumed in Sub-Saharan Africa
(FAO, 2012). In Ethiopia, there are many alternative means of achieving food and nutrition
security in particular and poverty reduction. Despite the presence of lakes, rivers and
reservoirs potential opportunity to produce fish, its consumption is insignificant and found
to play little role in the households’ livelihood. The fish consumption per year is very low
(OECD and FAO, 2011).
In the national food consumption survey of Ethiopia indicated that the food group
contributing to the highest proportion of women’s diet was cereals or grains. Flesh foods
including fish consumption was very low for women in all regions. For instance, in the
SNNP region, the consumption of this food group is 0.4% in relation to the other food
groups (EPHI, 2013). Additionally, it was reported that only 2.6% of pregnant women
consumed fish in Wondo Genet districts of Sidama zone (Desalegn, 2011).
Conversely, farmers have started producing fish for markets and household consumption in
SNNPR using ponds in their own farms. Nevertheless, studies identifying associations of
fish production with fish consumption, dietary intake of other food group and nutritional
status of the women has not been yet done. In addition, the nutritional composition of the
fish from the pond has not been also determined as the farmers feed leafs of sweet potato,
cabbage and animal manure as a source of nutrients for the fish. Therefore, the purpose of
this study was to fill the evidence gap.

19. 4
1.3 Significance of the study
Fish is an important and indispensable item in human diet. Fish production and
consumption could make the best possible use of underutilized resource presently available
to the small farmers to raise their income and also to improve their nutritional status
particularly through supply of animal protein and micronutrient requirements. The double
burden of malnutrition in Ethiopia can be addressed through linkages of agriculture to
nutrition emphasizing food production. In alleviation of these chronic problems for
searching for alternative food and income sources and employment opportunities, like
fishery sub-sector needs to be given special attention. There must be also an effort towards
promotion of agricultural products and fishery for consumption. This effort will be on the
ground with evidence based research.
The identification of associations of pond fish production on women fish consumption,
dietary diversity and nutritional status; determining the fish nutrient quality from the
farmers pond by this research will put a great foundation for a further action for the
improvement of production and consumption of fish in the study area. Can also be used as
additional information by Government, Non governmental Organizations and Graduate
students.

20. 5
1.4 Objectives
1.4.1 General objective
The main objective of this study was to assess the associations of household pond fish
production with fish consumption frequency, dietary diversity and nutritional status of
reproductive age (15-49) women in pond fish producing kebeles of Dara, Dila Zuria and
Wensho Woreda's. Comparing proximate nutrient composition of fish fillet of Nile
tilapia,(Oreochromis niloticus), harvested from farmers pond and Lake Hawassa was
secodary objective of this study.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
 To assess the association of household pond fish production with fish consumption
frequency of reproductive age women
 To determine the association of household pond fish production with reproductive age
women's dietary diversity score
 To determine the association of household pond fish production with nutritional status
of reproductive age women
 To compare proximate nutrient composition of edible part of Nile tilapia,
(Oreochromis niloticus), fish harvested from ponds and Hawassa Lake.
1.5 Research hypothesis
1 Fish consumption frequency of reproductive age women in fish producing households
using pond is different from those in none fish producing households.
2 Mean women dietary diversity score of the reproductive women in fish producing
households using pond is different from those in non-producing households.
3 Mean BMI of reproductive age women in fish producing households using pond is
different from those in non-producing households.
4 There is a difference in mean proximate nutrient composition between Nile tilapia,
(Oreochromis niloticus), fish fillet from household pond and Lake Hawassa.

21. 6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of under nutrition and fishery
Malnutrition is a problem of staggering size worldwide large enough to threaten the
world’s sustainable development ambitions for the post-2015 period. It affects all countries
and almost one in three people on the planet. Almost 2 billion people experience
micronutrient malnutrition (WHO, 2015m) and nearly half of all countries are dealing with
more than one type of malnutrition at the same time (IFPRI, 2014a). The multiple burdens
of malnutrition – undernourishment and under nutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and
overweight and obesity – impose high and, in some cases, rising economic and social costs
in countries at all income levels. Different types of malnutrition may coexist within the
same country, household or individual, and their prevalence is changing rapidly along with
changes in food systems. The often confusing terminology used to describe malnutrition is
it itself a reflection of the complex, multidimensional, dynamic nature of the problem and
the policy challenges associated with it (FAO, 2013).
Chronic food insecurity in sub-Sahara Africa is primarily caused by explosive population
growth, high dependency on natural resources, deteriorating climate, low productivity, lack
of appropriate storage facilities and a low level of income (UNDP, 2010). Today, under
nutrition due to the mentioned challenges, still persists in the vast majority of the world’s
poorest countries, affecting in particular women and children. While the more obvious
signs of under nutrition— mortality, morbidity, stunting and wasting—have received
substantial attention in the past, the hidden consequences of inadequate nutritional intake
have only started to be recognized. Under nutrition have very severe consequences for
human health and development (some of which have irreversible sequels). Ending hunger

22. 7
and reducing under nutrition has therefore become a key objective of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). Agriculture is viewed as the central element of this goal,
therewith endorsing an agricultural, food-based, rural-centered approach. However, to
alleviate hunger and promote food security and nutrition, there can be other “means” that
are even more important in many countries. While undernourishment can be improved by
increasing energy intake, the problem of micronutrient deficiencies is of a different nature
as it results from an inadequate quality of diet.
As foods from animal sources are important sources of micronutrients, their consumption
has been promoted through food-based approaches as one of the ways to combat
micronutrient deficiencies. It is not, however, always possible for poor households to
increase consumption of foods from animal sources due, in particular, to the limited
affordability, availability and cultural acceptability of these types of food (Pachόn et al.,
2007). In these respects, fish offer advantages as they may be more affordable, more
available and consumed for preference in various regions of the developing world. Fish is
staple food and as a source of animal protein. As a food for households, it is rising globally
and the number of households participating in the sector is also among the growing food
sectors in the world specifically in Asia (Speedy, 2003; Ahmed and Lorica, 2002).
Interventions related to fish intake have therefore been implemented in Asia and Africa
with the objective of promoting fish consumption to improve nutritional status
(Kawarazuka, 2010). From the livelihood and rural development perspectives, livestock
interventions at the homestead level have been implemented as a way to increase
consumption of foods from animal sources. Also, in this context, small-scale fisheries and
aquaculture have been recognized as important opportunities for enhancing household food
security.

23. 8
2.2 Status of aquaculture
Global aquaculture production has grown at 10 to 11 percent a year over the past decade
and is projected to continue increasing (FAO, 2010). Food and Agriculture Organization
reported that out of the total tones of fish consumed in the world every year, almost half is
produced in a controlled environment, whereas the remaining half is harvested from the
wild. Aquaculture is developing, expanding and intensifying in almost all regions of the
world, except in Sub- Saharan Africa, as the global population demand for aquatic food
products is expected to increase (FAO, 2012). People who are food and nutrition insecure
largely reside in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa and for many; fish represents a rich source
of protein, micronutrients and essential fatty acids.
The contribution of fish to household food and nutrition security depends upon availability,
access and cultural and personal preferences. Access is largely determined by location,
seasonality and price but at the individual level it also depends upon a person’s
physiological and health status and how fish is prepared, cooked and shared among
household members. The sustained and rapid expansion of aquaculture over the past 30
years has resulted in >40% of all fish now consumed being derived from farming. While
aquaculture produce increasingly features in the diets of many Asians, it is much less
apparent among those living in sub-Saharan Africa. The per capita fish consumption has
grown little and despite the apparently strong markets and adequate biophysical conditions,
aquaculture has yet to develop. The contribution of aquaculture to food and nutrition
security is not only just an issue of where aquaculture occurs but also of what is being
produced and how and whether the produce is as accessible as that from capture fisheries.
The range of fish species produced by an increasingly globalized aquaculture industry
differs from that derived from capture fisheries. Farmed fishes are also different in terms of

24. 9
their nutrient content, a result of the species being grown and of rearing methods. Farmed
fish price affects access by poor consumers while the size at which fish is harvested
influences both access and use (Beveridge et al., 2013).
Aquaculture in Ethiopia remains more potential than in actual practice, despite the fact that
the country's environmental and socio-economic conditions support its development (FAO,
2005). The consumption and demand for fish as a cheap source of protein is on the
increase in Ethiopia. But the fish supply in most cases comes from the major lakes and
rivers in the country. Several national reports indicate that fisheries production of the
major lakes of Ethiopia is declining in an alarming rate. Despite the countries huge
aquaculture potential, the contribution of aquaculture towards food security is insignificant
(MoARD, 2008). Therefore, the importance of aquaculture development for poverty
mitigation and food self-sufficiency in the country cannot be over emphasized (Kassahun,
2012). Price wise, too, fish is relatively expensive compared with the local prices of
vegetables and grains on a unit weight basis, but it is frequently less costly than alternative
animal protein sources. With increased marketing efforts and increase in supply, the
demand for the fish product could be tremendously increased from the current level. The
demand for fish is higher than supply especially, in Ethiopian fasting season and if it not
fasting season supply is higher. This is because of religious influences on consumption
patterns; the demand for fish is only seasonal. During lent, Christians who abstain from
eating meat, milk, and eggs consume fish, since fish is the substitute of meat (Assefa,
2013).

25. 10
2.3 The nutritional value of fish
Fish is nutritionally important in many African countries as well as in Asia and Oceania.
In other words, a large majority (73%) of the countries where fish is an important
source of animal protein are poor and food deficient countries. In many low-income
countries with water and fisheries resources, fish is important for livelihoods, income and
as food for the rural poor who suffer disproportionately from under nutrition, including
micronutrient deficiencies (Thompson and Subasinghe, 2011). For these population
groups, fish is by far the most frequently consumed animal-source and thereby makes a
valuable contribution to the diversity of everyday diets, dominated by carbohydrate-rich
staples.
Fish can therefore be considered an irreplaceable animal-source, providing essential
nutrients of high bioavailability which are found in limiting amounts in the diet. These
nutrients include animal protein, essential fats, minerals and vitamins. Small fish, eaten
whole or as fish products, e.g. dried fish are particularly rich in calcium and other
micronutrients. In terms of protein, it is recognized that in low-income food-deficit (LIFD)
countries the main sources of protein comes from plants such as rice, maize, or cassava
(FAO, 2009). In addition, as pointed out by Kawarazuka (2010), in some conditions fish
can be a far more efficient source of protein than any other food for the poor, due in
particular to their accessibility, availability and digestibility. While the digestibility of
foods derived from plants is very poor compared to those derived from animals, among the
latter, fish is one of most affordable and accessible sources
The importance of fish as a source of animal protein and essential fatty acids is reasonably
well documented. Recently studies suggest, however, that fish—and in particular small fish

26. 11
species—are rich in micronutrients (including calcium, iron and zinc and in vitamin A)
(Kawarazuka, 2010). Plant foods, especially staples such as rice and maize, which contain
low concentrations of lysine, have relatively limited levels of protein absorption as the
amount absorbed is determined by the concentration of the least well represented essential
amino acid (WHO, 2007). In contrast, proteins from animal sources, such as fish, have
more balanced concentrations of all the essential amino acids and their concentration of
lysine is particularly high (USDA, 2005).
2.3.1 Proximate composition of fish
Fish and shell fish are important animal protein and have been widely accepted as a good
source of protein and other elements for the maintenance of healthy body (Adeniyi et al.,
2012). The nutrients, minerals and the omega 3 fatty acids found in fishes are heart-
friendly and can make improvements in brain development and reproduction. Thereby fish
received increased attention as a potential source of animal protein and essential nutrients
for human diets (Fawole et al., 2007). Tilapia belongs to the fresh water. The chemical
composition of fish varies greatly from one species and one individual to another
depending on age, sex, environment and season. The principal chemical composition of
constituents of fish and mammals may be divided into the same categories. The basic cause
of change in composition of fish is usually in the amount of food that the fish eats and the
amount of movement it makes. Reduction in basic food resource, plankton for example can
afford the whole food chain and abundance of food can markedly improve and changes the
composition of a species.
Species performing long migration before they specific spewing grounds or rivers may
utilize protein in addition to lipids for energy , thus depleting both lipid and protein
reserves, resulting in a general reduction of the biological condition of the fish. Most

27. 12
species in addition do usually not ingest much food during spanning migration and are
therefore not able to supply energy through feeding. Fish fillet consists of several
components, such as moisture, protein, fats, vitamins and minerals, all of which contribute
to the overall meat composition. Generally, fish body composition is affected by both
exogenous and endogenous factors. Exogenous factors that affect fish body composition
include the diet of the fish (composition, frequency) and the environment in which it is
found (salinity, temperature). On the other hand, endogenous factors are genetic and linked
to the life stage, age, size, sex and anatomical position in the fish (Huss, 1995).
In Ethiopia it is widely distributed in the lakes, rivers, reservoirs and swamps which
contribute about 60% of total landings of fish. Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, is the
most important commercial fish, constituting over 40.9% of the commercial catch of the
capture fishery in Ethiopia because it is hardy fish which can tolerate low environmental
conditions (MoARD, 2008). In spite of its huge economic importance in the country, little
is known about the body composition of this species of fish. It is reported that O. niloticus
from Lakes of Hawassa mainly feeds on phytoplankton, macrophytes and detritus
(Todurancea, et al., 1988). Whereas, the fish from the ponds feeds mainly wheat bran,
leaves of sweet potato and prepared by the farmers.
Information on proximate composition of fishes has several importance: as a good
indicator of physiology which is needed for routine analysis of fisheries, it provides
information on quality of raw material, sensory attribute, sexual stage and application of
post-harvest processing and effects on the shelf-life of the fish the measurement of some
proximate profiles such as protein contents, lipids and moisture contents is often necessary
to ensure that they meet the requirements of food regulations and commercial
specifications (Özkan, 2005).

28. 13
2.4 Direct and indirect contribution of fishery
2.4.1 Direct contribution to dietary intake through fish consumption
Poor people in developing countries tend to depend essentially on carbohydrate-based diets
for their nutritional intake. These are, however, relatively low in protein and
micronutrients. In this context, fish can play a particularly important role in combating
micronutrient deficiencies, as they contain high quality protein, essential fatty acids and
also key micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron, calcium, zinc and iodine (Kawarazuka,
2010). Fish is a preferred food item in the diets of many, especially poor, consumers. Fish
provides energy and is a superior source of protein to other animal source foods in terms of
total protein and essential amino acid content and digestibility (Nozomi Kawarazuka &
Béné, 2010). It is as a source of essential fatty acids and micronutrients, superior in both
qualitative and quantitative terms to other animal-source foods, that may be of greatest
importance in food and nutrition security terms.
Studies published in the literature report an increase in household consumption of fish for
those who invest in pond-based aquaculture or in integrated agriculture-aquaculture.
Consuming fish produced by their own ponds is a way for households to directly improve
nutritional status through aquaculture (Kawarazuka, 2010). In India, Kumar and Dey
(2006) observed that the energy intake of households that own fish ponds was 10.9%
higher than that of households with wage earners but without ponds, and that the
undernourished population amongst the fish pond owners was 10% lower than the control
population. In the Dinajpur district of Bangladesh, it was shown that small fish species are
important food items for low income households with fish ponds, especially in months
when vegetables are not available or not affordable (Islam, 2007). In Malawi, Dey and his

29. 14
colleagues compared fish consumption between households with and without fish ponds.
They observed that the frequency of fresh fish and dried fish consumption is higher in
households with fish ponds (Dey et al., 2006).
2.4.2 Indirect contribution through household income
Fishing plays an important role in supporting livelihoods worldwide and also forms an
important source of diet for over one billion people. In addition to direct contribution to
dietary intake, fish is sold, contributing to household food security indirectly through
increasing household income which can be utilized to purchase other food commodities,
including lower cost staple foods (Béné et al., 2007; Aiga et al., 2009). It is one of
livelihood strategies that have contributed much to people in developing countries. It is one
of the vital strategies for the poor to achieve food, income and other social benefits. For
instance, it serves as an important source of diet for over one billion people (Manasi et al.,
2009). The estimates from FAO indicate that small-scale fisheries contribute over half of
the world’s marine and inland fish catch of about 140 million metric tons, nearly all of
which is used for direct human consumption (FAO and World Fish Center, 2008). They
play a vital role in contributing directly to food and livelihood security, poverty reduction,
wealth creation, foreign exchange earnings and rural development especially in developing
countries. The positive impact of fishery on household incomes was observed in several
studies. In Ethiopia, a study done by Gebremedhin and his colleagues (2013) in Lake Tana
showed a significant income difference between fishers using modern and traditional boats.
Fisheries contributed 48% to the total annual income of the fishers in Lake Tana.
In Malawi, Dey and his colleagues found that the income of households owning fish ponds
was 1.5 times higher than that of households without fish ponds (Dey et al., 2006). In
Bangladesh, Jahan and colleagues found that the average gross income of households

30. 15
recently engaged in pond aquaculture with technical support and management grew
8.1%/year generating a return on family labor of 15.6% year. For poor rural households
engaged in aquaculture or capture fisheries the surplus cash generated by selling fish is
often used to buy food. Recent studies highlight the positive effects of household income
from aquaculture in increasing consumption of staple foods (Jahan et al., 2009).
In other situation, UNICEF (1990) proposed a conceptual framework for nutritional
status and identified various factors which determine an individual’s nutritional status.
According to the conceptual framework the causes of malnutrition can be categorized into
Immediate, Underlying and basic causes. Poor nutritional status results from
underlying problems related to social institutions and mechanisms which give rise to
poverty and inequality basic determinants in a broader context. Household food security;
maternal care; and health services and healthy environment, are three pillars of underlying
determinants of nutritional status.
Diversifying livelihoods to increase household income sources is a way of improving
household food security. Although fish-related literature often does not include studies
related to other pillars. Dietary intake is an immediate determinant of nutritional status.
The typical diet of the poor is dominated by staple foods with small amounts of other
plant-source foods such as vegetables and animal-source foods. Diversifying diet by
adding animal-source foods specifically fish and others, fruits and vegetables in their
diets provides a variety of nutrients, contributing to improving nutritional status. For
example, an inadequate diet results in increasing the risk of diseases. Sick people require
additional energy intake to fight disease, and at the same time, they have a poor
appetite. Meanwhile in affected households, the labor productivity is reduced and extra
money and time to care for the sick are needed. Consequently, diseases affect the

31. 16
nutritional status of not only individuals, but also other household members. In
contrast, adequate dietary intake maintains the body’s immunity and decreases the risk of
diseases, contributing to minimizing extra costs and time for care and treatment, while
optimizing labor productivity. Taking in mind this conceptual framework, it's possible to
understand the impacts of small scale fisheries and aquaculture as shown in the following
conceptual framework.
Outcomes
Immediate
Causes
Underlin
e causes
Fishing related interventions which focus on improving household
food security, small-scale fisheries and trading and marketing.
Fishing related activities which focus on dietary intake through
promoting nutrient-dense fish as food-based approaches.
Source: Adopted from UNICEF (1990)
Figure 1: Conceptual frame work for roles of fish-related activities and interventions in improving
nutritional status
Nutritional Status
Disease
Dietary intake
Household food
security
Care for children and
women
Health services
and environment

32. 17
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study area
This study was conducted in two selected woredas of Sidama and one woreda of Gedeo
zones in SNNPR Ethiopia. The study woredas are selected based on the availability of
pond fish farming practices. These three woredas were Dara (mid-land) and Wensho (high
land) from Sidama Zone and Dila Zuria (low land) from Gedeo Zone.
Dara Woreda, Sidama Zone
Dara is one of the woredas in the part of the Sidama Zone. Dara is bordered on the south
by the Gedeo Zone and on either side of it by the Oromia Region, on the northwest by
Chuko, on the north by Aleta Wendo, and on the northeast by Hula. Towns in Dara include
Kebado and Teferi Kela. Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA(2007), this
woreda has a total population of 155,265, of whom 76,475 are men and 78,790 women;
10,660 or 6.87% of its population are urban dwellers. In this woreda, currently 13 kebeles
fish pond production exist. These kebeles were: Alemkoricha, Teramaj, Gelewacho,
Satangala, Badessa, Orate, Shilcho, Shoicho, Setamo, Buna Tewaba, Loya, Kumato and
Safa.
Dila Zuria, Gedeo Zone
Dila Zuria is one of the woredas in the part of the Gedeo Zone, Dila Zuria is bordered on
the southwest by Wenago, on the west by the Oromia Region, on the north by the Dara
woreda, and on the southeast by Bule. Dila town is surrounded by Dila Zuria. Dila Zuria
was part of Wenago woreda. Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA(2007), this

33. 18
woreda has a total population of 98,439, of whom 49,413 are men and 49,026 women;
none of its population is urban dwellers. Geographically, the woreda is located North of
Equator from 50 53’ to 60 27’ North, Latitude and from 380 8’ to 380 30’ East, Longitude.
The altitude ranges from 1,500 to 3,000m. In this woreda, fish pond production exists in
three kebeles. These kebeles were: Chichu, Handida and Shigado.
3. Wensho Woreda, Sidama Zone
Wensho is one of the woredas in the part of the Sidama Zone located in the Great Rift
Valley, Wensho is bordered on the southwest by Aleta Wendo, on the west by Dale, on the
north by Shebedino, on the northeast by Gorche, and on the southeast by Bursa. Wensho
was separated from Dale woreda. Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the CSA, this
woreda has a total population of 89,662, of whom 45,562 are men and 44,100 women;
2,039 or 2.27% of its population are urban dwellers. In this woreda, currently five kebeles
have started fish production using pond. These kebeles were: Hunkute, Fero, Bokaso,
Alekena and Kinante.
3.2 Source and study population
The source population: All reproductive age women who are in fish producing kebeles in
the selected zones.
Study population: The study population was all reproductive age women of households
who produces fish using pond selected and randomly selected from non producing
households.

34. 19
3.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Inclusion: Reproductive age women(15-49 years) in the fish producing households using
pond and those women who did not have pond fish but selected randomly within the
targeted kebeles in selected woreda's of in the Sidama and Gedeo zone.
Exclusion: All reproductive age women who were pregnant and with health problem were
excluded.
3.4 Study design
A community based comparative cross-sectional study was employed. Experimental
analysis was conducted for proximate determination of fish sample.
3.5 Study period
The data was collected from April to August, 2016.
3.6 Sample size
Sample size was determined by the following formula (Elise Whitley and Jonathan Ball,
2002).
n = × , n = .
× . .
n=52.6*10% non response rate= 5.3
Total sample size in each group n= 53+5=58 ≈60 where:
 n is the number of subjects required in each group,
 d is the standardized difference of the women's BMI= ;
 The target difference = Mean BMI of the reproductive women from the fish
producing(21.58 kg/m2
) - Mean BMI of the reproductive women from non

35. 20
producing reproductive women(20.38 kg/m2
) and standard deviation=2.18 kg/m2
which was estimated from a pilot study in the area done on 40 total sample size(20
each from both groups) and,
 Cp,power is a constant defined by the values chosen with 80% power using a cutoff
for statistical significance of 0.05 =7.9.
 1 to 2 ratio of the reproductive age women from Fish Producer and None Fish
producer
Totally, 180 reproductive age women( i.e., 60 form fish producing household and 120
from non producing households) are study participants. A total of 24 (12 from each pond
and Hawassa Lake) Nile Tilapia fish sample with comparable weight and sex were taken.
3.7 Sampling techniques
To select sample the subjects for the study, multistage sampling method was employed.
First, three study Woredas and all of kebeles which had pond fish production from the two
zones were purposively selected based on the availability of pond fish cultivation. All pond
fish producing households were selected. None producing households were selected
randomly. One reproductive age women from the selected households were randomly
selected. Lottery method was used to select one reproductive age women if there were
greater than one in the household. For the fish sample, four farmers pond were randomly
selected. Sample in triplicate from each ponds of the farmers were taken. Fish sample
from Lake Hawassa in triplicate was procured randomly from four corners.

36. Figure 2: Schematic representation of sampling technique, Sidama and Gedeo zones,
SNNPR, Ethiopia
Key; SNNPR: Southern, Nation, Nationalities and People Region
FP: Fish producer
NFP: None fish producers
RAW: Reproductive Age Women
Sidama zone
Dara woreda
All fishing
kebele's
45 FP
Households
90 NFP
Households
21
: Schematic representation of sampling technique, Sidama and Gedeo zones,
SNNPR: Southern, Nation, Nationalities and People Region
NFP: None fish producers
RAW: Reproductive Age Women
SNNP region
Sidama zone
Households
Wensho
woreda
All fishing
kebele's
12 FP
Households
24NFP
Households
Gedeo zone
Dila Zuria
woreda
All Fishing
kebele's
4FP
Households
180 RAW
: Schematic representation of sampling technique, Sidama and Gedeo zones,
Gedeo zone
Dila Zuria
woreda
All Fishing
kebele's
8 NFP
Households

37. 22
3.8 Instruments
A pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was used. Questions about socio demographic
and economic characteristics were developed by the principal investigator. Standard
women dietary diversity guideline using the 24 hour recall as a reference period with 9
food groups and household food security questionnaire developed by Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO) were used(FAO, 2010). The consumed foods were
allocated to the following food groups as composed by the guideline, These were 1) Cereals,
Grains, White Roots and Tubers, 2)Vitamin A Rich Fruits and Vegetables, 3)Vitamin A
rich Dark Green Leafy Vegetables, 4)Other Fruits and Vegetables, 5)Organ Meat, 6)Flesh
foods(Fish and Sea food),7)Eggs,8)Pulses, Nuts and Seeds, 9) Milk and Milk Products.
Fish consumption frequency was measured using a five-point category scale and coded in
descending order as follows: (1) more than once a week, (2) once a week, (3) more than
once a month (two or three times), (4) once a month, and (5) more than once a year
(Pieniak et al., 2011). Data was analyzed according to categorization into three patterns of
fish consumption: frequent eaters (respondents that consumed fish and/or seafood as per
the recommendation of 2 or more servings per week), occasional eaters (respondents that
consumed fish and/or seafood less than twice per week) and non-fish eaters (Rahmawaty et
al., 2013).
Height and weight scales were used to determine the nutritional status of the women.
Qualitative approaches of focused group discussion and key informant guidelines were
developed by the principal investigator.

38. 23
3.9 Data collection
Quantitative data collection
Data, in this study was obtained by face-to-face interviews for gathering demographic and
socio-economic characteristics, household food security by data collectors with the
supervision of the principal investigator.
Anthropometric measurements were collected by the principal investigator so as to avoid
inter observer variation using calibrated equipments and standardized techniques. Weight
was measured using an electronic scale (Seca). The women were worn a light cloth of
known weight during the measurement. The instrument was checked and adjusted to zero
for each measurement. Height was measured using Shorr measuring board to the nearest
0.1cm.
Qualitative data collection
Focused group discussion(FGD) among the study groups was done by the principal
investigator. Each focus group discussion was audio recorded with recording device. In-
depth interviews were conducted among Regional and Woreda Livestock and Fishery
Office, Hawassa University and Hawassa Agricultural Research Center who are taking part
by the principal investigator.
3.10 Variables
Dependent: Fish Consumption Frequency, Women Diet Diversity Score, Women
Nutritional Status, Mean Proximate Nutrient Composition.

39. 24
Independent: Fish production, Educational status, Women age, Marital status, Head of
Household, Family size, Occupation, Religion, Household food security status, Wealth
Status, Access to credit and Pond fish.
3.11 Data collectors
The data for Socio demographic and economic characteristics, women's fish consumption
frequency, household food security, dietary diversity were collected by 2 diploma and 4
degree holders from the study area who can speak the local language and Amharic with the
supervision of the researcher. The principal investigator and the two supervisors who were
native speakers of the local language and Amharic were involved to undertake the FGDs.
Anthropometric measurements , key informant interviews and fish sample collection were
conducted by the principal investigator.
3.12 Quality control
Training was given to the data collectors prior to data collection three consecutive days.
The training was done for two days with additional one day pre-test for the instruments
and pilot study. The completeness of the data was checked every day and the data
collectors were asked to refill the data if incomplete data were found.
3.13 Ethical consideration
Approval of the research was given by Hawassa University Institutional Review Board
(IRB). The nature of the study was fully explained to the participants to obtain their oral
consent. Data obtained from each study participant was kept confidential. No
discrimination was made if a woman wanted to withdraw from participating in the
research.

40. 25
3.14 Data management and analysis
Data was compiled into a spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS version 20. Means,
standard deviations for the continuous data and frequency distributions for nominal
variables, were determined. Continuous data was checked for normality using the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and histogram. Household wealth index was constructed using
household assets (radio, television, mobile, horse, or donkey cart), animals, land size
owned, ownership of improved water and via a Principal Components Analysis (PCA).
Chi-square test was used to check the association between the nominal explanatory and
outcome variables. Independent sample t-test and multiple linear regressions were used to
see the mean difference of continuous variables. Ordinal regression model was used assess
the associations of the socio-economic, demographic and fish production variables with
fish consumption frequency. Significance was set at p < 0.05. The focused group
discussions and key informant interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis
techniques. The analysis and emerging themes were discussed
3.15 Proximate Analysis
Fish samples of Nile tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus) both from wild fish of Lake Hawassa
from the four corners to make a representative and farmers were collected by the principal
investigator. Sample of Nile tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus), from farmers’ pond and from
Lake Hawassa in triplicate was purchased. Sex was identified by examining genital papilla
located immediately behind the anus. After sexes have identified the comparable weight of
the fish was selected. The samples were brought by layered with flaked ice using ice box to
Hawassa University, SNFST laboratory for proximate analysis. The composite of fish

41. 26
sample from the comparable weight and sex was cleaned, descaled, eviscerated and filleted
manually using sterile plastic knife.
The proximate composition(moisture content, crude protein, crude fat and total ash) of
collected fish fillet was determined following the procedure of AOAC (2005) methods.
Determination of moisture content
Empty dishes were dried using air drying oven (Memment, Germany) for 1 hr at 1050
C,
transferred to the desiccators (with granular silica gel), cooled for 30 min, and weighed.
Then the prepared sample was mixed thoroughly 5.0g of fresh samples were transferred to
the dried and weighed dishes. The dishes and their contents were placed in the drying
oven(Memment, Germany) and dried for 4 hr at 1050
C, and then the dishes and their
contents were cooled in desiccators to room temperature and reweighed until constant
weight observed.
Calculation:
100
)
(% 







 

fresh
dried
fresh
M
M
M
wb
MC …………………………………………………….(1)
Minitial and Mdried are the mass of initial sample and final sample before and after drying
respectively.
Determination of crude protein
Crude protein content was determined using the Kjeldahi method.
Digestion: 0.5 g of powedered fish fillet samples(in duplicate) were taken in a digestion
tube and 10ml of concentrated sulfuric acid was added and mixed, then 3.5 ml of 30%
hydrogen peroxide was added step by step. As soon as the violent reaction ceased, the

42. 27
tubes were shaken and placed back to the rack. Three grams of catalyst mixture (ground
10g of copper sulphate with 100 g of potassium sulfate) were added into each tube, and
allowed to stand for about 10 min before digestion. When the temperature of the digester
attains 3700
C, the tubes were lowered into protein digester and the digestion was continued
until a clear solution obtained for 3hr. The tubes in the rack were cooled; 25ml of
deionized water was added, and shaken to avoid precipitation of sulfate in the solution.
Distillation: The digested and diluted sample solution was neutralized and distilled using
40% sodium hydroxide and using 2% of boric acid as a receiving solution
Titration: The distillate was titrated using 0.1N sulfuric acid to reddish color using
automatic titrator and the burette reading was recorded
% = − × × 1.4 ⁄
% = % × 6.25 ………………………...……….… (2)
Where: Vs = volume of sulfuric acid consumed to neutralize the sample;
Vb= the volume of sulfuric acid consumed to neutralize the blank;
N = normality of the acid; 14 = Eq.wt of Nitrogen; 6.25=conversion factor from total nitrogen to crude
protein.
W= Sample weight in grams
Determination of crude fat content
Fat content was determined by using Soxhlet method. The extraction flasks were cleaned, dried
in drying oven (Memmert, Germany) at 105o
Cfor 1 hr, cooled in desiccators (with granular
silica gel) for 30 min and then weighed. Two(2)g of sample was added into the extraction
thimbles, and then covered with about 2cm layer of fat free cotton. The thimble with the
sample content was placed into Soxhlet extraction chamber. The cooling water was
switched on, and a 50ml of diethyl ether was added to the extraction flask through the

43. 28
condenser. The extraction was conducted for about 6 hr. Then the extraction flask with
their content was removed and placed in the drying oven(Memmert, Germany) at 70⁰C for
about 1hr, followed by cooling at room temperature in the desiccator for about 30 min and
re-weighed.
% =
∗
………………………………………………..…..(3)
Determination of ash
Porcelain dishes were placed in a muffle furnace (Lenton, England, UK) for 30 min at
5500
C. The dishes were cooled in desiccator (with granular silica gel) for about 30 min and
weighed to the nearest milligram. one (1g) of fresh sample (in duplicate) was placed in
dish. Dishes were placed on a hot plate under a fume-hood and the temperature was slowly
increased until smoking ceases and the samples become thoroughly charred. The dishes
with sample were placed inside the muffle furnace at 5500
C for 5 hr and cooled in a
desiccator for 30 min hr. The ash was clean and white in appearance. When cooled to room
temperature, each dish with ash was reweighed to the nearest milligram. Calculation:
ℎ % = × 100⁄ ……………………………………………...(4)
Where Mash refers to the ash and Msample refer to the original mass of sample.
Ultimately, protein and fat content in wet basis was recalculated from dry basis using the
formula (Alemu et al., 2013).
% Proximate in wet = % Proximate in dry (100-Moisture content) ……………………...(5)
100
Independent sample t-test was used to test the difference between proximate composition
of fish sample from the wild fish and farmer’s pond. Significance was set at p < 0.05.

44. 29
3.16 Operational definitions
Body mass index (BMI): Was calculated as weight in kilograms divided by square of
height in meters, which was used to know the nutritional status. Mean BMI was
determined to see mean difference between the two groups. In addition, it was categorized
into:Underweight: when BMI <18.5kg/m2
; Normal weight: when BMI (18.5-24.99kg/m2
);
Overweight: when BMI ≥25kg/m2
.
Fish consumption frequency: The frequency of fish consumption in the past one year by
the reproductive women in the study area. Categorized into three patterns of fish
consumption: frequent eaters, occasional eaters and non-fish eaters
Fish fillet: A slice of meat of fish without bones, cut out for human consumption
Fish: Aquatic animal captured from the farmers' pond and used for consumption and
market.
Household food insecurity status: Household food insecurity situation was categorized
into four categories (food secured, mild food insecurity, moderate food insecurity and
severe food insecurity).
Household pond fish production: Owning ponds on the farm and growing , cultivating ,
picking, harvesting, collecting or catching of fish by the households intended for their
consumption and availing for market.
Proximate analysis: Nutrient composition in terms of moisture, Crude protein, Crude fat
and Tota ash were determined following AOAC(2005).
Women dietary diversity Score: The number of different food groups consumed by the
women over a 24- hour period of time. The categorization was based on mean WDDS in
the study area.

45. 30
4. RESULTS
In this result section of the present study, information about socio-demographic and
economic background of study participants; associations of household pond fish
production with fish consumption frequency, dietary diversity and nutritional status of
reproductive age women; and proximate nutrient composition of the Nile tilapia fish fillet
is presented. Additionally, in-depth qualitative information is briefly described.
5.1 Quantitative findings
A total of 178 women of reproductive age group from selected kebeles of Sidama and
Gedeo zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia with a response rate of 98.8% were participated in this
study
5.1.1 Socio demographic and economic characteristics of the respondents
The study participants were from Fish Producing (FP) and None Fish Producing (NFP)
Households. The overall mean age of the women was 30.50±6.92 (FP 31.13(±7.45) vs.
NFP 30.17(±6.65)) years. There was no significant difference (P<0.05) in mean age
between the groups. More than three fourth (85.7%) of the respondents were Protestant
Christian and the rest Orthodox Christian(8.98%), Muslim (3.9%) and Catholic (1.68%)
religion followers. The majority (78.02%) of the respondents were from Sidama ethnic
group. The rest were Amhara(7.86%) and Gedeo(7.3%) ethnic background. The majority
(46%) of the respondents were illiterate, (38%) can only read and write. The rest (15.7%)
had attended elementary or secondary school.
Nearly three quarter (73%) of the respondents main occupations were housewife. The rest
18%, 7.3%, 1.68% were petty trade, agriculture and others, respectively. The majority of

46. 31
the respondents (89.8%) were married, 7.86% were divorced or widowed, and 2.2% were
single. Significant difference(p<0.05) was noted in marital status between fish producing
and non producing women. The households were headed by husband (85.4%) and wife
(14.6%). The overall mean of family size in the households was 5.5±1.9 (FP 6.16±2.1 vs.
NFP 5.2±1.6). The difference between fish producing and non producing households in
family size was statistically significant (p<0.05). Regarding wealth index, 30.8% of the
women were in the poor category; 35.9% were in the middle while the rich category
constitutes 33.1%. There was no significant difference (p<0.05) in wealth index between
pond fish producing and non producing households.

47. 32
Table 1: Socio- demographic and economic characteristics of the respondents by FP and
NFP, 2016
Variables Household fish production Total p-value
Fish
producing
Non fish-
producing
Age category in years (n=178) 0.067
15-24 12(19.67%) 19(16.2%) 31(17.4%)
25-34 23(37.7%) 65(55.5%) 88(49.4%)
>34 26(42.6%) 33(28.2%) 59(33.1%)
Mean 31.13(±7.45) 30.17(±6.65) 30.50±6.92 0.382*
Religion (n=178) 0.828
Protestant 53(86.88%) 99(84.6%) 152(85.4%)
Orthodox 4(6.55%) 12(10.2%) 16(9%)
Muslim 3(4.9%) 4(3.4%) 7(3.9%)
Catholic 1(1.63%) 2(1.7%) 3(1.7%)
Ethnicity (n=178) 0.253
Sidama 54(88.5%) 85(72.6%) 139(78%)
Amhara 2(3.2%) 12(10.2%) 14(7.9%)
Gedeo 4(6.5%) 9(7.7%) 13(7.3%)
Oromo 1(1.6%) 5(4.3%) 6(3.4%)
Other 0(0%) 6(5.1%) 6(3.4%)
Educational status(n=178) 0.462
Illiterate 28(45.9%) 54(46.1%) 82(46%)
Read and write 26(42.6%) 42(35.89%) 68(38.2%)
Formal education (Above Primary
school)
7(11.47%) 21(17.94%) 28(15.7%)
Marital Status(n=178) 0.038
Single 2(3.27%) 2(1.7%) 4(2.2%)
Married 58(95.08%) 102(87.1%) 160(89.9%)
Divorced/Widowed 1(1.63%) 13(11.1%) 14(7.9%)
Main Occupation(n=178) 0.548
Housewife 46(75.4%0 84(71.7%) 130(73%)
Petty trade 10(16.39%) 22(18.8%) 32(18%)
Agriculture 3(4.9%) 10(8.4%) 13(7.3%)
GOs/NGOs employee /others 2(3.27%) 0(0%) 2(1.1%)
Head of household(n=178) 0.028
Husband 57(93.4%) 95(81.2%) 152(85.4%)
Wife 4(6.5%) 22(18.8%) 26(14.6%)
Family size(n=178) 0.037
≤5 21(34.4%) 71(60.68%) 92(51.7%)
>5 34(55.7%) 46(39.3%) 80(44.9%)
Mean 6.16(±2.1) 5.21(±1.63) 5.5±(1.9) 0.003*
Wealth Index(n=178) 0.089
Poor 13(21.3%) 42(35.9%) 55(30.8%)
Middle 25(40.98%) 39(33.3%) 64(35.9%)
Rich 23(37.7%) 36(30.76%) 59(33.1%)
*- The p-value is obtained from t-test

48. 33
5.1.2 Household pond fish production, marketing and related information of
respondents
In the study area, the household pond average size were 10 m2
. Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) was the most species produced on their own ponds and preferred in the market.
The mean amount of fish produced among the producing households was found to be
95.8 kg ±43.2 kg per year. The estimated mean income from fishery was 975.4±1553.4
ETB per year.
Table 2: Household pond fish production and related information of respondents by FP,
2015/2016(n=61)
Variables Responses n(percentage) Mean(SD)
Types of fish
produced
Nile Tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus) 20(32.8) _
African Catfish(Clarias
Gariepinus)
0(0) _
Do not know 41(67.2) _
Preferred species of
fish fin the market
Nile Tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus) 20(32.8) _
African Catfish(Clarias
Gariepinus)
0(0) _
Do not know 41(67.2) _
Estimated annual
amount of fish
production
_ 23(37.7) 95.8kg ±43.2kg
Estimated annual
income from fish
production
_ 23(37.7) 975.4±1553.4
ETB

49. 34
5.1.3 Household food security status
The finding shows that one fourth of the study participants are from food secured
households whereas the rest are from the food insecure households. From the food insecure
households, 4.5% are mildly food insecure whereas 48.9% and 20.2% are moderate and
severely food insecure respectively. The finding implicates that 65.6% of respondents
from pond fish producers and 77.8% of the respondents from non pond fish producers are
from food insecure households. There was significant statistical difference between both
groups in terms of houses hold food security status(p<0.05).
Table 3: Prevalence of food insecurity status among FP and NFP, 2016
Variables FP(n=61) NFP(n=117) P-value
Household food security status 0.025
Food secured 21(34.4%) 26(22.2%)
Mildly food insecurity 3(4.9%) 5(4.3%)
Moderately food insecurity 30(49.2%) 57(48.7%)
Severely food insecurity 7(11.5%) 29(24.8%)

50. 35
5.1.4 Fish consumption, dietary diversity and related information of the respondents.
The major source of the fish for the consumer (68%) was their own production and the rest
(32%) was from the market. Significant difference(p<0.05) in fish consumption and its
frequency was noted between the groups. From the fish consumers, the majority (91.5%)
consumed occasionally (once a week, more than one time a month and more than two or
three times a year), while only 8.5% consumed frequently (two or more times a week).
The overall mean dietary diversity of the women was 4.57± 2.1 (FP 5.5(±2.16) vs. NFP
4.09(±1.98)). Significant difference (p<0.05) was noted between the groups. The majority
of the respondents (55.6%) had below the mean, while only 44.4% of the respondents had
greater than mean of the women dietary diversity score out of the nine food groups. The
majority (89.9%) of the study participant eat at least three times per day. Only 3.9% of the
respondents eat less than three times per day, while 6.2% eat greater than three times per
day across both groups. Overall only 26.4 %( FP 55.7% vs. NFP 11.1%) of the respondent
consumed a fish in the past one year.
Regarding source of drinking water, majority (84.3%) of the respondents’ source was
protected hole/spring, while only 12.3% and 3.4% of the respondents’ source were tap and
unprotected water in both groups of FP and NFP. More than one third of the respondents
(39.3%) had illness, while 60.7% had no illness in the past one year in both groups of FP
and NFP.

51. 36
Table 4: Fish consumption, dietary diversity and other information of FP and NFP
respondents, 2016
Variables Household fish
production
Total p-value
FP NFP
Frequency of meal per
day(n=178)
0.694
≤2 times per day 2(3.3%) 5(4.3%) 7(3.9%)
3 times per day 54(88.5%) 106(90.6%) 160(89.9%)
≥3 times per day 5(8.2%) 6(5.1%) 11(6.2%)
WDDS(n=178) 0.002
≤5 24(39.3%) 75(64.1%) 99(55.6%)
>5 37(60.6%) 42(35.9%) 79(44.4%)
Mean 5.5(±2.16) 4.09(±1.98) 4.57(± 2.1) <0.001*
Ever consumed fish in the past
one year(n=178)
<0.001
Yes 34(55.7%) 13(11.1%) 47(26.4%)
No 27(44.3%) 104(88.9%) 131(73.6%)
Frequency of fish consumption in
the past one year(n=178)
<0.001
Frequent eaters 3(4.9%) 1(0.85%) 4(2.2%)
Occasional 31(50.8%) 12(10.2%) 43(24.1%)
Never(Non-fish eaters) 27(44.3%) 104(88.9%) 131(73.5%)
Source of fish for
consumption(n=47)
<0.001
Own Production 32(68%) 0(0%) 32(68%)
Market 2(4.3%) 13(27.7%) 15(32%)
Source of drinking
water(n=178)
0.233
Tap water 7(11.5%) 15(12.8%) 22(12.3%)
Protected hole/Spring water 50(82%) 100(85.5%) 150(84.3%)
Unprotected hole water 4(6.5%) 2(1.7%) 6(3.4%)
Had illness in the past one
year(n=178)
0.520
Yes 22(36%) 48(41%) 70(39.3%)
No 39(64%) 69(59%) 108(60.7%)
*- The p-value is obtained from t-test

52. 37
5.1.5 Association of household pond fish production with fish consumption
frequency
With regards to fish production specifically, respondents from non-fish producing
households using ponds in their farm were less likely to consume fish frequently
(OR=0.044, p<0.001). The covariates, educational level of the women, fish production
and wealth index were significantly associated to fish consumption frequency of the
respondents. The likelihood of consuming frequently was more less likely for illiterate
(OR=0.20, p=0.021) and read/write (OR=0.136, p=0.004) compared with their
counterparts. Significant association of wealth index was evident with middle category
(OR=0.29, p=0.033) when compared with those in the rich category. Respondents in the
middle wealth index are 71% less likely to frequently consume a fish than in the richer
quintiles.
However, the effects of age of the women, religion, marital status, main occupation of the
women, and head of the household and family size were not significantly associated with
the frequency of the fish consumption.

53. 38
Table 5: Association of household pond fish production with fish consumption frequency
of respondents, 2016
Variables Odds Ratio Std.error p-value 95% CI
Age category
15-24 0.437 0.830 0.319 0.086-2.23
25-34 0.97 0.521 0.959 0.35-2.70
>34 1
Religion
Christians 1
Muslim 2.8 0.96 0.285 0.424-18.59
Educational status
Illiterate 0.20 0.698 .021 0.051-0.79*
Read and write 0.136 0.687 .004 0.035-0.52*
Formal education 1
Marital Status
Single 0.322 1.880 0.547 0.008-12.84
Married 0.445 0.960 0.399 0.068-2.92
Divorced/Widowed 1
Main Occupation
Housewife 0.898 0.499 0.830 0.338 2.39
Petty trade/agriculture/GO/NGOs 1
Head of household
Husband 0.335 0.725 0.131 0.081-1.39
Wife 1
Family size
≤5 1.146 0.486 0.780 0.442-2.97
>5 1
Wealth Index
Poor 0.325 0.661 0.089 0.089-1.12
Middle 0.293 0.576 0.033 0.095-0.91*
Rich 1
Producing Fish
No 0.044 0.544 0.000 0.015-0.13*
Yes 1
Credit access
No 3.946 .625 0.028 1.158-13.44*
Yes 1
Thresholds
Threshold (cut-off) 1 0.033 1.161 0.003 0.003-0.325*
Threshold (cut-off) 2 1.311 1.195 0.821 0.126-13.633
1=reference, *p-value significant at the level of 0.05

54. 39
5.1.6 Association of Household pond fish production with WDDS of the respondents
The mean (±SD) WDDS among fish producers 5.5(±2.16) was significantly higher than the
non-fish producers 4.09(±1.98) (P<0.001). The mean difference was 1.34 (95% CI: 0.76-
2.036). In the linear regression model adjusted for head of household, Educational status,
mother’s occupation, family size, Household wealth index, Credit access, Religion and
Age category of the women, the WDDS was significantly higher among fish producers
(Table 6). The adjusted mean difference in WDDS was 1.31 (95% CI: 0.686-1.934).
Table 6: Association of household pond fish production with the women dietary diversity
score of respondents, 2016
Simple linear regressions Multiple linear regression*
β coefficient t statistic P value β coefficient t statistic P value
1.398 4.325 <0.001 1.310 4.143 <0.001*
* adjusted for head of household, Educational status, mother’s occupation, family size,
Household wealth index, Credit access, Religion and Age category.

55. 40
5.1.7 Association of household pond fish production and nutritional status as
measured by BMI
Table 7 indicates the anthropometric measurements of the respondents. The overall mean
height, weight and BMI of the respondents were 156.0±6.1 cm (NFP 156.4 ± 6.23 vs. FP
155.3±5.8), 51.86±6.5 kg (NFP 52.1±6.1kg vs. FP 51.3±7.3 kg) and 21.26±2.1 kg/m2
(NFP
21.28±2.5 kg/m2
vs. FP 21.2±1.94 kg/m2
), respectively. No significant statistical
difference in mean height, weight and BMI was noted between the two groups of
reproductive women. The overall prevalence of underweight (BMI<18.5 kg/m2
) in both
groups was 15.7% (NFP 15.4% vs. FP 16.4%). Regarding overweight/obesity (≥25
kg/m2
), the overall prevalence was 4.5 % (NFP 9.8% vs. FP 1.7%). No significant
statistical difference in overall BMI classification between the group.
Table 7: Anthropometric measurements of the respondents, 2016
Variables Household pond fish production Total p-value
FP NFP
Height (n=178) 0.569
≤145cm 1(1.6%) 1(0.9%) 2(1.1%)
>145cm 60(98.4%) 116(99.1%) 176(98.9%)
Mean ±SD 155.3(±5.79cm) 156.4 (±6.23cm) 156.0±6.1cm 0.246*
Weight(n=178) 0.762
≤45kg 11(18%) 19(16.2%) 30(16.8%)
>45kg 50(82%) 98(83.8%) 148(83.2%)
Mean ±SD 51.3(±7.3kg) 52.1(±6.1kg) 51.9(±6.5kg) 0.42*
BMI(n=178) 0.302
<18.5 kg/m2
10(16.4%) 18(15.4%) 28(15.7%)
18.5-24.99 kg/m2
45(73.8%) 97(82.9%) 142(79.8%)
≥25 kg/m2
6(9.8%) 2(1.7%) 8(4.5%)
Mean ±SD 21.2(±1.94) 21.3(±2.5) 21.3±(2.1
kg/m2
)
0.913*
*- The p-value is obtained from t-test

56. 41
5.1.8 Proximate composition of Nile tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus), fish from the
study area
Table 8 indicates the proximate composition of Nile Tilapia. An independent samples t-
test was conducted to examine whether there was a significant difference(p<0.05) between
O. Niloticus fish fillet from pond of the study area and Lake Hawassa in relation to their
proximate composition. The test revealed a statistically significant difference in moisture
between pond and Lake Hawassa(t=3.45, df=14, p =0.004), fish from lake Hawassa was
better than from the Pond. The mean moisture of O. Niloticus fish fillet from Lake
Hawassa(µ=66.77, SD=4.71) was significantly lower than from the pond (µ=73.62,
SD=3.02). There was statistically significant mean difference in crude protein (t=-2.51,
df=9.5, p= 0.032) and fat (t=-6.88, df=14, p < .001). The mean crude protein and crude fat
of O. Niloticus fish fillet from Lake Hawassa (µ=18.87, SD=4.24; µ=3.98, SD=0.55) was
significantly higher than from the pond (µ=14.77, SD=1.82; µ=2.39, SD=0.34). There was
also statistical significant difference in ash contents of the fish fillet (t = -3.09, df=14, p=
0.009). The mean of total ash composition of O. Niloticus fish from the pond (µ= 1.51,
SD=0.23) was lower than from the Hawassa lake (µ=1.89, SD=0.26).
Table 8: Mean ± SD proximate nutrient composition of Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis
Niloticus, fish fillet in wet basis, 2016
Proximate
parameter
(%)
O. Niloticus fish fillet
from pond
O. Niloticus fish fillet
from Hawassa Lake
P-Value
Moisture 73.62±3.02 66.77±4.71 0.004*
Crude Protein 14.77±1.82 18.87±4.24 0.032*
Crude Fat 2.39±0.34 3.98±0.55 <0.001*
Ash 1.51±0.23 1.89±0.26 0.009*

57. 42
5.2. Qualitative findings
In-depth information and secondary data was used to support evidence from quantitative
data and to gather the community's belief and fish production desire, consumption
practices, barriers and other issues through focused group discussion. In addition, key
informant interview was conducted to explore national and regional plans and strategies
related to fish production activity, consumption and overall information about fishery in
the nation, the region and the study area.
5.2.1 Focused Group Discussion Results
A total of 24(12 in each group) from pond fish producing(FP) and none fish
producing(NFP) household participants were involved in two Focused Group Discussion
(FGD) sessions and summarized as follows.
5.2.1.1 Fish availability and sources
Farmers residing nearby Dila town obtain fresh fish from the household ponds and market.
For the Wensho Woreda, it's obtained from only from household ponds. Access to fresh
fish for the population is rare as there are limited ponds in the study area. There is no
access to fresh fish sold daily in local markets; however the cost is high when it is
available in the nearby city of Dila, limiting consumption to the middle or better off wealth
groups.
38 year FP woman said, ''...since we started producing fish, we had a chance to consume
the fresh fish from our pond. However, we harvest the fish twice a year and we
sometimes consume only during the harvesting time. We do not have access to material
to harvest the fresh fish from the pond for own consumption. During the harvest time,

58. 43
the fresh fish is available for one or two days since the harvested fish is sold. There is no
available fresh fish or canned fish in the local market.''
Another 40 years old NFP, woman added saying, '' …there is not available fresh or
canned fish in the market however, some of our neighbors started producing a fish at
least some of us had a chance to consume a fresh fish in a year but this is a rare''.
Fish availability determines the frequency of fish consumption in most of the women
assessed. With households able to access household pond fish more readily consuming fish
compared with their counterparts. Again since there are no fishing equipments readily
available, the producers could not avail the fish for own consumption rather the sell one or
two time on annual basis.
5.2.1.2 Contribution of household pond fish production for the women
The FGD discussants from fish producers were asked whether fish production using own pond
has contributed to their dietary diversity, fish consumption and other nutritional benefits. They
pointed out the following benefits for the women. The production has various benefits for the
women and the whole members of the households. Since they started producing they harvest
the fish twice a year. They gained additional income which increases their purchasing power
for other food groups for the households and women. Using the water from the ponds they
started to grow different vegetables which indirectly increase consumption of other food
groups.
40 years FGD discussant said as, ''…Since we started producing the fish our income has
increased compared with when we were not producing. It helped us to fulfill my household
need. In addition, I and other household member has been consuming the fresh fish. We
started to plant vegetables nearby the pond using water from it.''

59. 44
Another 45 years old woman told as, ''Previously, we have not been producing the fish in the
community. Since we started the fish we did get more benefits from it. My children are
consuming the fresh fish which is a vital for their health and optimal growth. Since there is
extra income from the fish production I can afford foods and other commodities from the
market.''
The FGDs were asked whether they consume fish for nutritional benefits and medicinal values.
Almost all discussants said that fish has different health benefits. Consuming fish makes the
body strong since it is a protein rich. In the fish fillet there is different vitamin and minerals
which in turn has a role to prevent illness. Fish is consumed as a raw fillet or making a soup by
adding onion, oil, salt and chili. The soup which is made from the fish has a medicinal value
according to the participants.
35 years old woman from FP said as, '' …the fish from our pond has benefited us. We are
feeding our children since it is a good source protein and make our children good cognitive
skill; we prepare a soup from the fish and we use to treat a person with a cough. Once the
person drunk a soup immediately relieves from the illness.''
Additionally 30 years old FP woman stressed as, '' Fish soup can be used treat the typhoid
fever, common cold and dry cough.''
5.2.1.3 Factors affecting fish consumption
Ethiopia is a land locked country depending only on inland water resources for the supply
of fish as a low cost protein source. The focus group discussants in both groups mentioned
different factors which might affect their fish consumption. The consumption of fish varies
across the across the groups and is influenced by different factors which are discussed
below:

60. 45
Availability and Seasonality: Fresh fish is obtained mainly from household pond and rare
in the market. The source from the pond lasts only for a few days after harvest as there are
no fishing materials for frequent harvest for consumption.
27 year from FP woman told as, ''…I could not always collect the fish from the fish pond
for different reason to consume a fish frequently. We (members of household)
sometimes harvest the fish when gill-net is available. Even the harvested fish will be sold
and availed for a few days. We don't have fridge''.
32 years old woman from the FP added as, '' …we do not have access of any types of fish
from elsewhere other than fish ponds. Since we started producing the fish using the
pond, I did eat the fish when it is harvested by gill-net''.
30 year NFP woman told as, ''...in the community there is no fresh fish in the market.
The consumption is rare for those who are not producing the fish using household
ponds''.
Special events: In Ethiopia, there is fasting events. During the fasting season people
avoids eating animal and animal products due to religious practice. Now a day's, fish is not
allowed to eat but it is controversy that people can consume the fish during the fasting time
in Ethiopian Orthodox Church. During the season, the producers prefer to sell rather than
home consumption.
35 years FP woman told as, ''During a fasting, since it is expensive, we prefer to avail for
the market rather than keeping the fish in the pond and own consumption''.

61. 46
5.2.1.4 Thoughts and need for fish production in the community
Towards the necessity of fish production in the community, almost all participants stressed
fish production has greater benefits for the livelihood of the community. The produced fish
has been harvested with the help of the woreda livestock and fishery office and Hawassa
agricultural research center. The producers harvest the fish using gill-net from the woreda
livestock and fishery office. The community has a need for the production the fish using a
pond as the need in the market is increasing.
40 years old woman from FP said the need of adding extra pond as, ''…We have seen the
benefits of producing a fish with only one pond. We have started to add extra pond so as to
increase our benefit from fishing. Even our neighbors are more interested to construct on
what they have.''
Another 30 years old woman from NFP told as, '' …our neighbors had benefited from the
production; we have seen a visible changes they planted various vegetables on their
backyards alongside the pond. We do not have a fish source from the market in the local
community; the producers, from my neighbor have shown us even the fish. I and my
husband had discussed to construct a pond alongside the Qonkoka river.''
5.2.2 Key informant interview results
Data for the key informant was obtained from the Regional and Woreda Livestock and
Fishery Office, Hawassa University and Hawassa Agricultural Research Center who are
taking part in the aquaculture activities in the study area. The obtained information is
summarized below.

62. 47
5.2.2.1 Historical Background and objectives of aquaculture in SNNPR
According to the aquaculture expert of Dara woreda, the aquaculture activities were
initiated in 2002 E.C with one model farmer in the woreda. During the first time the fish
pond was constructed on the model farmer with 10m2
on farm. 500 fingerlings of Nile
tilapia fish from Hawassa fish production site was stocked in the pond. According to the
regional fishery expert, different stakeholders like the south nation, nationalities and
people region, Hawassa Agricultural research center, Hawassa University have been
supporting the aquaculture activities in the study area. Currently, there are two established
a research and fish breeding site in the region. These sites are at nearby Lake Hawassa and
Lake Chamo at Arba-Minch. These sites have been providing a sustainable fish source for
continuous research and for fish farmers in the lowland and mid lowland areas of the
region. Currently, it is on the way to establish the breeding site at Arbegona woreda of
Sidama zone for sustainable sources for the farmers of highland areas of the region.
As stated by the regional senior fishery expert; the aquaculture activities were initiated
initially with the objectives of income generation for the households. Beside this, it was
aimed to reduce protein energy malnutrition of women and children.
''…the aquaculture activity in the region was initiated to increase the income of the
producers and reduce protein energy malnutrition in the local farmers.''
5.2.2.2 Opportunities and challenges for the community to produce a fish
The key informants are agreed as aquaculture activities are very essential for the
community's food and nutrition security through increasing the income and consumption of
the fish.

63. 48
According to the regional senior fishery expert, the region has the potential to produce fish.
''The region has a huge natural water bodies and manmade (aquaculture) for fish
production. The community's initiation for fish production in their own farm is
increasing. Again, the government has given a special attention for livestock and fishery
sector''. The expert has also added the most challenges, ''…however, the potentials of the
region, technology inputs like the feeds and awareness of fishery benefits for the
household food and nutrition security are the main challenge in current producing
Woreda's (i.e. Dara, Wensho and Dila Zuria) of the region.''
The Dara woreda aquaculture expert told as, ''The woreda has a potential of aquaculture.
However, still there are a deficit of handling materials for market and unavailability of
credit to the farmers for construction of ponds is the crucial challenges.''
5.2.2.3 Fish consumption and related factors in the study area
The key informants raised fish consumption factors in the study areas. Unavailability of the
fish in the market, Community awareness on fish consumption, Unavailability of fishing
materials is the main factors of fish consumption of the women.
Sustainable unavailability of fish and fish products in the market is the major problem of
fish consumption. Almost all key informants believe this is the major factor. The regional
senior fishery expert said as,''…however, increased demands of fish consumption, the
aquaculture activities are at infancy stage. There is no more produced and available fish
in the market. This has imposed a huge problem for the consumption.''
Community awareness about the fish benefit is very low. The producing farmers tend to
sell rather consuming at home. The Dara woreda aquaculture expert said as, ''The
community's awareness is currently very low with regards to fish consumption, cooking

64. 49
method and overall nutritional benefits.'' The fish expert from Wensho woreda said,
''Now, a number of farmers in the woreda started producing a fish. Nevertheless, the
community's awareness about the nutritional and overall benefit is still not sound.''
Farmers have started to produce a fish, nevertheless, materials for collecting a fish from the
pond is another major problem. All key informants agreed with this issue that there are no
available materials for fishing. The producing farmers harvest twice a year. They do not
avail for themselves at home.

65. 50
6. DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to determine the association and contribution of household pond
fish production with fish consumption frequency, women dietary diversity score,
nutritional status of women in reproductive age group. Secondly, it was to compare
proximate nutrient composition fish fillet both from the farmer's pond and wild from the
Hawassa Lake.
The study revealed that respondents from fish producing households were more likely to
consume fish frequently than none producing households. The present study is supported
by the study done in Kenyan at coastal households revealing fishing households consumed
more fish than non-fishing households (Darling, 2014). Similarly, study done in Malawi
showed frequency of fresh fish and dried fish consumption is higher in households with
fish ponds (Dey et al., 2006). Another study done by Zachary Stepan(2013) in Nepal also
found significantly greater percentage of mothers and children with fish ponds consumed
carp species and tilapia compared to mothers and children without fish ponds. This can be
explained that fish production using own pond does have a positive impact on women fish
consumption through availing fresh fish in the household.
However, the study done by Nora J.(2013) in Kenya which examines the potentials of fish
farming for the livelihood of farmers found contradicting finding with the current study.
After starting aquaculture, fish from the own ponds were rarely used for home
consumption in the study. A possible explanation for this disagreement could be that fish
produced in the present study was used for home consumption and as well as for the
market.