Electric hybrid vehicle Seminar Report

A
SEMINAR
ON
“Electric Hybrid Vehicle”
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGEE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SUPERVISED BY: SUBMITTED BY:
Prof. ASAD ZAI Lakshminarayan
Roll No. – 13EVEEE026
Enrl. No.-13E1VEEEM3XP02
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VYAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, JODHPUR
RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA
2017

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the student Mr. Lakshminarayan of final year, have
successfully completed the seminar presentation on “Hybrid Electric Vehicles”
towards the partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelors of Technology (B.
TECH) in the Electrical Engineering of the Rajasthan Technical University
during academic year 2017 under my supervision.
The work presented in this seminar has not been submitted elsewhere for award
of any other diploma or degree.
Prof. Asad Zai
Supervisor
Professor
Deptt. of Electrical Engineering
VIET, Jodhpur.
Counter Signed by:
Prof. Manish Bhati
Head Deptt. of Electrical Engg.
VIET, Jodhpur.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I thank the God Almighty for His grace and mercy that enabled me in the
finalization of this seminar. Secondly I would also like to thank my Parents and Sister
who helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.
Every seminar big or small is successfully largely due to effort of a number of wonderful
people who have always given their valuable advice or lent a helping hand. I sincerely
appreciate the inspiration, support and guidance of all those people who have been
instrumental in making this seminar a successful.
I wish to express of gratitude to my guile to Prof. Asad Zai, Electrical Engineering
Department to give me guidance at every moment during my entire thesis and giving
valuable suggestion. He gives me unfailing inspiration and whole hearted co-operation
in caring out my seminar work. His continuous encouragement at each work and effort
to the push work are grateful acknowledged.
I am also grateful to Prof. Manish Bhati, Head of the Department, Electrical
Engineering for giving me the support and encouragement that was necessary for the
completion of this seminar.
Lakshminarayan

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ABSTRACT
Have you pulled your car up to the gas/petrol pump lately and been shocked by the high
price of gasoline? As the pump clicked past Rs1400 or 1500, maybe you thought about
trading in that SUV for something that gets better mileage. Or maybe you are worried
that your car is contributing to the greenhouse effect. Or maybe you just want to have
the coolest car on the block. Currently, there is a solution for all this problems, it's the
hybrid electric vehicle.
The vehicle is lighter and roomier than a purely electric vehicle, because there is less
need to carry as many heavy batteries. The internal combustion engine in hybrid-electric
is much smaller and lighter and more efficient than the engine in a conventional vehicle.
In fact, most automobile manufacturers have announced plans to manufacture their own
hybrid versions. Hybrid electric vehicles are all around us. Most of the locomotives we
see pulling trains are diesel-electric hybrids. Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric
buses -- these can draw electric power from overhead wires or run on diesel when they
are away from the wires. Giant mining trucks are often diesel-electric hybrids.
Submarines are also hybrid vehicles -- some are nuclear-electric and some are diesel-
electric. Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power that can directly or
indirectly provide propulsion power is a hybrid.

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TABLE OF CONTANTS
CERTIFICATE ........................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTANTS ........................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................... vi
1 Introduction....................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ............................ 1
2 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicle.................................. 3
2.1 History of Hybrid Electric Vehicle..................................... 3
3 Types by Degree of Hybridization.................................... 6
3.1 Full Hybrid........................................................................... 6
3.2 Mild Hybrid .......................................................................... 7
4 Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ...................................... 8
4.1 Series Type HEV ................................................................ 8
4.2 Parallel Type HEV............................................................... 10
4.3 Series-Parallel Type HEV.................................................... 13
5 Parts of Hybrid Electric Vehicle ..................................... 14
5.1 Engine ................................................................................. 14
5.1.1 Gasoline Engine.................................................................. 14
5.1.2 Diesel Engine...................................................................... 14
5.1.3 Hydrogen Engine ................................................................ 15
5.2 Battery.................................................................................. 16

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5.2.1 Batteries Packaging............................................................. 17
5.2.2 Basic Characteristics........................................................... 19
5.3 Electric Motor...................................................................... 21
5.3.1 Motor Components ............................................................. 21
5.3.2 Components: Electric Motor – Dc...................................... 22
5.3.3 Components: Electric Motor – Ac...................................... 23
5.4 Controller............................................................................. 23
5.5 Generator ............................................................................. 24
5.6 Power Split Device .............................................................. 24
6 Features of Hybrid Electric Vehicle................................. 25
6.1 Idle Stop............................................................................... 25
6.2 Regenerative Braking ......................................................... 25
6.3 Power Assist ....................................................................... 26
6.4 Engine-Off Drive Electric Vehicle Mode........................... 26
6.5 Plug-In Hybrids (PHEV) ..................................................... 26
7 Environmental Issues Concerned with HEV .................. 27
7.1 Environmental Issues........................................................... 27
8 Features of Hybrid Electric Vehicle................................. 31
8.1 Starting and Low Speed Process.......................................... 31
8.1.1 Starting................................................................................ 31
8.1.2 Low Speed Process ............................................................. 31
8.2 Cruising............................................................................... 32
8.3 Passing ................................................................................ 32
8.4 Braking................................................................................ 33
9 Predecessors of Current Technology in HEV ................. 35

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9.1 Current Technology............................................................. 35
10 Advantages and Disadvantages of HEV .......................... 38
10.1 Advantages........................................................................... 38
10.2 Disadvantages ...................................................................... 39
11 Modern Hybrids Production ............................................. 40
11.1 Modern Hybrids Production ................................................ 40
Future Works .................................................................... 43
Conclusions......................................................................... 45

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LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 The first gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle .............................. 3
3.1 Full hybrid Vehicle-Toyota Prius (2nd generation)............... 6
4.1 Series type HEV..................................................................... 9
4.1 Series type HEV Block Diagram .......................................... 9
4.3 Power flow in series type HEV ............................................. 10
4.4 Parallel type HEV .................................................................. 11
4.5 Parallel type HEV Block Diagram ....................................... 12
4.6 Power flow in parallel type HEV........................................... 12
4.7 Series- parallel type HEV ..................................................... 13
5.1 Cost per mile EV v/s Gasoline Engine .................................. 16
5.2 Cylindrical type battery packaging........................................ 17
5.3 Prismatic type battery packaging........................................... 17
5.4 Button type battery packaging ............................................... 18
5.5 Pouch type battery packaging................................................ 18
5.6 Cycle life................................................................................ 20
5.7 Energy Densities.................................................................... 20
5.8 Motor Parts ............................................................................ 22
5.9 Components: Electric Motor – DC........................................ 23
5.10 Components: Electric Motor – AC........................................ 23
5.11 Parts of HEV.......................................................................... 24
8.1 Starting and low speed process of HEV ................................ 31

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8.2 Cruising process of HEV....................................................... 32
8.3 Passing process of HEV......................................................... 33
8.3 Braking process of HEV........................................................ 34
11.1 1997 Toyota Prius (first generation)...................................... 42
11.2 2000 Honda Insight (first generation).................................... 42

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Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
A hybrid vehicle, abbreviated HEV, is one that uses both an internal combustion
engine (ICE) and an electric motor to propel the vehicle. Most hybrids use a high-
voltage battery pack and a combination electric motor and generator to help or assist
a gasoline engine. [1]
The ICE used in a hybrid vehicle can be either gasoline or diesel, although only
gasoline-powered engines are currently used in hybrid vehicles. An electric motor
is used to help propel the vehicle, and in some designs, capable of propelling the
vehicle alone without having to start the internal combustion engine.
The presence of the electric power train is intended to achieve either better fuel
economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance. There are a variety of
HEV types, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most
common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks
(pickups and tractors) and buses also exist. Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-
improving technologies such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's
kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than wasting it as
heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal
combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this
combination is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to
directly power the electric drive motors. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by
shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-
stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a

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comparably-sized gasoline car, since an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller
than a comparably-sized pure gasoline-burning vehicle (natural gas and propane
fuels produce lower emissions) and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared
to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy. [1]

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Chapter-2
HISTORY OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
2.1 HISTORY OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
In 1900 Ferdinand Porsche developed the Lohner-Porsche Mixte Hybrid, the first
gasoline-electric hybrid automobile in the world, a 4WD series-hybrid version of
"System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage previously appeared in 1900 Paris World
Fair. The Mixte included a pair of generators driven by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines
to extend operating range and it could travel nearly 65 km on battery alone. It was
presented in the Paris Auto Show in 1901. The Mixte broke several Austrian speed
records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The
Mixte used a gasoline engine powering a generator, which in turn powered electric
hub motors, with a small battery pack for reliability. It had a top speed of 50 km/h
and a power of 5.22 kW during 20 minutes. George Fischer sold hybrid buses to
England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902. [2]
Fig. 2.1 The first gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle
In 1905, Henri Pieper of Germany/Belgium introduced a hybrid vehicle with an
electric motor/generator, batteries, and a small gasoline engine. It used the electric

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motor to charge its batteries at cruise speed and used both motors to accelerate or
climb a hill. The Pieper factory was taken over by Imperia, after Pieper died. The
1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-
cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (24 km/h) the electric motor
alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed
the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (56 km/h) top speed. About
600 were made up to 1918. The Woods hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to
be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service. The United States Army's 1928
Experimental Motorized Force tested a gasoline-electric bus in a truck convoy. In
1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower
electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum
speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport
Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German
Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car went
downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of
compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations of
the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxy-hydrogen gas. An account of the car
and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koestler's
autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a
contemporaneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond
the prototype was reported. The hybrid-electric vehicle did not become widely
available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the
Honda Insight in 1999.While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost
of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers
to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the
automotive market of the future. More than 5.8 million hybrid electric vehicles have
been sold worldwide by the end of October 2012, led by Toyota Motor Company
(TMC) with more than 4.6 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold by October 2012,
followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1
million hybrids by September 2012, and Ford Motor Corporation with more than

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200 thousand hybrids sold in the United States by June 2012. Worldwide sales of
hybrid vehicles produced by TMC reached 1 million units in May 2007; 2 million
in August 2009; and passed the 4 million mark in April 2012.As of October 2012,
worldwide hybrid sales are led by the Toyota Prius lift back, with cumulative sales
of 2.8 million units, and available in almost 80 countries and regions. The United
States is the world's largest hybrid market with more than 2.5 million hybrid
automobiles and SUVs sold through October 2012, followed by Japan with more
than 2 million hybrids sold through October 2012 The Prius is the top selling hybrid
car in the U.S. market, surpassing the 1 million milestone in April 2011. Cumulative
sales of the Prius in Japan reached the 1 million mark in August 2011. [2]

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Chapter-3
TYPES BY DEGREE OF HYBRIDIZATION
3.1 FULL HYBRID
Full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just
the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both. It uses a gasoline engine as
the primary source of power, and an electric motor provides additional power when
needed. In addition, full hybrids can use the electric motor as the source of
population for low-speed, low acceleration driving, such as stop-and-go traffic or
for backing up.Ford's hybrid system, Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive and General
Motors/Chrysler's Two-Mode Hybrid technologies are full hybrid systems The
Toyota Prius, Ford Escape Hybrid, and Ford Fusion Hybrid are examples of full
hybrids, as these cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-
capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a
split power path allowing greater flexibility in the drive-strain by inter-converting
mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity. [3]
Fig. 3.1 Full hybrid Vehicle-Toyota Prius (2nd generation)

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3.2 MILD HYBRID
Mild hybrid, sometimes also called a stop-start hybrid is a vehicle that cannot be
driven solely on its electric motor, because the electric motor does not have enough
power to propel the vehicle on its own. Stop-start technology conserves energy by
shutting off the gasoline engine when the vehicle is at rest, such as at a traffic light,
and automatically re-starting it when the driver pushes the gas pedal to go forward.
Mild hybrids only include some of the features found in hybrid technology, and
usually achieve limited fuel consumption savings, up to 15 percent in urban driving
and 8 to 10 percent overall cycle A mild hybrid is essentially a conventional vehicle
with oversize starter motor, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is
coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. The motor is often
mounted between the engine and transmission, taking the place of the torque
converter, and is used to supply additional propulsion energy when accelerating.
Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the gasoline engine is off,
and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to
recapture energy. As compared to full hybrids, mild hybrids have smaller batteries
and a smaller, weaker motor/generator, which allows manufacturers to reduce cost
and weight. Honda's early hybrids including the first generation Insight used this
design, leveraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines;
their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Starting with the 2006 Civic
Hybrid, the IMA system now can propel the vehicle solely on electric power during
medium speed cruising. Another example is the 2005-2007 Chevrolet Silverado
Hybrid, a full-size pickup truck. Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on
the Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand
and using regenerative braking. General Motors has also used its mild BAS Hybrid
technology in other models such as the Saturn Vue Green Line, the Saturn Aura
Green line and the Mailbu Hybrid. [3]

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Chapter-4
TYPES OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
4.1 SERIES TYPE HEV
In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drive-strain, and the ICE works
as a generator to power the electric motor or to recharge the batteries. The battery
pack can be recharged through regenerative braking or by the ICE. Series hybrids
usually have a smaller combustion engine but a larger battery pack as compared to
parallel hybrids, which makes them more expensive than parallels. This
configuration makes series hybrids more efficient in city driving. The Chevrolet
Volt is a series plug-in hybrid, although GM prefers to describe the Volt as an
electric vehicle equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered ICE as a
generator and therefore dubbed an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle" or EREV.
Means In a series driveline, only an electric motor is connected to drive the wheels.
In it gasoline motor turns a generator, generator may either charge the batteries or
power an electric motor that drives the transmission and at low speeds is powered
only by the electric motor. In a series-hybrid design, the engine turns a generator,
which can charge batteries or power [4]
an electric motor that drives the transmission. The internal combustion engine never
powers the vehicle directly.

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Fig. 4.1 Series type HEV
Fig. 4.2 Series type HEV
This diagram shows the components included in a typical series hybrid design. The
solid-line arrow indicates the transmission of torque to the drive wheels. The dotted-
line arrows indicate the transmission of electrical current. [4]

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Fig. 4.3 Power flow in series type HEV
4.2 PARALLEL TYPE HEV
In parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the
mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels,
usually through a conventional transmission. Honda's Integrated Motor Assist
(IMA) system as found in the Insight, Civic, Accord, as well as the GM Belted
Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) system found in the Chevrolet Malibu hybrids are
examples of production parallel hybrids. Current, commercialized parallel hybrids
use a single, small (<20 kW) electric motor and small battery pack as the electric
motor is not designed to be the sole source of motive power from launch. Parallel
hybrids are also capable of regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine
can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel hybrids are more

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efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during urban stop-and-go
conditions and at times during highway operation where the electric motor is
permitted to contribute. Means in a parallel system, both the gasoline and the electric
motor are connected to the drive wheels. Gasoline motor, batteries which powers an
electric motor, both can power the transmission at the same time and electric motor
supplements the gasoline engine. In a parallel-hybrid design, multiple propulsion
sources can be combined, or one energy source alone can drive the vehicle. The
battery and engine are both connected to the transmission. The vehicle can be
powered by internal combustion alone, by electric motor alone, (full hybrids), or a
combination. In most cases, the electric motor is used to assist the internal
combustion engine.
Fig. 4.4 Parallel type HEV

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Fig. 4.5 Parallel type HEV
Diagram showing the components involved in a typical parallel-hybrid vehicle. The
solid-line arrows indicate the transmission of torque to the drive wheels, and the
dotted-line arrows indicate the flow of electrical current.
Fig. 4.6 Power flow in parallel type HEV

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4.3 SERIES-PARALLEL TYPE HEV
Series-Parallel type also called Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a
combination of series and parallel characteristics. As a result, they are more efficient
overall, because series hybrids tend to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel
tend to be more efficient at high speeds; however, the cost of power-split the hybrid
is higher than a pure parallel. Examples of power-split (referred to by some as
"series-parallel") hybrid power-strains include current models of Ford, General
Motors, Lexus, Nissan, and Toyota. Means a series-parallel hybrid design allows
the vehicle to operate in electric motor mode only or in combination with the internal
combustion engine. In it characteristics of both series and parallel type hybrid
electric vehicle are used, it’s cost is more than both single type HEV’s. [4]
Fig. 4.7 Series- parallel type HEV

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Chapter-5
PARTS OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
5.1 ENGINE
It’s much same as other vehicles engine, but the size of hybrid electric vehicle engine
is small and it’s more fuel efficient.
 Higher energy density than batteries,
1,000 pounds of batteries = 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gas.
It has three types. [5]
5.1.1 Gasoline engine
Gasoline engines are used in most hybrid electric designs, and will likely remain
dominant for the foreseeable future. While petroleum-derived gasoline is the
primary fuel, it is possible to mix in varying levels of ethanol created from renewable
energy sources. Like most modern ICE powered vehicles, HEVs can typically use
up to about 15% bio-ethanol. Manufacturers may move to flexible fuel engines,
which would increase allowable ratios, but no plans are in place at present.
5.1.2 Diesel engine
Diesel-electric HEVs use a diesel engine for power generation. Diesels have
advantages when delivering constant power for long periods of time, suffering less
wear while operating at higher efficiency. The diesel engine's high torque, combined
with hybrid technology, may offer substantially improved mileage. Most diesel
vehicles can use 100% pure bio-fuels (biodiesel), so they can use but do not need
petroleum at all for fuel (although mixes of bio-fuel and petroleum are more
common). If diesel-electric HEVs were in use, this benefit would likely also apply.
Diesel-electric hybrid drive-strains have begun to appear in commercial vehicles

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(particularly buses); as of 2007, no light duty diesel-electric hybrid passenger cars
are currently available, although prototypes exist.
5.1.3 Hydrogen engine
Hydrogen can be used in cars in two ways: a source of combustible heat, or a source
of electrons for an electric motor. The burning of hydrogen is not being developed
in practical terms; it is the hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicle (HFEV) which is
garnering all the attention. Hydrogen fuel cells create electricity fed into an electric
motor to drives the wheels. Hydrogen is not burned, but it is consumed. This means
molecular hydrogen, H2, is combined with oxygen to form water. 2H2(4e-) + O2 --
> 2H2O(4e-). The molecular hydrogen and oxygen's mutual affinity drives the fuel
cell to separate the electrons from the hydrogen, to use them to power the electric
motor, and to return them to the ionized water molecules that were formed when the
electron-depleted hydrogen combined with the oxygen in the fuel cell. Recalling that
a hydrogen atom is nothing more than a proton and an electron; in essence, the motor
is driven by the proton's atomic attraction to the oxygen nucleus, and the electron's
attraction to the ionized water molecule. [5]
An HFEV is an all-electric car featuring an open-source battery in the form of a
hydrogen tank and the atmosphere. HFEVs may also comprise closed-cell batteries
for the purpose of power storage from regenerative braking, but this does not change
the source of the motivation. It implies the HFEV is an electric car with two types
of batteries. Since HFEVs are purely electric, and do not contain any type of heat
engine, they are not hybrids. [5]

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Fig. 5.1 Cost per mile EV v/s Gasoline Engine
5.2 BATTERY
It stores the energy generated from gasoline engine or during regenerative braking,
from the electric motor. It’s power the vehicle at low speed, it’s size is larger and
holds much more energy than non-hybrid electric vehicle. [5]
 Batteries rule the performance of the vehicle
 They dictate how much power you get (kW)
 They dictate how much energy you get (kWh)
 A single cell dictates the battery voltage each cell mates two dissimilar
materials
Table 5.1 Battery types

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5.2.1 Batteries packaging
1. Cylindrical
Fig. 5.2 Cylindrical type battery packaging
2. Prismatic
Fig. 5.3 Prismatic type battery packaging

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3. Button
Fig. 5.4 Button type battery packaging
4. Pouch
Fig. 5.5 Pouch type battery packaging

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5.2.2 Basic Characteristics
 State of Charge (SOC)
 Measured as a percentage of total battery energy (0-100%)
 Typically, should not go below 20%
 Depth of Discharge (DoD)
 Inverse of SOC
 Power (kW)
 Energy (kWh)
 A-h
 Typically used for power batteries
 Cells often described in mA-h
 C Rate
 A normalized rate of power use to qualify testing
 100% discharge divided by the time in hours
 C2 means the discharge rate was 100% in ½ hour
 C/2 means the rate was less aggressive – over 2 hours
 Cycle Life
 Always measured based on DoD
 Ex. 1000 cycles at 80% DoD

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Fig. 5.6 Cycle life
 Weight/Volume
 Measures in terms of W/kg and W-h/kg
 W/l and W-h/l
Fig. 5.7 Energy Densities

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5.3 ELECTRIC MOTOR
It’s power the vehicle at low speed and assist the gasoline engine when additional
power is needed, it’s also convert otherwise wasted energy from braking into
electricity and store it in battery. Most of the electric machines used in hybrid
vehicles are brushless DC motors (BLDC). Specifically, they are of a type called an
interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine (or motor). These machines are wound
similarly to the induction motors found in a typical home, but (for high efficiency)
use very strong rare earth magnets in the rotor. These magnets contain neodymium,
iron and boron, and are therefore called Neodymium magnets. The magnet material
is expensive, and its cost is one of the limiting factors in the use of these machines.
5.3.1 Motor components
 Rotating components
[1] Shaft
[2] Rotor
[3] Rotor fins
[4] Fan
 Housing components
[5] End bells / bearing housings
[6] Stator housing
[7] Cooling fins
[8] Junction box
[9] Fan shroud
 Fixed components
[10] Seals

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[11] Stator windings
[12] Core iron / lamination stack
[13] Bearings
Fig. 5.8 Motor Parts
5.3.2 Components: Electric Motor – DC

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Fig. 5.9 Components: Electric Motor – DC
5.3.3 Components: Electric Motor – AC
Fig. 5.10 Components: Electric Motor – AC
5.4 CONTROLLER
The controller is used to charge the battery or to supply the power to electric motor.
 Converts Battery DC to a chopped DC power
 Can chop in amplitude (DC) or frequency (AC)
 Power is based on low voltage input signal 4-20 mA or 0-5V

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 In other fields this is called a drive or inverter
 Variable Frequency (AC)
 Pulse Width Modulation (AC)
 Buck Conversion (Reduce - DC)
 Boost Conversion (Increase - DC)
5.5 GENERATOR
It converts mechanical energy from engine into electrical energy, which can be used
by electric motor stored in the battery. It’s also used to start the gasoline engine
instantly. [5]
5.6 POWER SPLIT DEVICE
It’s a gearbox connecting the gasoline engine, electric motor and generator. It allows
the engine and motor to power the car independently or in tandem and allows the
gasoline engine to charge the batteries or provide power to the wheels as needed
Fig. 5.11 Parts of HEV

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Chapter-6
FEATURES OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
6.1 IDLE STOP
Idle stop turns off engine when the vehicle is stopped. When the brake is released,
the engine immediately starts. This ensures the vehicle is not using fuel, not creating
CO2 emissions, when the engine is not required to propel the vehicle. At this time
battery supply the power to all accessories of vehicle like AC, DVD Player etc. [6]
6.2 REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Regenerative braking converts otherwise wastage energy from braking into
electricity and store it in the battery. In regenerative braking the electric motor is
reversed so that, instead of using electricity to turns the wheels, the rotating wheels
turns the motor and create electricity. Using energy from the wheels to turn the
motor slows the vehicle down. When decelerating, the braking system captures
energy and stores it in the battery or other device for later use, helping to keep
batteries charged.
In motor case “𝑬 𝒃 = V - 𝑰 𝒂 𝑹 𝒂 “ Generally 𝐸 𝑏 < V
Here, 𝐸𝑏 = Back emf of motor
V = Terminal voltage/Load side voltage
𝐼 𝑎 = Armature current and
Ra = Armature resistance
But in regenerative braking system 𝐸𝑏 > V, means the load supplies the power to
motor.

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6.3 POWER ASSIST
The electric motor provides extra power using current drawn from the battery to
assist ICE during acceleration. This power-assist mode enables the vehicle to use a
smaller, more fuel-efficient engine without giving up performance. [6]
6.4 ENGINE-OFF DRIVE ELECTRIC VEHICLE MODE
In this mode the electric motor propels the vehicle at lower speeds. The ICE is not
being used during low acceleration, no fuel is being used and no emissions are being
released. When the hybrid is in this mode, it is essentially in an electric vehicle.
6.5 PLUG-IN HYBRIDS (PHEV)
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), also known as a plug-in hybrid, is a hybrid
electric vehicle with rechargeable batteries that can be restored to full charge by
connecting a plug to an external electric power source. A PHEV shares the
characteristics of both a conventional hybrid electric vehicle, having an electric
motor and an internal combustion engine; and of an all-electric vehicle, also having
a plug to connect to the electrical grid. PHEVs have a much larger all-electric range
as compared to conventional gasoline-electric hybrids, and also eliminate the "range
anxiety" associated with all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works
as a backup when the batteries are depleted.
Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEV) present a cleaner alternative to traditional vehicles,
as they use less oil and have lower emissions. PHEVs also use less oil than standard
hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), and at first glance seem to have lower emissions
than HEVs. PHEV with a range of 40 miles would have approximately half the
emissions of a HEV if it were powered by a carbon-free energy source, but would
have higher emissions if 50% of its electric power was generated by coal. [6]
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid able to run in all-electric mode up to 35 miles.

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Chapter-7
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES CONCERNED
WITH HEV
7.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Since the dawn of the modern era, consumption and distribution of energy has
quickly become mankind’s highest priority. However, the continued apathetic
attitude that was initially taken toward energy and its side effects can no longer be
used. A new more environmentally friendly source of energy has to be utilized in
order to fulfil our own needs otherwise we self-destruction while relying on non-
renewable oil based methods. In the last few decades two new technologies have
emerged; the development and implementation of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
and more recently the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs). These emerging
technologies may make it possible for the United States to adapt these technologies
on a larger scale to reduce harmful emissions and cut our dependence on foreign oil
dramatically. However, the future of the technologies will heavily depend on the
everyday American consumer’s willingness to forgo the ‘tried and true’ combustion
engine for the infantile technologies of the HEV and PHEV. With the introduction
and continued popularity of HEVs and as well as the recent hype over the PHEVs,
the future of transportation in the United States is on the brink of change. This
project has objectives relevant to the aforementioned HEVs and PHEVs. First,
verify if independence of foreign oil is truly a possibility and how to accomplish this
feat. Second, identify the major motivators for the American consumers who
purchase these vehicles and how that can be used to increase the sales of HEVs and
PHEVs respectively. The third and last objective is to determine the future impact
of the all-electric vehicle (EV). Earlier civilizations relied on a number of power

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sources such as water to turn wheels, to run mills, fire to heat water and create steam,
or windmills to turn grinding stones. Since roughly the 17th century various forms
of oil have been used, such as kerosene, as fuel for lanterns. Even into the 18th, 19th,
and early 20th centuries whales were hunted for their blubber which could be
converted into oil among other things. In the more recent years with the invention
of the combustion engine, which has not only increased the shear amount of oil
consumed annually but also drastically augmented our dependence upon it in our
daily lives. Our oil ‘addiction’ has lead us to the realization that our usage has its
limits, not only does the environment suffer adverse effects because of its use but
our society is so dependent upon that if it were suddenly removed, most of modern
society would cease to function properly if it all. Without a reasonable alternative
this fate is all too possible and this has caused huge concerns over how, on a large
scale, we can change our consumption habits and create a cleaner energy for our
use. Hybrid cars have come a long way in the past 20 years, but most people are
unaware they have been around since the mid-1800s. The early electric vehicles at
the turn of the 20th century were expensive, problematic and not very powerful.
Given certain weather conditions or too steep a hill the electric vehicle of yesteryear
was simply unable to perform up to our expectations. With the introduction of the
Ford Model T, a revolution in vehicles was made. The Model T was cheaper and
more powerful and was made relatively simplistic, it also ran on a then abundant
source of gasoline, and the United States could meet its own internal demand enough
so that it actually exported its excess to European countries such as France and
Britain. Ultimately, the Model T made the early EVs defunct and as such fell off the
radar until events like the 1973 oil crisis and 1979 energy crisis where the electric
technologies were eventually reconsidered. The first electric car is claimed to have
been built between 1832 and 1893 by Robert Anderson of Scotland. From then until
the late 1800s, when they became efficient enough to use as taxi cabs in England,
the cars were heavy, slow and impractical. Modern batteries development in the
early 1900s pushed the development of more efficient, reliable, and practical electric
cars in that period. The Hybrid came about in 1900 in Belgium, when a small

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gasoline engine was paired with an electric motor. During normal operation the
electric motor charged on-board batteries, but during acceleration and uphill stints
the electric motor provided a boost to the 3.5 horsepower motor. In 1905 H Piper
patented the first hybrid in America. In 1910 a hybrid truck was manufactured in
Pennsylvania, which used a 4 cylinder to power a generator and an electric motor.
1916 saw the production of hybrid cars claiming 35 mph and 48 mpg, however this
also saw the end of the electric car era due to the advances in combustion engine
technology. Until the mid to late 1960s, there is little commercial advance in hybrid
or electric cars. As early as the mid-1960s congress recognized the importance of
reducing emissions to improve air quality, and that the use of electric cars was a
possible way to achieve this. In the late 60s and early 70s the oil embargo sparked a
renewed interest in hybrid and electric vehicles. A few hybrids were released by
major manufacturers, but most were underpowered and small. More importantly,
three scientists patented the first modern hybrid system in 1971, much of which
closely resemble the hybrids of today. The next big push from congress come s with
the 1976 Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration
Act which encouraged the commercial improvement of electric motors and other
hybrid components. The research lead toward new developments and new vehicle
released in the United States, including all electrics from GM and Honda, even
including an electric truck, the Chevrolet S-10. These vehicles reached a niche
group, but still did not receive the sales numbers to be feasible. This all changed
with the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997. With 18000 sold in the first
year it becomes the first economically feasible hybrid produced. With its import to
the united stated in 2000 and the release of Hondas Insight to the US in 1999 the
hybrid age had finally arrived. However, PHEVs and HEVs are not without
limitations, which are mainly caused by the current state of battery technology. With
future research and development into creating improvements on battery technology
many of the limitations will be greatly reduced if not expunged completely. We have
come a long way since the nickel and lead batteries of the 1960s, more recently the
Nickel Metal Hydride and Lithium Ion battery technologies have been developed

30 | P a g e
and successfully implemented. Today’s HEVs are a far cry from the small four horse
power models of the 1800s, modern HEVs include the same power, acceleration,
comfort, and price of their counterpart conventional cars (CVs), but can reach
upwards of 50 miles per gallon depending on the model. The importance of this
project is not simply limited toward the contemporary state of the automotive
industry. It is also a generalized overview of what to expect in the near future
concerning the status of the global automotive market and the respective
technologies of which it encompasses. Valuable insight given into possible
implications of using the aforementioned technologies and how they may affect the
US and its ability to reach its energy goals all while becoming both more energy
independent and environmentally conscious. Projections for the future give an
overall view of what is to come, including future vehicles available for purchase,
their collective impact on the populace, and how that technology can be built upon
and advanced. It is essentially a forecast of the automotive industry from both a
national and global level. Based on the examination of information and projection
from qualified data sources, it gives as full as possible understanding to the reader
of where, when, and how the automotive industry is now and in the foreseeable
future. [6]

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Chapter-8
WORKING OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
8.1 STARTING AND LOW SPEED PROCESS
8.1.1 Starting
When hybrid electric vehicle is initially started the battery typically powers all the
accessories of vehicle. The gasoline engine only starts if battery needs to be charged
or the accessories require more power than available from the battery. [6]
8.1.2 Low speed process
For initial acceleration and slow-speed driving, as well as reverse, the electric motor
uses electricity from the battery to power the vehicle. If the battery needs to be
recharged, the generator starts the engine and converts energy from engine into
electricity, which is stored in the battery.
Fig. 8.1 Starting and low speed process of HEV

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8.2 CRUISING
To run the vehicle at the speed of above mid-range for long period (Long drive). At
the time of cruising both internal combustion engine and electric motor are used to
propel the vehicle. The gasoline engine provides the power to the electric vehicle
directly and to the electric motor via the generator. [6]
The generator also converts the energy from internal combustion engine into
electricity and send it to battery for storage.
Fig. 8.2 Cruising process of HEV
8.3 PASSING
To pass or overtake any other vehicle. During heavy accelerating or when additional
power is needed, the gasoline engine and electric motor are both used to propel the
vehicle. Additional energy from the battery may be used to power the vehicle.

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Fig. 8.3 Passing process of HEV
8.4 BRAKING
Regenerative braking converts otherwise wastage energy from braking into
electricity and store it in the battery. In regenerative braking the electric motor is
reversed so that, instead of using electricity to turns the wheels, the rotating wheels
turns the motor and create electricity. Using energy from the wheels to turn the
motor slows the vehicle down. When decelerating, the braking system captures
energy and stores it in the battery or other device for later use, helping to keep
batteries charged.
In motor case “Eb = V - IaRa “ Generally Eb < V
Here, Eb = Back e.m.f of motor
V = Terminal voltage/Load side voltage
Ia = Armature current and
Ra = Armature resistance

34 | P a g e
But in regenerative braking system Eb > V, means the load supplies the power to
motor.
If additional stopping power is required, we apply friction bakes like disk brakes to
stop the vehicle.
Fig. 8.3 Braking process of HEV

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Chapter-9
PREDECESSORS OF CURRENT
TECHNOLOGY IN HEV
9.1 CURRENT TECHNOLOGY
A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the
scientists involved with the Hennery Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electric car).
Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the
"Godfather of the Hybrid". Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drive-strain (with a
16 kilowatts (21 hp) electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for
the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork,
the head of the EPA's vehicle emissions control program at the time, was accused of
a prejudicial cover-up.
The regenerative braking system, the core design concept of most production HEVs,
was developed by electrical engineer David Arthurs around 1978, using off-the shelf
components and an Opel GT. However, the voltage controller to link the batteries,
motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle
exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficiency, and
plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the
Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed
nearly 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp).
In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (the Audi C3 100 Avant
Duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant
Quattro. This car had a 9.4 kilowatts (12.8 PS; 12.6 bhp) Siemens electric motor

36 | P a g e
which drove the rear road-wheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery
supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front road-
wheels were powered by a 2.3 litre five-cylinder petrol engine with an output of 100
kilowatts (136 PS; 134 bhp). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could
operate on the engine in the country, and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation
could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made;
one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were
less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the
same engine.
Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation, the Audi 100 Duo -
likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again, this featured an electric
motor, a 21.3 kilowatts (29.0 PS; 28.6 bhp) three-phase machine, driving the rear
road-wheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the
Torsen centre differential from the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0
litre four-cylinder engine. [citation needed]
In 1992, Volvo ECC was developed by Volvo. The Volvo ECC was built on the
Volvo 850 platform. In contrast to most production hybrids, which use a gasoline
piston engine to provide additional acceleration and to recharge the battery storage,
the Volvo ECC used a gas turbine engine to drive the generator for recharging.
The Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of
Vehicles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993, that involved Chrysler, Ford,
General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to
engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle. The United States National Research
Council (USNRC) cited automakers' moves to produce HEVs as evidence that
technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production
lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers,
NRC reviewers questioned whether the "Big Three" would be able to move from the
concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set
out in Goal 3. The program was replaced by the hydrogen-focused Freedom CAR

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initiative by the George W. Bush administration in 2001, an initiative to fund
research too risky for the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of
developing effectively carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.
1998 saw the Esparante GTR-Q9 became the first Petrol-Electric Hybrid to race at
Le Mans, although the car failed to qualify for the main event. The car managed to
finished second in class at Petit Le Mans the same year. [7]

38 | P a g e
Chapter-10
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
HEV
10.1 ADVANTAGES
a) Hybrid cars emit up to 90% less toxic emissions and half as much
greenhouse-this causes carbon dioxide as an average car (therefore drivers
would not have to worry about polluting the environment).
b) Hybrids can run on electricity or gas.
c) Less fuel consumption. Current HEVs reduce petroleum consumption under
certain circumstances, compared to otherwise similar conventional vehicles,
primarily by using three mechanisms:
 Reducing wasted energy during idle/low output, generally by turning
the ICE off
 Recapturing waste energy (i.e. regenerative braking)
 Reducing the size and power of the ICE, and hence inefficiencies from
under-utilization, by using the added power from the electric motor to
compensate for the loss in peak power output from the smaller ICE.
Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be
used in different vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power,
emissions, weight and cost profiles. The ICE in an HEV can be
smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional
vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for slightly above
average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive
system in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and
power, but an ICE's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of
operation, making conventional vehicles inefficient. On the contrary,

39 | P a g e
in most HEV designs, the ICE operates closer to its range of highest
efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electric motors is
better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially greater
torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The
greater fuel economy of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum
consumption and vehicle air pollution emissions worldwide.
d) The battery pack of a hybrid vehicle never needs to be charged from an
external source. It’s charged by ICE and by motor from braking system.
e) Hybrids have smaller engines; therefore, they tend to weigh less than non-
hybrids (but this can lead to problems in the future). Since hybrid cars can
run on alternative fuels, this allows us to decrease our dependency on fossil
fuel and enables us to increase fuel options. (hybrids reduce fuel costs). [7]
f) A person who purchases a hybrid car is entitled to a federal tax deduction.
10.2 DISADVANTAGES
a) Hybrids are more expensive than non-hybrids. The cost of HEV is more
because it’s using more parts than non-HEV and these all are costly.
b) It requires more maintenance. It’s using more parts so all require more
maintenance.
c) It has low towing capacity. It’s engine size is small so it’s don’t able to
import and export more things.
d) The parts that make up the hybrid car are more expensive and are more
difficult to acquire for one’s car.
e) Since a hybrid is electrical, Water cannot be used to put out a fire that starts
in the hybrid.
f) Hybrids (in regards to a car accident) have a much higher risk of exploding
(depending on the impact of the vehicle) because it has a combination of
gasoline and ethanol (which are both highly flammable). [7]

40 | P a g e
Chapter-11
MODERN HYBRIDS PRODUCTION
11.1 MODERN HYBRID PRODUCTION
Automotive hybrid technology became widespread beginning in the late 1990s. The
first mass-produced hybrid vehicle was the Toyota Prius, launched in Japan in 1997,
and followed by the Honda Insight, launched in 1999 in the United States and Japan.
The Prius was launched in Europe, North America and the rest of the world in 2000.
The first generation Prius sedan has an estimated fuel economy of 52 miles per US
gallon (4.5 L/100 km; 62 mpg-imp) in the city and 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100
km; 54 mpg-imp) in highway driving. The two-door first generation Insight was
estimated at 61 miles per US gallon (3.9 L/100 km; 73 mpg-imp) miles per gallon
in city driving and 68 miles per US gallon (3.5 L/100 km; 82 mpg-imp) on the
highway.
The Toyota Prius sold 300 units in 1997, 19,500 in 2000, and cumulative worldwide
Prius sales reached the 1 million mark in April 2008. By early 2010, the Prius global
cumulative sales were estimated at 1.6 million units. Toyota launched a second
generation Prius in 2004 and a third in 2009. The 2010 Prius has an estimated U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency combined fuel economy cycle of 50 miles per US
gallon (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp). [9]
The Audi Duo III was introduced in 1997, based on the Audi B5 A4 Avant, and was
the only Duo to ever make it into series production. The Duo III used the 1.9 litre
Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine, which was coupled with a 21
kilowatts (29 PS; 28 bhp) electric motor. Unfortunately, due to low demand for this
hybrid because of its high price, only about sixty Audi Duos were produced. Until
the release of the Audi Q7 Hybrid in 2008, the Duo was the only European hybrid

41 | P a g e
ever put into production. The Honda Civic Hybrid was introduced in February 2002
as a 2003 model, based on the seventh generation Civic. The 2003 Civic Hybrid
appears identical to the non-hybrid version, but delivers 50 miles per US gallon (4.7
L/100 km; 60 mpg-imp), a 40 percent increase compared to a conventional Civic
LX sedan. Along with the conventional Civic, it received styling update for 2004.
The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius (second generation) improved passenger room,
cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing
emissions. The Honda Insight first generation stopped being produced after 2006
and has a devoted base of owners. A second generation Insight was launched in
2010. In 2004, Honda also released a hybrid version of the Accord but discontinued
it in 2007 citing disappointing sales. [10]
The Ford Escape Hybrid, the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) was
released in 2005. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004
allowing Ford to use 20 patents[citation needed] from Toyota related to hybrid
technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built.[citation
needed] In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their
European diesel engines to Toyota.[citation needed] Toyota announced calendar
year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the Toyota Highlander Hybrid and Lexus RX
400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating
the need for a transfer case. [10]
In 2006, General Motors Saturn Division began to market a mild parallel hybrid in
the form of the 2007 Saturn Vue Green Line which utilized GM's Belted
Alternator/Starter (BAS Hybrid) System combined with a 2.4 litre L4 engine and a
FWD automatic transmission. The same hybrid power-strain was also used to power
the 2008 Saturn Aura Green line and Malibu Hybrid models. As of December 2009,
only the BAS equipped Malibu is still in (limited) production. [10]
In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan, the GS
450h, with a power output of 335 bhp. The 2007 Camry Hybrid became available in

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Summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan launched the Altima Hybrid
with technology licensed by Toyota in 2007.
Commencing in the fall of 2007 General Motors began to market their 2008 Two-
Mode Hybrid models of their GMT900 based Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon
SUVs, closely followed by the 2009 Cadillac Escalade Hybrid version. For the 2009
model year, General Motors released the same technology in their half-ton pickup
truck models, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado and GMC Sierra Two-Mode Hybrid
models.
The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show
in November 2008, and was launched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together
with the second generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.
Fig. 11.1 1997 Toyota Prius (first generation)
Fig. 11.2 2000 Honda Insight (first generation)

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Future works
There are several subjects concerning control of hybrid electric vehicles that are not
dealt with. Some interesting questions to investigate are suggested below.
The control strategy optimizing for ICE efficiency, does not consider the overall
efficiency at all. An interesting study would therefore be to develop an algorithm
that optimizes for the overall efficiency.
The hybrid vehicle in the simulation model is run on diesel fuel, but it would be
interesting to study the efficiency and emission formation with bio fuels, like
Ethanol or DME, when used in a hybrid vehicle.
Cylinder deactivation is used in this study to adapt the ICE power for low power
requirements. Another solution could be using a small ICE that is strongly
overcharged to handle the highest power requirements. The engine could in that case
be provided with an electric turbo charger.
If the unit that distributes the demanded power to the electric machine(s) and the
ICE would be able to predict the driving cycle, new possibilities open up. This would
influence the usage of the batteries, i.e. there is a potential to reduce losses. One
solution is to use a GPS that can predict the route. Another possibility is to use a
control algorithm that by means of the last time period (µs/ms/s/min) can calculate
a forecast of the demanded power.
This study presents a number of different parameters but only a limited number of
possible alternatives and simulations. There are programs available which purpose
is to find an optimized solution in a system containing a number of adjustable
parameters. Such a procedure might be interesting to try out on this simulation
model. All parameters investigated in the previous study (Jonasson, 2002) should
also be included in such optimization.

44 | P a g e
When implementing cylinder deactivation, the necessity of a large battery decreases
since the range of load points including high ICE efficiency increases. Therefore, it
would be interesting to carry out further investigations where the battery size is
decreased.
A particular type of electric hybrid vehicles is called plug in-hybrids. The idea is to
mainly utilize the electric machine(s) in these vehicles and mainly charge the battery
from the grid. The ICE is more or less utilized as a range extender. An advantage
with this, which would be interesting to investigate further, is the environmental
potential it implies.
The optimization has not been carried out with intention to choose the best
temperature condition, regarding SCR. This can of course be tried out in further
works.
The received results points at the need of a control algorithm adjusted for hybrid
implementation. It would therefore be valuable to perform measurements on the
engine when the different control algorithms are implemented and adjusted. One
questions to answer is, for example, what happens to the engine while large amount
of EGR is used? How would the hybrid vehicle be affected by changes of the
injection angle and other means of combustion control?
In the model it has been assumed that the included filter for PM is sufficient. It
would be interesting to study this assumption closer, and to investigate the influence
on the filter performance with higher EGR rates.

45 | P a g e
CONCLUSION
Means a hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to
move the vehicle. The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs), which combine an internal combustion engine and one or more electric
motors.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative
braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge
the battery, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some
varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by
spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-generator),
to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric drive motors. Many
HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when
needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less
emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car, since an HEV's
gasoline engine is usually smaller than a comparably-sized pure gasoline-burning
vehicle (natural gas and propane fuels produce lower emissions) and if not used to
directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving
fuel economy.

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REFERENCES
[1] https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle
[2] http://www.hybridcars.com/history-of-hybrid-vehicles
[3] https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridtech.shtml
[4] http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar-Reports/007/56069122-Hybrid-
Electric-Vehicle.docx
[5] https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BylKfvgX-GD6RFNWamxCUjI4bWc/view
[6] http://www.123seminarsonly.com/Seminar-Reports/007/7042641-Control-of-
Hybrid-Electric-Vehicles-With-Diesel-Engines.pdf
[7] http://pediain.com/seminar/www.pediain.com-plugin-hybrid-electric-vehicle-
seminar.pdf
[8] https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/007skpk/a-seminar-report-on-hybrid-
electric-vehicle
[9] http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridtech.shtml
[10] http://www.toyota.com/prius/
[11] https://www.google.com/images (All images from Google images)

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