F.docx

PAN AFRICAN UNIVERSITY
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ON WAGES REMUNERATION
IN WOMEN FOOTBALL IN LIBERIA
MASTER OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN SPORTS MANAGEMENT
AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT
BY
MASSA PAASEWE JOHNSON
MATRIC NO: PAU-UI-0679
JANUARY, 2024
PAN AFRICAN UNIVERSITY LIFE AND EARTH SCIENCES
INSTITUE (INCLUDING HEALTH AND AGRICULTURE)

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INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ON
WAGES REMUNERATION IN WOMEN FOOTBALL IN LIBERIA
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO PAN AFRICAN UNIVERSITY LIFE AND EARTH
SCIENCE INSTITUE, UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, NIGERIA
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD
OF MASTER IN SPORT MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT
ADVISORS
PROF. OMO AREGBEYEN
DR. B. E. DUROWAIYE
PAN AFRICAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUE OF LIFE AND EARTH SCIENCES
(INCLUDING HEALTH AND AGRICULTURE-(PAULESI)
JANUARY 2024

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CERTIFICATION
We certify that this dissertation has been submitted with our approval as the
student’s supervisors. Therefore, we hereby recommend it for acceptance in the partial
fulfilment of requirement for the award of degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN SPORT
MANAGEMENT AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT at Pan African University Institute
of Live and Earth Science (PAULESI), University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
SUPERVISOR
15/01/2024
Prof. Omo Aregbeye ______________________ _____________________
Name of supervisor Signature Date
Dr. B. E. Durowaiye
Name of co-supervisor ________________ ____17/01/2024___
Signature Date
PROGRAM COORDINATOR
Prof. A. O. Fadoju.
______________________ _____________________ _____________________
Signature Date
DIRECTOR, PAULESI
_________________________ _________________________ _______________________
Signature Date

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STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
This dissertation is my original work. Having followed all ethical principles of the
scholarship in preparation, data collection, analysis and completion of this thesis. This
document is available from the PAU library to borrowers under the rules of the library
and has not been presented for any award in other university.
Signature Date
Matric number PAU-UI-0679

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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to the Almighty, whose divine guidance has illuminated my path throughout
this research journey. I am acknowledging His grace, wisdom, and unwavering support. May this
humble effort be a testament to the blessings received, and may it contribute positively to the world as
an expression of faith and dedication. In profound gratitude, I offer this work to the glory of God.
I also dedicate this work to my darling husband Mr. Henry Wuolewu Johnson who is the steadfast
anchor that partners my journey through life’s academic pursuits. His unwavering support, patience,
and encouragement have been the guiding light illuminating the path of my research. In moments of
doubt, he has been my rock, offering reassurance and belief in my abilities. His understanding of late
nights and early mornings spent with papers and experiments has been a testament to his unyielding
support. This work stands as a tribute to his love, unwavering in the face of my academic endeavors.
Thank you for being the constant source of inspiration and motivation in every chapter of my life.

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR
Massa Paasewe Johnson was born on the 11th
of November 1991 in Monrovia, Liberia to the union of
Mr. Mohammed L. Paasewe and Mrs. Matu K. Paasewe. In 2012, she obtained her secondary school
diploma in Monrovia, Liberia. The same year she enrolled in the Faculty of Business and Public
Administration of the University of Liberia in Monrovia. Four (4) years later, she obtained a Bachelor
of Science degree in Economics and a strong emphasis in Public Administration. She holds a certificate
and diploma in Internal Audit and Control from the Liberia Institue of Public Administration in Liberia.
Finally, in 2022 she was admitted to study Master in Sports Management and Policy Development at
Pan African University Life and Earth Sciences Institute University of Ibadan, Nigeria. This academic
foundation laid the groundwork for her subsequent achievements.
Currently, Massa Paasewe Johnson holds the position of Women Football Manager at Liberia Football
Association, where she continues to research, teach, and contribute to the advancement of Women’s
Football in Liberia. Beyond her professional endeavors, Massa Paasewe Johnson is passionate about
the empowerment of girls through sports and the breaking down of gender stereotypes in athletics also
captivates her interest and reflects her commitment to inspiring future generations by showcasing strong,
talented, and determined female athletes who serve as role models for young girls aspiring to play the
sport.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

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I owe God all my gratitude for giving me the grace and the enablement to begin and complete this
academic research.
My deepest gratitude to the African Union Commission for their invaluable support and sponsorship
provided toward my pursuit of a master's degree. Your generous assistance has not only made my
academic aspirations a reality but has also ignited a profound sense of gratitude and responsibility
within me. The impact of your sponsorship transcends the realm of education. It symbolizes the
unwavering commitment of the African Union to empower individuals, foster knowledge, and uplift
communities across our continent. Your belief in the potential of young minds like mine is a testament
to your dedication to progress and development in Africa. I would also like to express my deepest
gratitude to my supervisor’s PROF. OMO AREGBEYEN and DR. B. E. DUROWAIYE, for their
invaluable guidance, unwavering support, and insightful feedback throughout this research. Their
expertise in this research significantly contributed to the refinement of my methodology and the overall
quality of this study.
Furthermore, I and grateful to Professor O.A Adegbesan for developing this unique research topic.
Your dedication to fostering academic curiosity and your willingness to share your knowledge have
been invaluable to me. I am genuinely excited about delving deeper into this area of study and am eager
to explore its nuances under your mentorship. In addition, I am entirely grateful to the teaching staff of
the University of Ibadan for their invaluable support, guidance, and expertise throughout this research.
Their dedication to fostering academic excellence has been instrumental in shaping the ideas presented
in this study. I extend my heartfelt appreciation to our able head of department Professor A. O. Fadoju,
Dr. Atare, Dr. Bukola Ochei, Dr. O. Adisa, Dr. Christian Emeruwa, Dr. Tobi Nwulu, Dr. Toyin
Jaiyeoba, Prof. Dele Oladipo, Dr. Azam, Dr. Bolaji Ojooba, Dr. Okundare, Dr. Abina, Dr. Mong, Dr.
Charumbra, Dr. Lateef, Dr.Esther Oladejo, Dr. Tunde Adebayo, Dr. Makaza and Prof. Moronfolu for
their mentorship and insightful feedback."
Moreover, I am extending my heartfelt appreciation to the Ministry of Youth and Sports and the Liberia
Football Association(LFA) for providing the necessary resources and facilities essential for conducting
this research. Their continuous assistance has been instrumental in the successful completion of this
work.

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Special thanks go to my colleagues for their dedication and collaboration during our course work which
enriched the discussions and outcomes of this study. Their contributions were integral to the fruition of
this research endeavor.
Lastly, I express my heartfelt gratitude to my families for their unwavering encouragement, patience,
and understanding throughout this research journey. This research would not have been possible
without the collective support and encouragement of all those involved. Thank you

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TABLE OF CONTENT
DEDICATION .........................................................................................................................iv
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR .................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLE ................................................................................................................... viii
ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS .................................................................................xii
LIST OF TABLE ...................................................................................................................xiii
LIST OF FIGURE..................................................................................................................xiv
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study.................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem................................................................................................. 9
1.3 Objective of the study……………………………………………………………………….10
1.3.1 Specific Objective of the study…………………………………………………………….10
1.4 Research Question.......................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Hypotheses..................................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Delimitation of the Study............................................................................................... 11
1.7 Limitation of the Study................................................................................................... 11
1.8 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................... 11
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms.................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................... 13

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 13
2.1.1 Women’s Football…………………………………………………………………...13
2.2.1Women’s Footballer………………………………………………………………….14
2.2.2 Feminine Features…………………………………………………………………...15
2.2.3 Wages Remuneration ……………………………………………………………….16
2.2 Theoretical Review....................................................................................................... 19
2.2.1 Social factors and wages remuneration in women football..................................... 20
2.2.1.1Family structure……………………………………………………………20
2.2.1.2 School………………………………………………………………………..21
2.2.1.3 Media………………………………………………………………………...22
2.2.1.4 Environment…………………………………………………………………23
2.2.2 Economic factors and Wages Remuneration in Women Football …………………..23
2.2.2.1 Occupation …………………………………………………………………23
2.2.2.2 Income………………………………………………………………………25
2.2.2.3 Employment…………………………………………………………………25
2.2.3 Psychological factors on wages remuneration in women’s football…………………26
2.2.3.1 Motivation…………………………………………………………………...26
2.2.3.2 Attitudes……………………………………………………………………..26
2.2.3.3 Income……………………………………………………………………….26
2.2.3.4 Self Esteem…………………………………………………………………. 29
2.3 Empirical Review……………………………………………………………………. 30
2.3.1Empirical Survey on Social factors and wages remuneration in women’s Football…31
2.2.3 Empirical Survey on Economic factors and Wages Remuneration in women’s
football…………………………………………………………………………………..32
2.3.3Empirical Survey on Psychological factors and wages remuneration in women’s
football ……………….………………………………………………………………..33
2.4 Appraisal of the literature and Articulation of the Existing Gap………………………….34
2.5 Conception Framework .................................................................................................... 35

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CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................. 36
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................................................... 36
3.1 Research Design............................................................................................................. 37
3.2 Target Population........................................................................................................... 37
3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique .................................................................................. 34
3.4 Research Instrument....................................................................................................... 38
3.5 Validity and Reliability of.............................................................................................. 39
3.6 Field testing of the instrument ....................................................................................... 39
3.7 Ethical Consideration ..................................................................................................... 40
3.8 Procedure for Data Collection……………………………………………………………40
3.9 Procedure for Data Analysis .......................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................... 41
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ................................................................ 41
4.0 Preamble ............................................................................................................................ 41
4.1 Descriptive Analysis……………………………………………………………………41
4.1.1 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondent ...................................................... 41
4.1.2 Social Factor and Wages Remuneration in Women Football in Liberia………………43
4.1.3 Economic factors and wages Remuneration in Women football in Liberia……………45
4.1.4 Phychological factors and wages Remuneration in Women Football in Liberia……….48
4.2 Empirical Analysis……………………………………………………………………..51
4.2.1 Correlational Analysis………………………………………………………………...51
4.2.1.1 Social Factors and Wages Remuneration……………………………………………51

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4.2.1.2 Economic factors and Wages Remuneration………………………………………52
4.2.1.3 Psychological factors and Wages Remuneration……………………………………53
4.2.1.4 Sociodemographic factors and Wages Remuneration……………………………….53
4.2.2 Regression Analysis………………………………………………………………….55
CHAPTER FIVE..................................................................................................................... 57
5 Summary Conclusion and Recommendations..................................................................... 57
5.0 Preamble......................................................................................................................... 57
5.1 Summary........................................................................................................................ 57
5.2 Conclusions.................................................................................................................... 58
5.3 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 58
5.4 Limitation of the Study................................................................................................. 59
5.5 Suggestion for Further Studies....................................................................................... 59
References ............................................................................................................................... 60
APPENDICE ……..…………..………...…………………………………………………….64

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ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS
MYS Ministry of Youth and Sports
LFA Liberia Football Association
FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association
CAF Confederation of African Football (CAF)
LSWNT Liberia women’s senior national Team
WAFU West African Football Union
IAC Intercollegiate Athletics Coaches
SP Sporting Intelligence
SEF Socio-economic Factor
PF Psychological Factor
WR Wages Remuneration

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents………………………………...42
Table 4.2: Respondents Perceptions on Social Factors and Wages Remuneration in Women
Football in Liberia. ……………………………...……………………………...……………44
Table 4.3: Respondents Perceptions on Economic Factors and Wages Remuneration in Women
Football in Liberia……………….…………………...…………………………….................47
Table 4.4: Respondents Perceptions on Psychological Factors and Wages Remuneration in
Women Football in Liberia. …………………………………...……………………………...47
Table 4.5: Correlation Matrix Table of Social Factors (family structure, peer group, media,
school, and environment) influence on Wages Remuneration in women football in Liberia….51
Table 4.6: Correlation Matrix Table of Economic Factors (Occupation, income, Employment,)
influence on Wages Remuneration in Women’s football in Liberia. …………………….…….52
Table 4.7: Correlation Matrix Table of Psychological Factors (Attitude, Self Esteem,
Motivation, and Motives) influence on Wages Remuneration in Women’s football in
Liberia…………..…………..………...………..…………..………...………………………..53
Table 4.8: Correlation Matrix Table of Socio-demographic Factors (Age, Religion, Marital
status, Education, Year of experience and Level of play) influence on wages remuneration in
Women’s football in Liberia. ……..…………..………...…………………………….............54
Table 4.9: Model Summary and ANOVA on the Joints contributions of social factors, economic
factors, psychology factors and Socio-demographic factors on wages remuneration in Women’s
football in Liberia…………………………………………………………………...................55

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of sustainability variables as influence of wages
remuneration in women football in Liberia……….…………………………………………35

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ABSTRACT
Women’s football has become a global phenomenon attracting attention across nations. With the
rise in demand for gender equality, women's sports are gaining wide focus in academia. The state
of remuneration in women’s football has become a concern and while some nations are making
efforts in this direction, several nations, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, pay less attention to
this; hence, the discouragement in women's football. Extant studies have examined the impacts of
women's football from various dimensions, such as its impact on national development, gender
inclusion, health implications on female soccer players, and stereotypes of gender roles in sports,
among many other areas; however, little attention has been given to examining the socio-economic
and psychological factors on wages remuneration in women in football in Liberia. Therefore, this
study investigates the complex dynamics of wage remuneration in women's football in Liberia. It
focuses on the interconnected influences of socio-economic and psychological factors that affect
female football players. The research gains a comprehensive understanding of the challenges and
opportunities that female football players face in terms of remuneration. Additionally, it sheds
light on the broader context of gender disparity in sports. Women's football plays a crucial role in
promoting gender equality in sports. It challenges traditional gender stereotypes and helps break
down barriers, fostering a more inclusive and equitable society.
To investigate the influence of socio-economic factors, the study analyzes variables such as
educational attainment, household income, and employment opportunities within the broader
context of Liberian society, and the impact of psychological factors such as self-confidence,
motivation, and perceived discrimination on wage remuneration for women footballers. The social
factors under investigation include family structure, peer group, media, school, and environment.
In contrast, the economic factors analyze occupation, income, and employment, while the
psychological factors investigate attitude, self-esteem, motivation, and motivations of gender roles
in sports. The methodology of the study involves a qualitative data collection procedure. Survey
questionnaires were administered to female football players in Liberia to obtain accurate data, and
those records were analyzed using the SPSS tool. In-depth structured interviews were also
conducted with female football players to gather qualitative insights. The research adopts a
descriptive research design of correlational type and also employs a stratified random sampling
technique to select two partitions of female athletes actively participating in football in Liberia. A

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simple random sampling procedure (fishbowl without replacement) was used to select all (550)
literate and illiterate female athletes actively participating in football in Liberia. Analysis from the
study shows the relative contribution of independent variables on criterion variable wages
remuneration. Social factors (β = -0.084, t = -2.043, P= 0.042), psychological factors (β = -0.087,
t = -2.070, P= 0.039), and socio-demographic factors (β = - 0.168, t = -4.117, P= 0.000)
contributed significantly to wages remuneration in women’s football in Liberia. However,
Economic factors (β = -0.008, t = -0.183, P= 0.855) did not contribute significantly to wages
remuneration in women’s football in Liberia. In conclusion, the empirical analyses and findings
of this study revealed that social, psychological, and socio-demographic factors were significant
determinant factors of wage remuneration in women's football in Liberia. Therefore, this study
recommends the establishment of transparent wage structures in women's football, ensuring that
remuneration is based on merit, performance, and experience rather than on arbitrary factors. This
transparency, it is perceived, will foster trust and equity within the system.
Keywords: Remunerations, Women’s Football, Socio-economic, Psychological, socio-
demographic, Motivation

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CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Football being the most popular sports in most African countries has not left Liberia out. It is
the most well-known sport in Liberia usually played as a standard of eleven players per team
and sometimes locally comprising of six players per team. They are deployed on the pitch to
play while one serves as the goalkeeper to stop the ball from entering the net. Referees and
linesmen guide the game of football against infringements (Kryger and Wang 2020). Female
soccer teams as well compete with each team fielding eleven players on the pitch to play football
against each other to determine who wins or loses, at times a draw is also possible. Football is
frequently utilized as a means of expressing nationalism and of elevating individual nations'
strength and stature worldwide (Sugden and Tomlinson, 2017). In this regard, football might
have an even greater effect on a nation's economy. In the process of nation-building, in particular
among developing countries, the performance of a national sports team in international
competitions is able to bring together diverse tribes and races behind one national flag and it
also improve solidarity and eases policy implementation. In some cases, regions striving for
nationhood recognition, such as Palestine, have in the past used Fédération Internationale de
Football Association (FIFA) membership as part of these types of efforts. Representation in
international sporting organizations not only facilitates access to international funds but also
encourages international economic activities (Kannus, 1999).
Sixty-one years after the first men's football world cup, the first women's football world cup was
played in 1991. It was held every five years, although little is known about it, because according
to Alegi (2010) that the organizers' egregious delays make it harder for supporters and journalists
to cover the tournaments for women's football. The fact that the women's World Cup receives
less media attention than the men's World Cup indicates that women's football still has a long
way to go. According to Brady and Khan (2002), women’s football has struggled to gain
prominence with its male counterparts. In the 20th
century, women’s soccer was said to be

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popular but its growth experienced some stumbling blocks that paralyzed it. The first women’s
football took place in 1920 in the United Kingdom. That match was said to have attracted more
than 50,000 spectators. However, that women’s football victory was greeted with frustration
from various Football Associations who applied all measures to strangulate the growth of
women’s football. It was clear that the male-dominated football Associations were not
supportive of the growth of women’s football (Saavedra and Martha, 2010). It came about as a
direct result of “envy” due to the large crowds that the first female football match attracted. In
what could best be described as segregation, FIFA, the international football governing body,
imposed a ban on women’s football in December 1921. The ban effectively stopped women
from playing professionally on FA-affiliated grounds in Brazil, France, Norway, and West
Germany. The basic reasons for this action were that the game of football was “unsuitable for
females not to be encouraged and it was intended” to protect feminists in performing their
maternal roles” (Wuolewu, 2017). Also, it was indicated that women’s football threatened
attendance at football league matches involving their male counterparts. These measures
crippled the growth of women’s football but provided space for their male counterparts to
progress in the game of football.
Needed resources were provided to male football programs globally to prosper while women
soccer found itself struggling to access needed resources and services for decades. Additionally,
the dreams and aspirations of women football players abroad were effectively hampered.
Consequently, Women’s football was relegated to the level of being only for recreational
activity (Dauncey & Hare, 2019). However, forty-nine years later the ban on women’s football
was lifted in 1970. Although the ban on Women’s football was lifted, it was not until 2014 that
Women’s football actually commenced. Since then, more Women have participated in the game
of soccer globally. In 1991, the first FIFA Women’s World Cup was held in China followed
byWomen’s football at the Olympic Games in 1996.
The Confederation of African Football (CAF) sanctioned women's soccer on the African
continent under the name Women's African Cup of Nations, which was held every two years
but later changed its name to Women's African Cup of Nations on August 6, 2015, to match its
male counterparts (Cooper, 2016). Women's football receives little attention in Africa (Saavadra,

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2007). Given that they have both competed in the FIFA women's world cup and have
consistently competed in African women's championships, only Nigeria and South Africa look
to be in the lead. Both teams have participated in numerous World Cups for women's football,
although none have advanced past the quarterfinals (CAF, 2011). Alegi (2010) asserts that
despite the fact that South Africa and Nigeria are developing nations, Nigeria and South Africa's
stronger league systems play a significant role in their success.
South African female athletes were also victims of salary disparity compared to their male
counterparts. The female soccer team more popularly called the Banyana Banyana in local
parlance earns R4 000 for a draw and R5 700 for a win in a competitive match. That’s peanuts
compared to the R60 000 that the male team players called the Bafana Bafana get for a win and
R30 000 for a draw(Johnson, 2014). The Bafana Bafana players also draw salaries from their
clubs. A common strand running through the argument on the gender pay gap in sports is that
sponsors and viewers are more interested in men’s games. Historically, sponsors are tied with
men’s football. Most of the money goes to that and part is used to subsidies the women’s national
teams. Consciously seeking to extinguish the women’s game altogether, national football
associations cultivated a culture of ‘active oppression’, exclusion, denigration, and
marginalization. This hampered the women’s game to such an extent that the women’s game
still faces negative effects
Socioeconomic status is a strong determining factor in both satisfaction with life domains and
satisfaction of needs (Ali and Morcol, 2000) and it is an important factor that plays a vital role
in an individual’s performance in sports. The socioeconomic status makeup of an individual
plays an important role in their achievements in every field of life. Socio-economic status also
influences habitual physical activity (Drenowatz et al. 2010). Socio-economic status is an
individual’s or group’s position within a hierarchical social structure. Socio-economic status
depends on a combination of variables, including occupation, education, income, wealth, and
place of residence. Sociologists often use socio-economic status as a means of predicting
behavior (Hirsch, Kett, and Trefil, 2002). Index of socio–economic status comprises of
occupational status, area of residence, monthly income, type of housing, condition of house,
house ownership or rental status, level of living and formal social participation (Nair, 1978).

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Socio-economic status of an individual may influence his opportunity, his desire to excel, his
choice of activity and his success. The home environment often influences his motivation to
succeed in sports and the degree to which success in this endeavor leads to inner satisfaction.
Many psychological factors like socio-economic status, attitudes, motives, spectators, self-
concept, motivation, adjustment etc, influence the participation and performance of sportsmen
in games and sports. Socioeconomic-status and psychological factors plays a vital role amongst
football players in enhancing the performances to achieve the player’s goal (Chandrasekaran,
2010). Dissimilarity was observed between team and individual game players in their high,
middle and low socio-economic status. And lows core on low socio-economic status than their
counter parts (Srikanth, 2012).
In Liberia, the Liberia Football Association (LFA) was founded in 1936. It later became a FIFA
affiliate in 1962. The LFA oversees football activities in the country including women’s football.
Women’s football is represented on the committee by a specific constitutional mandate. In 2009,
LFA did not have a full-time staff to assist women’s soccer program although the women’s
soccer program was first organized in 1988. Yet still, Liberia has not qualified for any FIFA
Women’s World Cup, Olympic Games, African Women’s Cup of Nations, and African games
(Saavedra, 2007). Indeed, several factors can be attributed to this low performance of women’s
football compared to men’s football. Socio-economic factors have greatly influenced the game
of female football. Men’s football has benefitted from better incentives which have made men’s
football advance. It has also paved the way for more men’s football players to play professional
players abroad. Women’s pay and opportunities are lower in comparison to their male
counterparts. Funding is an issue for female football players. National football associations (FAs)
hardly provide support to women’s football. It’s only FIFA that provides funding, not national
FAs. Notably, the future success for women’s football depends largely on improved facilities
and access by women to these facilities (Saavadra, 2007).
Over the last 10 years, the Liberia Football Association (LFA) has made efforts to reconstitute
women's football in the country, encouraging sports pundits to register their clubs with the LFA
for local and continental tournaments. However, there are several challenges faced by female
clubs and players, including lack of institutionalization, limited resources, and societal barriers.

5
Female clubs are often run by individuals rather than being institutionalized, which makes it
difficult for them to receive consistent support and resources. Female clubs depend heavily on
the resources provided by the LFA, which can be insufficient to cover the costs of running the
clubs, such as training facilities, equipment, and player compensation. The economic situation
in Liberia has been deteriorating, affecting the ability of clubs to provide adequate resources and
support for their players. Societal beliefs and norms often discourage girls from participating in
sports, with many parents believing that football is primarily for boys. Girls often face barriers
to accessing sports facilities, equipment, and training opportunities due to societal and cultural
norms. Many women and girls in Liberia face practical barriers such as lack of time and
childcare, making it difficult for them to participate in sports.
Despite these challenges, there are signs of progress in women's soccer in Liberia. The LFA and
CAF are working to improve national leagues in the sub region, and more girls are engaging in
sports training and traveling abroad due to the skills and development they have gained over the
years. However, to further empower girls and women in soccer, it is crucial to address the
institutional, economic, and social barriers that continue to hinder their progress. This includes
providing more resources, support, and opportunities for female clubs and players, as well as
promoting gender equality and challenging societal norms that discourage girls' participation in
sports.
Liberia is noted for football by the mere facts that she is blessed to produce the world best,
African best, and European best in person of the current President, George Manneh Weah. But
yet then still, women’s football it is not up to standard. The Liberia women’s senior national
team played a matched against Cape verb in September 2023. The Liberia Football Association
called few Liberian players that are playing outside of Liberia to play in the match. The
appreance fees for these players was very low, due to that the players were unsatisfied. In the
early 1980s football teams grew rapidly in Liberia, thereby the youthful population in the young
men categories practiced football at every street corners which made the government of Liberia
to invest in the game. Their interest grew from the various competitions that were held in the
sub regions by Nigeria, Ghana and the Ivory coast just to name a few. Sports pundits organized
various club teams ranging from various categories. The under 12, 15, 17, 20 and elites (LFA,

6
2017). Various competitions were organized with the sole objectives of selecting skillful players
in order to have national teams in the various categories to enable Liberia participate in regional
competitions. The football house landed the employment of coaches to train players for the
respective categories. It took almost a decade to select the best young, talents and skillful players
for the categories mentioned. The national League was also birthed, thereby providing the
platforms in selecting skillful players from the fifteen counties for the club teams without
including the girls.
The newly formed clubs, began to participate in regional competitions and positive results
started coming from Liberia about some players who understood their roles on the field of play.
Thereby sending waves to the sub region that Liberia have natural talents of players who
understood the game at their levels despite the rough pitches they played on. Their good news
went far and wild, which led to international accredited sports investors and scouts came to
Liberia to recruit players for their clubs in Africa and Europe. Liberian players began to travel
to participate on various categories on club teams. Yet, the women were not allowed to
participate in the games of football and other sports. Reason being, women at the time were
regard as house wives, or home mates in taking care of children, due to the cultural values of
the country which varies from region to regions. In recent times, the world football Houses,
FIFA, CAF,WAFU as well as European countries carved resolutions for women participations
in various sports thereby allowing women to participate which would provide women many
healthcare benefits as they engaged in sports. Based on the resolutions, the football house of
Liberia (Liberia football association) set up a Committee comprised of women who had prior
knowledge and interest to organize female clubs for young women's participations in various
sports. The committee met and formulated a scouting until in finding and encouraging girls
participations whose works were done with flyers, radio talk show and going to the homes of
the girl’s parents who expressed their desires and willingness to participate convinced them
about their children's participations and healthcare benefits they will get when they play.
Against this backdrop, many parents allowed their children's participations in sports. As they
watched television, seeing girls playing, they encouraged their children to play. Girls began to
look for clubs to be selected as players. Few women, most especially sports lovers, encouraged

7
girls to form part of their clubs to play, with the aims of providing some enumeration on a short
terms basis, even though they never had cash on hand to fully support, because they could not
support the players single handedly without government giving them subsidies, in that they too
never had funding set aside to personally cared for their players. They continue to work tirelessly
with the football house for funding. In Liberia, many people had the notions that the girls would
not play to standards as others in Europe, Asia and other part of the world. Because, those clubs
had specialized training facilities and programs put in place by their sponsors for their players.
Unlike Liberia, women sports were very new in the country and that, the government was paying
more attention to the boys then the girls. But with the astute leadership of Mustapha I. Ragi, he
encouraged women participation as a mandate given him by world governing body to develop
women sports in Liberia. Based on his mandate, he solicited numerous financial assistance by
writing friendly federations and associations for technical and financial assistance in taking
women sports to another level. His requests to donors for support for materials in the forms of
training gears and transportation in taking the girls to other African countries to showcase the
girl’s talents, some fell on fertile soils. As it relates to the social and economic stimulus the girls
enjoyed socializing through sports, with other women who were also playing football from other
African countries, and elsewhere, even though they were not on wages or remunerations they
earn to sustain themselves while they played. They enjoyed playing and traveling to other
countries, despite the little honorarium provided them. Other girls who were still on the wait and
see ideological perceptions, when seeing their peers travelling, joined their friends to train with
the believe that they will also travel one of to these days. If they train very hard will be opportune
to begin earning wages or enumerations as they improve their skills and talents that meets
international accreditation to playing in bigger and well standardized competitions that will
provide them opportunities to enter collages to play and continue their education. Again, they
see themselves among their age groupings and they enjoyed networking, sharing their
experiences with friends on how they aspired of becoming professional players in the future and
also they would like for their friends to extend invitations to them whenever the needs arise for
them in forming part of their clubs in Europe and other part of the world.
One the other hand, they suffered psychologically, as they see girls from other clubs, earnings
wages and lots of benefits from other countries in Africa, America and in the world, gives some

8
feelings that there is much to be so done by the government of Liberia and the various clubs In
the country. Many of the girls are training very hard to be spotted by international scouts to play
top flight leagues in women clubs in Europe, America etc. In order to be counted as professional
players from their country Liberia girls are seeking opportunities out there Because Liberia is
not offering them the needed supports they need, as the results, they are entrenched
psychologically. On the basis of that they're trying to do their best to seek greener pastures
abroad.
Women's sports are really striving for better remuneration and wages in this male-dominated
society of athletes in Liberia. Female clubs are trying to better the livelihood if the support for
girls in the past and now, the LFA and CAF are doing their best to keep to the norms of gender
equity as they have thrown the mantle to club’s presidents to take a deep reflection on how to
improve the situation as it relates to wages for girls in sports. The supports for girls is not really
promising and female athletes have continued to struggle for better pay. It's observed, that most
clubs paid more attention on male soccer rather than females. The lack of support for female’s
clubs is troubling. The female athletes are striving to make their presence felt in a male
dominated society. This trend has created a discouraging mode for them despite their Passion to
play. The love for the game have kept them performing with the believe that one of these days
they will selected by international scouts to take them abroad to schools or universities to
showcase their God's given talents. Socially they're are doing all their best to stay on with their
respective clubs because some of their teammates have traveled and are now playing in America
and Europe. Despite the economic hardships, they keep pressing on that one of these days they're
going to be selected like their teammates. They're aware of the psychological influenced that the
non-supportive syndrome by their clubs on them will not last. They have realized that the future
holds great prosperity and prospects. They believed, that their talents in the game of female
soccer will one of these days record them. Club president in Liberia are going through financial
destitution on the basis of that they going out to solicit sponsorship and funding from reputable
organizations. One person cannot afford to pay honorarium with the mega resources they have
for the up keep of the entire members of the team.

9
Psychologically, there is a clear evidence that segregation in the game of football has adversely
affected women’s football. There is wide salary gap between male and female athletes generally
in Liberia. The salary currently stands at L$10,000 (US$50) and L$5,000 (US$25) for male and
female athletes, receptively. Women’s soccer matches in Liberia have less television and media
coverage than men’s soccer. Additionally, most females come from a poor background, and
advancing on the international scene for them they requires the needed support in the midst of
male dominance. Inequality and lack of access to basic facilities in football is another factor
which affect women’s football. Women’s football needs to overcome these barriers for female
football to grow in Liberia. Women struggle with wage inequality in sports as in many jobs.
Women often play football voluntarily or continue their profession in sports with meager wages.
Sporting Intelligence (2018) stated that even in countries where women's football is relatively
developed, among the elite players, women earn one percent of the total of their male
counterparts. Besides, the average first-team salary in the Premier League rose to £ 2.64 million
in 2017, while the equivalent, the average salary in the Women's Super League, was £ 26,752.
This situation itself is an explanation of women's wages in our country. Nevertheless, there is
also protest from American and Danish female football players against wage inequality. They
demand equal pay with their male counterparts at the same professional status and are supported
by their male counterparts. Danish and Norwegian male football players have expressed their
opinion that women players deserve equal payment and offered to pay back from their earnings
for equal pay (Wrack, 2017; Stump, 2016).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Women football players has obvious troubles facing its growth and development. Although
women's football had reportedly been popular in the 20th century, some roadblocks in its
development halted it. In Liberia, there are salary disparities between females and males that are
involved in football. There are many active females playing football for teams in the country
but they continue to struggle for education due to a lack of financial strength. Also, talented
female players whose dream of becoming professional footballers dies often due to lack of
support and attention. More so, there is no publicity been done on those players and
remuneration is very low to provide a livelihood for the improvement of “full-time” to the game.

10
Female players are lack of training materials like jerseys and football boots which their parents
are not willing to purchase for them to forward their dreams. Due to this unbearable socio-
economic situation, many female footballers sometimes end up in early marriage and teenage
pregnancy. When it comes to transfer fees players in Liberia it is discouraging; it is something
that can be describe as “far little than its seen in the real football market.” The average transfer
deal never passes L$10,000.00 (Ten Thousand Liberian Dollars) in which doesn't support the
welfare of a female player. There is a need for more attention to be given to women's football
to promote the game and also to serve as a point of attraction to get fans and sponsors involved.
It is imperative therefore to research these factors with the ultimate goal of proposing measures
that would lead to the improvement of women’s football. This study, therefore, looks at these
barriers that influence female football with the view of addressing them for improved
performance in Liberia.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to examine the influence of socio-economic and
psychological factors on wages remuneration in women football in order to improve women’s
football in Liberia.
1.3.1 Specific Objectives of the Study:
The specific objectives include to:
i. evaluate the influence of social factors (family structure, peer group, media, school
and environment) on wage remuneration in women football
ii. analyse how economic factors (Occupation, income, Employment,) have influenced
on wages remuneration in Women’s football
iii. investigate the effects of psychological factors (Attitude, Self Esteem, Motivation and
Motives) on wages remuneration in women’s football
1.4 Research Questions

11
The following research question were used to drive this study:
1. Do social factors influence on Wages Remuneration in women football in Liberia?
2. Does economic factors have influence on wages remuneration in Women’s football in
Liberia?
3. Do psychological factors have influence on wages remuneration in Women’s football in
Liberia?
1.5 Research hypothesis
The following research hypothesis were tested in the study at 0.05 level of significance
1. Social factors (family structure, peer group, media, school and environment) have no
significant influence on wages remuneration in women’s football in Liberia
2. Economic factors (Occupation, income, Employment,) have no significant
influence of wages remuneration in women’s football in Liberia
3. Psychological factors (Attitude, Self Esteem, Motivation, and Motives) have no
significant influence of wages remuneration in women’s football in Liberia
1.6 Delimitation of the study
This study was delimited in the following ways
1. Descriptive research design of correlational type
2. Liberia football Federation (LFA) registered female teams only.
3. Purposive and Total enumeration sampling procedures
4. Independent variable of socio-economics and psychological factors
5. Dependent variables of wages remuneration
6. Descriptive statistics of frequency, percentages, mean score, standard deviation and
charts will be used to analyze the demographic data while inferential statistics of Pearson
product moment correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis will be used to
test hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance.
7. Female Athletes that are fully involved with football in Liberia.

12
8. Five research assistants
1.7 Significance of the study
The goal of this research is to assess and also bridge a gap of knowledge of socio-economics
and psychological factors that influence wages Remuneration in Women’s football in order to
improve Women’s soccer in Liberia. The findings of this study will hence help to further
understand and encourage women’s football in Liberia as improving football for women is a
priority for the growth of women’s football in Liberia.
Currently, research has not been done on the influence of Socio-economics and psychological
factors on wages remuneration in women’s football in Liberia. Much research in Liberia only
focuses on other programmes due to the fact that the Universities in Liberia do not have any
programme on sports. Hence, it will serve as a foundation for other emerging researcher to build
on. This will in turn help the Liberia Football Federation know the influence of Socio-economics
and psychological factors has on wages remuneration in women’s football in Liberia.
The findings of this study will also aid the Liberia Football federation and other footballing
bodies in Liberia in determining where human and material resources should be directed in
creating awareness in order to improve women’s football, since the study will also play a key
role in providing the requisite knowledge to the future researchers, athletes, and athletics support
personnel, sports federations within Liberia and outside.
The study will also serve as a reference to educate female athletes on the important of football
and how it is useful as a unifying tool. This knowledge will enable female athletes to get more
involved in playing of football which will help put Liberia on the spot light. Furthermore, the
findings of the study can aid in the creation of sports policies and revisions to the legal
framework governing sports regulation.

13
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
Social Factor: is a strong determining factor that can affect family structure, peer group, media
school and environment.
Economic Factors: is a factor that can affect and influence an individual’s financial status. They
include education, employment status, and income.
Phycological Factors- is a factor that influence the participation and performance of sportsmen
in games and sports, such like attitudes, motives, spectators, self-concept, motivation,
adjustment, etc
Wages- a payment usually of money for labor or services usually according to contract and on
an hourly, daily, or piecework basis.
Remuneration - is the total compensation received by an employee. It includes not only base
salary but any bonuses, commission payments, overtime pay, or other financial benefits that an
employee receives from an employer. A job perk may or may not be a component of employee
remuneration.
Women Footballer- a structure that expects performance like a man but does not want feminine
features to be lost, and expressed the comments they received in terms of the changes in their
appearance.

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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Literature review is a systematic process that identifies, locates and analyses documents
containing information relevant to the topic of research. It involves the systematic identification,
location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem being
investigated (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). The reviews of literature related to this study were
discussed under the following Sub- headings.
Conceptual Review
2.1.1 Women football
Women's football has seen major competitions being launched at both the national and
international levels. Women's football has faced many struggles throughout its history. Women's
association football (Women's soccer) is the most prominent team sport played by women
around the globe. It is played at the professional level in numerous countries throughout the
world. Women have been playing association football since the first recorded women's game in
1895 in North London. It has traditionally been associated with charity games and physical
exercise, particularly in the United Kingdom. (Gregory, Patricia 2005). The growth in women's
football has seen major competitions being launched at both national and international level
mirroring the male competitions. Women's football faced many struggles throughout its fight
for right. It had a "golden age" in the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when crowds reached
50,000 at some matches. (Alexander, Shelley 2005). This was stopped on 5 December 1921
when England's Football Association voted to ban the game from grounds used by its member
clubs. The FA's ban was rescinded in December 1969 with UEFA voting to officially recognize
women's football in 1971. (Gregory, Patricia 2005). In the early eighteenth century, female
soccer games were played as an annual ritual between married and single women in Scotland.
Female soccer became increasingly popular during World War I when games were organized
by factory workers in England to raise money for charity (Williamson 1991). In 1920, for
example, a game was played with a crowd of 53,000 people in the stands (News ham 1997).

15
In 1921, however, the English Football Association first decided that permission was necessary
for clubs to organize female soccer games and later forbade females from playing soccer stating
that it was “quite unsuitable for females and should not be encouraged” (Williamson 1991).At
the beginning of the 21st century, women's football, like men's football, has become
professionalized and is growing in both popularity and participation. From the first known
professional team in 1984 to the hundreds of thousands of tickets sold for the 1999 Women's
World Cup, support of women's professional football (soccer) has increased around the globe.
In 2006, 448 female international games were played in 134 countries Moreover; several
countries have leagues with full-time professional players. For national teams, the FIFA
Women’s World Cup, the Olympic Games and the like are the most prestigious tournaments.
(FIFA 2007)
2.2.1 Women footballers
Female football players stated that playing ball was never seen as a professional fit for them,
that they struggled to exist in this field and tried to destroy the perception of football as being a
masculine job. Bryson (1987) and Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) define gender by stating
that there are different roles in societies and that these roles are assigned to the sexes differently.
One of these mentioned assignments is, of course, created with the perception that football is a
masculine game. In his study, Williams (2013) stated that despite the rise of football, women
have a minimal presence in this field, especially emphasizing that female coaches do not get
hired, and obtained results similar to our study with the emphasis on gender. English (1978)
supports female football players by stating that football, being a masculine sports branch,
contains a strong sense of masculinity and this situation causes the alienation of any gender and
behavior other than the masculine. Women, as they become the alienated gender, see themselves
as insignificant in football. This insignificance then shows the inequality between the two
genders.
A study conducted by Davis et al’s (2019) on female football players in the U.K. shows results
supporting our research concerning this gender inequality. In the research conducted, the idea
that female football players are physically disadvantaged against male football players, and the
opinion that it would harm the women if they compete together was discussed. While the

16
necessity of gender integration in football is addressed, it is stated that the repressive mindset of
the British Football Federation is far from equality and justice (Davis et al., 2019). Besides, the
research conducted by Simon et al. (2015) reveals that women struggle for equality mostly in
popular fields of sports where the physiological superiority of men is evident, and this supports
our study regarding football being one of the most popular sports. The study carried out by
Wangari et al. (2017) in Kenya revealing it finding that women are not provided with equal
opportunities with men, their access is minimal, and men are always prioritized. In the literature
review, many studies are revealing that many studies have been conducted to support women's
football and that the society and official institutions support women's football, female football
players, female referees, and coaches (Clarkson and Cox, 2019; Pfister and Pope, 2018; Lewis
et al., 2018; Blair and Hess, 2017; Pope, 2016; Dunn, 2016). However, women in our study
expressed that they could not feel this support either from society or their families.
They acknowledge the establishment of several professional leagues after the overcoming of the
historical obstacles keeping women from playing football. Nevertheless, the economic gap
between male and female football players persists. Many problems of women and the football
world are addressed both in academia and on the world media. Being an ongoing behavior in
male football, we observe the use of sexist language in female football as well. Starting with
this perspective, academically portraying this situation by identifying the experiences and
opinions of professional female football players on football fields will be sufficient in
demonstrating female footballers and social reactions, and in creating steps to be taken towards
solving the problems experienced.
Feminine Features
Female football players complain about a structure that expects performance like a man but does
not want feminine features to be lost, and expressed the comments they received in terms of the
changes in their appearance;
Gubby and Wellard (2016) state that women are forced to be attractive all the time and to abstain
from losing their femininity. Gubby and Wellard associate the fact that women are forced to
wear skirts and be well-groomed in Korfball with expectations of the audience, suggest that this

17
does not pertain to only one branch and the expectations are similar in almost every sports
branch, and thus support the concern about losing the feminine qualities as we have found in
our study.
2.2.3. Wage remuneration
Historically, males have dominated the world of sports, but in recent years, women's sports have
gained appeal, and with that success, they have developed into separate leagues that may be
commercialized. Women still don't receive the same financial rewards for participating in the
same sports in the same venues as their male colleagues, despite significant progress in women's
sports. The author of Purse Snatching, Donna Lopiano, notes that sexism may have a significant
impact on the disparity in earnings between female and male sports. An alternative explanation
for the pay difference between men and women in sports may emerge from an analysis of sports
economics.
Gender based differences in the compensation of intercollegiate athletics coaches falls under the
legal scope of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA) and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
but not under Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972. Although the passage of Title
IX has led to dramatic increases in participation opportunities for girls and women in athletics
those same positive strides have not reverberated in employment opportunities in the field
(Acosta and Carpenter, 2002). The topic of remuneration for athletics coaches and the
differences between male and female coaches in their levels of recompense has been a well
researched topic, with scholars utilizing a multitude of models from various disciplines to
examine the issue. In this study the compensation of male and female intercollegiate athletics
coaches will be examined using an economic concept, the human capital theory, within a legal
framework, provided by the EPA and Title VII. An examination of the literature yielded two
published studies that applied the human capital theory to the compensation of intercollegiate
athletics coaches. Brad R. Humphreys published his work which examined the earnings gap
between male and female NCAA Division I basketball coaches in the Journal of Sports
Economics in 2000. In 2002, George B. Cunningham and Michael Sagas published an article in
the Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport which examined the differential effects of human
capital for male and female basketball coaches at the NCAA Division I level. Both works

18
examined the pay disparity issue using the human capital theory and applied it to a similar
subject group, Division I men’s and women’s basketball coaches. Both studies identified a set
of measures which were used to define human capital and included: educational background,
playing experience, coaching experience and winning percentage. Humphreys’ study analyzed
the earnings of head coaches from 238 of the 279 Division I institutions that sponsored both
men’s and women’s basketball, and used data from the 1990-1991 Title IX compliance survey
of its member institutions conducted by the NCAA. The institutions not included in the study
were those institutions that had missing observations. The survey data obtained from the NCAA
was matched with institutional data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
(IPEDS). The career won-lost record, and years of head coaching experience data were obtained
from the 1991 NCAA Basketball records book. The earnings difference was then examined
within women’s basketball and also between men’s and women’s basketball coaches. In the first
instance, Humphreys found that within women’s basketball, female head coaches (n = 140)
earned 9% more than their male (n = 98) counterparts with a median ratio of female to male
base salary of 1.09. The author acknowledged this as unusual and used a human capital earnings
equation which suggested that differences in job performance and gender segregation by
establishment explained the gap. In the earnings equation the dependent variable was the annual
salary of the head coach and the independent variables were work experience and career winning
percentage as a measure of job performance.
Human capital theory predicts that the sign of the parameter on these variables is positive
because increases in experience and superior job performance should increase earnings, all other
things being equal. The earnings equation also controlled for institution specific variables which
included the revenues generated by the basketball program, location of the institution, control
(i.e. public or private), and membership in Division I-A. A regression analysis was performed
with the following observed results from the ordinary least squares estimates of the earnings
equation. Women’s basketball coaches who win more games tend to earn more, other things
equal. The experience variable is highly correlated with career winning percentage (correlation
coefficient approximately .6). The human capital variables had positive signs but were not
statistically significant. Larger institutions and institutions with major college football programs

19
(Division I-A) tend to pay their women’s basketball coaches more and the larger the revenues
generated by the women’s basketball program, the higher the salary paid to the head coach.
The effect of the institution specific measure of gender discrimination is positive and significant
with a p value less than .05. Humphreys conducted a second comparison in his study, on this
occasion the analysis was on the earnings differences between men’s and women’s basketball
coaches The parameter on female is positive although it is not statistically significant, which
means gender alone does not influence the salaries of head basketball coaches. The variable
women’s basketball, captures the effect of coaching women’s basketball on the earnings of head
coaches, and is statistically significant with a p value less than .05. This implies that women’s
basketball head coaches earn about half of what men’s basketball head coaches earn, even when
controlling for differences in human capital factors and revenue generation of programs. The
author advanced several explanations for the discrepancy, which include the prestige associated
with men’s basketball, discriminatory preferences held by athletic directors or consumers and
the greater ability of men’s basketball coaches to capture some or all of the salary expenditures
than women’s basketball coaches. The purpose of the Cunningham and Sagas study was to
examine the human capital, head coaching aspirations, and occupational turnover intentions of
male and female assistant coaches. The authors attempted to expand on research (Tharenou,
Latimer, & Conroy, 1994) that found human capital had stronger effects on men’s career
progression and perceived success than on women’s. The authors identified established research
(Knoppers, Meyer, Ewing, & Forrest, 1991) that found female coaches had lower career
satisfaction and higher turnover intentions than male coaches. The researchers proposed that the
reasons for this were because women were discriminated against in the hiring process (Inglis,
Danylchuk, & Pastore, 2000; Lovett, Lowry, & Lopiano, 1991).
The authors identified research (Becker, 1975) that suggested people invest in capital, in the
form of training, education and experience to improve their competencies and careers. The
authors acknowledged research (Cunnigham, Sagas, & Ashley, 2001) that suggested playing
experience might be the most salient human capital variable in coaches’ career outcomes.
Questionnaires were sent to a random sample of assistant coaches for 300 National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I institutions. Basketball coaches were chosen because

20
most institutions support both men’s and women’s basketball teams. Questionnaires were
directed at assistant coaches for both men’s and women’s teams because it is possible for men
to serve as coaches for both genders (Knoppers et al., 1991). Usable questionnaires were
returned from 239 coaches, a response rate of 39.83%. Of the respondents 62.8% were men (n=
152), and 37.2% were women (n= 90). The authors admitted the low response rate jeopardized
the external validity of the findings, but to counteract that fear the demographic content of the
study was compared to other studies using similar samples (Jiang & Klein, 1999-2000).
Frequency distributions were computed for the elements of human capital, chi-square analyses
were then carried out to determine differences between men and women on those items. Multiple
analyses of variance were also carried out to assess gender differences on specific variables that
were not statistically related. The results of the chi-square analyses indicated no significant
differences in the proportion of coaches with an undergraduate major pertaining to sport or
education (men= 37.5%, women= 41.1%), and a similar trend was noted for the proportion of
coaches with graduate majors in sport or education (men= 36.2%, women= 42.2%). On average,
women had more intercollegiate playing experience than men did and had longer careers than
men.
2. 2. Theoretical Review
Reviewed literature reveals that many factors influence the participation of women in sports and
particularly football (Achola & Njororai, 1999; Bailey, 1999, Brady et al., 2007). They include
physical, economical, psychological, and social advantages. (a) Physical According to the
UNICEF report of 2010, participation in sports is associated with improving one’s physical
being for both men and women of all ages. Bailey (1999) also explains that regular physical
activity improves quality of life, lowers risk of disease and offers numerous psychological and
social benefits while physical inactivity is linked to increased risk of death, disability and
reduced quality of life. In a health study by WHO in 1999, it was established that other than
good nutrition and non-smoking, physical activity is one of three primary factors that influence
individual and population risks of chronic, non-communicable disease worldwide, such as heart
disease, stroke, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes. The study also concluded that
obesity, often contributed by lack of physical activity is closely linked to cardiovascular disease

21
and is on the rise worldwide. Football is associated with vigorous physical activity that keeps
the body and the mind active and alert. Such activity offers strength and resistance exercises and
can also prevent and delay the onset of osteoporosis, a disease that disproportionately affects
women (80% of all cases) causing bones to become fragile and more likely to break (Kannus,
1999). Participation in sports helps women to be active, have healthier body and have a slimmer
figure which is the dream of every woman. The media and societies promote the slim figure and
this puts a lot of pressure on women to either maintain that smaller figure or to monitor their
weight. As indicated by Prakasa-Rao and Overman (1986), sport is a form of exercise that helps
women to maintain a slimmer figure and improve their self esteem and body image. This idea
keeps women on toes to engage in sports such as football in order to improve their health as well
as keeping a slimmer figure.
2.2.1. Social factors and wage remuneration in women footballer
2.2.1.1. Family Structure
Sport has been trivialised, regarded separate from life and as unrelated to the broader social
context and processes. Sport as a socialising agent has either been ignored or seen as a boy‟s
activity. The family prevails as a primary socialising agent and to a high extent it also defines
appropriate gender behaviour, which sometimes could include sport. Numerous studies have
indicated that other people who are usually seen as role models have influenced many
individuals who through that many become involved in sports. The family is said to be
generally responsible for early sports socialisation, and this includes modelling, reinforcement
and the shaping of the observed behaviour also argues that the socialising process at home for
both sexes 27 is different. Boys usually get more support and encouragement to get involved
in activities which offer sport opportunities. They are furthermore provided with role models
who even encourage and support them in the participation of physical activities. On the
contrary with the girl‟s sex those that are not encouraged to become involved in to physical
activities. Although this can be urged that girls receive greater encouragement for certain
sporting programmes which are seen to be more feminine. Girls are encouraged to participate
in gymnastics rather than baseball and athletics (Leonord, 1984).

22
A study conducted by Van Deventer (1998:21-102), on parent involvement indicated that
teachers‟ thought that parents were not interested in their children‟s sports involvement. Some
parents show interest on the children‟s sports participation by becoming involved. Parent‟s
involvement in sport activities of their children can be in different ways and these are coaching
them while others believe that coaching is the school and sports authorities‟ responsibility.
Parents can also support children in sports by providing them with transport of which an equal
number of parents do that. They organise lifts and other alternatives to see their children
participate in sports. It is obvious that home is the first socialising argent hence schools the
second. Teachers might think that parents have negligence in terms of showing interest in sport
for the benefits of their children yet parents are aware of the educational value and they always
try to motivate their girl children but they are not sure of the value and quality of the programme
their children are engaged. If parents are prepared to help in terms of transport and purchase of
sports equipment, this is a great sign of parent‟s interest in their children‟s welfare. This attitude
by parents would encourage and motives girls to perform to the best ability in sports. Motivation
always starts from home such that when a child is motivated by the parents, more interest comes
about than any other person. Children‟s control will greatly rely on external forms of
information and approval, which implies that extrinsic motivation, will enhance performance.
Learners who receive parental support will actually be motivated to perform better than those
learners who are not motivated by their parents. The interest in sports by children is usually
headed by parent‟s interest. People might think that competence implies performing better than
other people and this is termed an ego-involved orientation. In contrast, other people see
competence from personal point of view, which can lead to personal improvement and this is
referred to as task-orientation. Parents are the main socialising agents in the early years of both
28 boys and girls. As the individuals gets older significance of family support seem to decrease.
Peers, coaches and teachers become the main supporting agents (Higginson, 1985).
2.2.1.2. School

23
Generally, school is a place where social roles among peers and opposite sexes are fulfilled Most
of the decisions that teenagers make are important for their development and self actualisation.
This therefore might have a big impact on the lives of the children at a later stage. If the pressure
to participate in sport is not generated in them at home, then it should come from the coaches,
peers and particularly the teachers at school who happen to be the main driving forces within
the education sector. School therefore plays a vital role in moulding the lives of the developing
teenagers. On the other hand, it can be said that schooling is the fundamental importance in
perpetuating the belief that some sports are more masculine or feminine than others. For some
school, there is still a difference as to which gender participates in different sporting activities
and programmes. A lot of school do not have girls soccer, basketball and volleyball team as
these are labeled as boys sporting programmes. It is for this reason to why some school
curriculum must involve the physical education specialists so as the thoroughly check on
considerations should be noted. This means that the Physical Education syllabi arises from the
curriculum this calls for the involvement of the sports disciplines that are included in the subject
syllabus. By doing this, it is very possible that both genders in schools will probably benefits
from all sports disciplines at different levels as the school curriculum stands to command that
(Forojalla, 1993). Schools are institutions in which physical activity is organised in an
educational context. The Organisation therefore determines whether leaners will participate or
not. The link between sport and education plays a vital role in the comprehensive development
of the learner but in the school and home environment. There is an overall positive relationship
between sports involvement and academic achievement as measured by grade point average.
The department of Education in South African has made it compulsory for all schools to offer
extra-curricular activities and these include sports (Khumalo, 1999). Schools have been
organizing leagues in all programmes at all levels form district to national levels. The
involvement of pupils in sport leads to competence, not only in the physical world, but also
enhances life skills strategies vital for real life situations. In former model schools, it is
compulsory to play at least one sport and those who are competitive go for further training at
school or club level. The culture of sport is therefore generated in some schools and the
reputation of some schools depend on the success of some leaders as sports persons. It is
important for such schools to produce competent athletes in spite of all the efforts to nurture
participation in sports (Khumalo, 1999).

24
2.2.1.3. Media
Leonord, (1984: 6) discusses media being the coverage of sport worldwide and he says, “Sport
coverage by the mass media (television, radio, public cinema, newspapers, and magazines) has
become a mainstay of daily lives. On television alone, sporting events occupy about 15%
(1250hr in 1978 on national networks for an average of 24hr per week) of all telecasts”. The
media plays a role in preserving the stereotypes that are formulated by people in relation to
female involvement in sport. There has not been much to be displayed or said of female
participation in sports hence this indicates the preservation of gender biasness in sport through
media. The media portrays limited female participation in sports and this discourages the female
counterpart. There is an increasing awareness of young adult sports literature although very few
of them have female sports heroes as opposed to those with males‟ heroes. Literature showing
female heroes would be more appealing and such material is the best source of interest to
encourage young girls and make them realize that they have other better options in life through
sports. The literature can help to promote a high engagement of females in sports and this can
help to break the barrier and stereotype. By doing this, multiple opportunities will open for the
young girls, and also help them find their dream.
2.2.1.4 Environment
Climate change affects all aspects of modern life. During the recent FIFA Women’s World Cup
(WWC), a record-breaking heatwave rolled through Europe, requiring additional water-breaks
during some of the matches. The coinciding Africa Cup of Nations saw one player stretchered
off mid-game and another hospitalised for severe dehydration due to the even higher
temperatures in Egypt. In December 2018, the Fédération Internationale de Football Association
(FIFA) joined the UN Sports for Climate Action Framework, which provides support and
guidance to sports actors and organisations for climate protection. Before this, FIFA was the
first international sports organisation to join the Climate Neutral Now initiative, pledging to
become greenhouse gas emission neutral. No doubt the most challenging aspect of integrating
environmental sustainability into FIFA’s practices comes from the World Cups – mega events
attracting millions of spectators from all around the world. The 2018 FIFA Men’s World Cup

25
resulted in around 2.1 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions according to FIFA’s
reports. This is equivalent to the emissions from around 456,500 cars over one year.
2.2.2. Economic factors and wage remuneration in women football
2.2.2.1 Occupation
In this subsection, (Gross 1968, Jacobs 1989) consider empirical evidence on the extent and
dimensions of employment segregation by sex. The results in Section 2 indicate that, while the
share of the gender wage gap due to human capital (education and experience) has declined
noticeably, the share accounted for by locational factors like occupation and industry actually
increased from 27% of the 1980 gap to 49% of the much smaller 2010 gap. Moreover, although
occupational upgrading by women contributed to the narrowing of the gap over this period,
much of this effect was offset by adverse (to women) movements in return to occupations. The
firm dimension, not accessible in data sets like the PSID and CPS that were used above, has also
been shown to be important. Finally, gender differences in representation across the hierarchies
within occupations, as particularly emphasized in discussions of the glass ceiling, constitute
another dimension of employment differences that is also generally not captured by these data
sets, at least directly. Indirectly, some light on this may be shed by quantile regression analyses
focusing at the top, as illustrated by our estimates in Section 2. Of these dimensions of
employment differences, occupational differences between men and women have received the
most attention. Gender differences in occupations have been and continue to be striking,
although they have declined significantly since 1970. In terms of general outlines, in 1970,
women were considerably more concentrated than men in administrative support and service
occupations, and a bit more highly represented in professional jobs overall, and particularly in
predominantly female professions like teaching and nursing. Men were considerably more likely
to be in managerial jobs and much more concentrated than women in blue collar occupations,
including relatively high-paying craft and skilled positions. They were also considerably more
likely than women to be in predominantly male professions like law, medicine, and engineering.
Since 1970, women have reduced (but not eliminated) their over-representation in
administrative support and service jobs and made significant inroads into management and male
professions. There has been little change in gender differences in representation in blue collar

26
occupations. Further, occupational dissimilarity was reduced by men’s loss of production jobs
and increased representation in service occupations. The Census provides information on some
500+ detailed occupational classifications.
The Duncan and Duncan (1955) segregation index provides a useful summary measure, giving
the percentage of females (or males) who would have to change jobs for the occupational
distribution of women and men to be the same, with a value of 0 indicating no segregation and
a value of 100 indicating complete segregation. Early work suggested little change in the
extent of occupational segregation prior to 1970 (Gross 1968, Jacobs 1989). Starting in 1970,
there was considerable progress in reducing the extent of occupational segregation (Beller
1982, Bianchi and Rytina 1986).
2.2.2.2 Income
The Women's Super League, English football's top domestic competition, has a reputation for
being one of the world's most competitive divisions and features an abundance of talent
from Chelsea's Sam Kerr to Arsenal's Vivianne Miedema.
Nonetheless, salaries in the league can be as low as £20,000 per year in some instances. The
average WSL yearly salary is said to be £30,000. Combined with a lack of opportunities, the
low starting wage has led to some players being reportedly "priced out" of playing professional
football. Players' salaries are also supplemented by earnings from national teams with a number
of countries now paying their men's and women's teams the same amount. Brazil, Australia and
Norway are just some of the countries who have joined England in paying both sides the same.
England players are thought to earn around £2000 a match with many players from both squads
donating their match fees to charity.
In the USA, there is a strict salary cap in place. The WSL technically has one as well but it is
relatively soft, set at 40% of turnover. In the NWSL, however, players must be paid a minimum
of $22,000 but the maximum salary is $52,500. Their income can be supplemented with
healthcare, housing and transport allowances. Confusingly, teams can also top up player salaries
from a pot of allocation money, worth $400,000, or have their players be paid by the US

27
Women's National Team. The NWSL salary cap has often been criticised for being confusing
and leading to large inequalities in player salaries within teams.
2.2.2.3 Employment
In an article of Culvin (2021), he examines how the transition to professional football is
experienced by women footballers. Beyond the case of women and women’s football, this article
contributes to the literature of the precarity of work in high-profile occupations, intersected by
gender relations. As a relatively new occupation, women’s football emerges as a good place to
tell the story of social processes for women at work. Having outlined the processes of
professionalisation and the precarious features of this new occupation, the sections of analysis
highlight the unknown and unreported aspects of professional women’s football. Although there
has been some recognition of women working as professional sportswomen, the assumption
exists that professionalisation processes have been unequivocally beneficial to women (Taylor
& Garratt, 2010). This article goes some way to contest this perception in three significant ways.
First, arguing for a contextualised approach to professionalisation processes; second, to consider
how gendered precarity shapes the experiences of women as professional footballers and finally
a more nuanced understanding of the impact of professionalisation.
However, previous studies have overlooked that women have a little history as professional
women footballers in the male-dominated industry of football, meaning masculine ways of
working are accepted and normalised. In short, the voices of women athletes articulating their
experiences of professionalism and related employment are largely missing from the extant
literature.
2.2.3. Psychological factors and wage remuneration in women football
2.2.3.1 Motivation
Learners and adolescents have a variety of reasons to why they appreciate in an organised sport.
This can be in having fun which happens to be the most important motivating sports participation.
The most frequent form of motivation would be intrinsic, or internally based, rather than external.
The overall motivation of the youths in physical activity settings is their attribution to success

28
and failure as sport achievers. Their attributes are important because they can affect their
emotions as these are the expectations for their future and the reasons for them to be motivated.
Learners who have been actively involved in competitive sport develop more external attributes
for success than external attributes for both failure and success in sport. Girls who participate in
sports most frequently report fun as their major motive, with physical, health and social factors
frequently mentioned. This indicates that girls have multiple motives for participating in sports
and for them to get full enjoyment from the activity; hence there must be room for these varied
opportunities. Girls are motivated differently from boys. It is for this reason that when sport
programmes are drawn up, this factor has to be taken into consideration (Munsaka, 2013). 2.5.6
Emotional well-bein
2.2.3.2 Attitudes
As our decompositions of the gender pay gap showed, there is a persistent unexplained pay gap;
moreover, gender differences in occupations and industries also contribute importantly to the
gender pay gap. While discrimination could explain such results, a recent series of papers . (Blua
and Kahn 2016) based on survey evidence attempts to test whether gender differences in
personality traits, or noncognitive skills, could provide an alternative explanation for both types
of outcomes. Men are found to place a higher value on money, to have higher self-esteem, to be
less risk averse, more competitive, self-confident and disagreeable, and to believe that they
control their own fate (an internal, as opposed to external, locus of control) to a greater extent
than women.
Psychological attributes such as selfconfidence may contribute to a worker’s productivity and
thus act like human capital variables in a wage regression (Mueller and Plug 2006). Alternatively,
a trait such as placing a high value on money may signal a willingness to accept a difficult
working environment in return for higher pay (Fortin 2008). In this latter case, psychological
factors stand in for compensating wage differentials. Under either interpretation (human capital
or compensating differentials), in equilibrium, we expect such traits to be related to wages, and,
if men and women differ in psychological attributes, then they will contribute to explaining the
gender pay gap. Some of the studies of the impact of psychological factors on the gender pay
gap use information on respondents’ answers to attitudinal questions to construct indexes of

29
psychological traits, which then become explanatory variables in wage regressions. One can
then assess the quantitative importance of such controls in explaining the level or change in the
gender pay gap. In addition, one study measured respondents’ tastes for competition at a time
before labor market entry and then estimated the effect of gender differences in these tastes on
the gender pay gap observed after they entered the labor market (Reuben, Sapienza and Zingales
2015). Researchers in this area have had to confront several difficult empirical issues in
implementing their tests.
First, if the psychological factors are measured at the same time wages are measured, then one
cannot rule out the possibility of reverse causality. For this reason, some authors use data in
which psychological attributes were measured before labor market outcomes (e.g. Fortin 2008,
Reuben, Sapienza and Zingales 2015, and Cattan 2014), reducing the possibility of reverse
causality. In other cases, authors appeal to psychological research suggesting that basic
personality traits do not change much over the life cycle (Mueller and Plug 2006); if so, then
labor market developments would not affect personality traits. We would point out, however,
that anticipated discrimination can affect one’s attitudes even if they are measured before one
enters the labor market.
Second, combining a battery of questions into a usable index presents measurement issues that
have been the subject of much psychometric research; attention is paid in the economics
literature to the reliability of such measures (Mueller and Plug 2006; Cattan 2014; Nyhus and
Pons 2011). Third, as suggested above, psychological traits can affect wages directly,
controlling for measured factors such as human capital, industry and occupation, as well as
indirectly through their influence on schooling, experience, and occupation and industry (e.g.,
risk takers are likely to be more attracted to the financial sector). Some of the economic research
in this area attempts to separate the direct and indirect effects of psychological factors. This is
usually done in one of two ways. One may estimate reduced form wage regressions, excluding
the intermediate factors and including the psychological factors; one can then compare the
impact of psychological factors controlling and not controlling for covariates that they are
believed to affect. Alternatively, one can estimate a structural model where the intermediate
factors (schooling, occupation, etc.) and wages are endogenous variables (Cattan 2014).

30
A fourth issue in estimating the impact of psychological factors on wages concerns the possible
heterogeneity of effects. For example, self-confidence may be rewarded differently among
executives than clerical workers (Cattan 2014). Importantly from our point of view is, as
mentioned earlier, that the labor market may reward the same trait differently for men than for
women (Manning and Swafford 2008). For example, ambitiousness may be seen as a positive
trait for men but a negative one for women. This discussion raises the issue of how one should
assess gender differences in psychological factors. Some studies run a pooled regression to
estimate the wage effects of psychological factors, while others present estimates based on male
and then female coefficients.
As noted, several studies examined both the direct and indirect effects of psychological traits on
the gender pay gap (Nyhus and Pons 2011; Cattan 2014; Fortin 2008; Mueller and Plug 2006;
Semykina and Linz 2007). With the exception of Mueller and Plug’s (2006) study of the 1957
high school senior class in Wisconsin as of 1992, these papers found that the indirect effects of
psychological factors were small—most of the modest effects we see in Table 7 occur
controlling for covariates such as schooling, industry and occupation. In Mueller and Plug’s
(2006) case, adding psychological factors alone explained 16% of the gender pay gap; however,
when the authors controlled for human capital, region, marital status and number of children,
psychological factors accounted for 10% of the raw pay gap. And when the authors further
controlled for industry and occupation, these traits explained only 7% of the gender pay gap.
The issue we raised earlier, of gender differences in returns to psychological attributes is
highlighted by Mueller and Plug’s (2006) study of the reward to the “big five” personality traits–
openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.63
One of the most consistent gender differences in personality traits has been found for
agreeableness, with women being found to be more agreeable than men (Bertrand 2011).
Agreeableness refers to being more trusting, straightforward, altruistic (warm), compliant,
modest, and sympathetic. Perhaps not surprisingly given labor market realities, Mueller and
Plug (2006) find, in a regression context, that men earned a premium for being disagreeable.
However, this attribute was not found to be related to women’s wages. Thus, the gender
difference in agreeableness contributed to the gender earnings gap both because men were

31
considerably more disagreeable than women, but also because only men were rewarded for this
trait
2.2.3.4 Self-esteem
Abdul Haq (2000) considered one of the major dimensions of a broader and more
comprehensive concept which is self-concept, where self-esteem composes an important aspect
and is closely related to. Self-concept refers to the image formed by the individual
himself/herself, and his/her assessment of that self. Thus, self-concept is the foundation stone
for building up the personality because of its specific importance for understanding the
individual's dynamics and his psychological compatibility. It also makes individuals different
from each other and makes them rare in their perception of the world around them (James,
2006).). Self-concept which is acquired through social bringing-up and maturing is an individual
self attribute that distinguishes one person from the other. Expression of the self-concept term
is conducted through the social outcomes and the social power (Onur, 2000). According to
Sayyar (2003), the term of self-concept is affected by values and lifestyles of society and family,
whereas self-esteem is a tendency by the individual to improve selfconcept, and it can develop
through interaction and self-esteem, self-respect and confidence, and self-assessment.
According to Silverston and salsali (2003), the most important part of mental health is self-
esteem because low self-esteem causes psychological disorders. High self-esteem is considered
a positive attribute since it usually describes people who feel selfsatisfied and use effective
techniques. On the other hand, low self-esteem is usually considered a negative attribute because
it describes people who don't feel self-satisfied and use ineffective techniques (Yigiter, 2013;
Betul, 2014). So far, it is clear that the individual's behavior, personality and psychological
structure are directly connected to his growth stages and what comes after (Andrew, 1998). Thus,
the individual's interest in his body and capacity starts at an early age, in relation to gender.
Hence, males start being interested in revealing their strength and muscles, whereas females
show interest in their attraction and femininity. Therefore, many studies have moved like the
study of (Al-Ansari, 2002; Sophia and Duncan, 2009). towards the society orientations of these
concerns. It has been revealed that girls prefer the perfect "thin" body, but they can't have self-
esteem in regard to body and physical aspects. Consequently, they would be unable to identify

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