Please answer each question below with at least 4 complete sen.docx

Please answer each question below with at least 4 complete
sentences
1. Explain why it is important to analyze sources for their
relevancy
and trustworthiness.
2. Explain why it is important to compare the quality of web
sources.
3. Explain some examples of ways to use surveys to collect
information.
4. Explain ways to avoid plagiarism.
5. Explain why it is important to incorporate in-text citations in
writing
using MLA.
6. Explain and provide examples of strong and weak verbs.
7. Explain the difference between the active and the passive
voice.
8. Explain characteristics of concise sentences.
9. Provide examples of ways to match writing structure with
ideas.
10. Explain ways to fix fragments, run-on sentences, and comma
splices.

11. Explain how unintentional shifts in tense, voice, person, or
number
can distract readers.
12. Explain the most important thing or things learned in this
class.
In my last lecture, we discussed the connection between the
Agricultural Revolution, the rise in
population, the development of manors, and the growth of cities
between the 10th and 12th
centuries. Alongside this, we saw the dramatic rise of the popes,
whose power grew to amazing
heights due to their use of tools like excommunication and
crusades. But the power of the
medieval popes would not remain uncontested. In the 12th and
13th centuries, the kings of Europe
found ways to increase their own power, sometimes at the
expense of the popes and other times
at the expense of their own people. It was also during this time
that a new renaissance took place.
This was the aptly named Twelfth Century Renaissance, and it
would lead to the creation of
institutions and ideas that we still use and enjoy today.
[SLIDE] Let’s start with our questions: Our first question is:
how did kings gain power in the
12th and 13th centuries? Second, we’re going to consider how
the Twelfth Century Renaissance
affected society.
[SLIDE] If you remember back to my last lecture, I explained
that due to the invasions of
Vikings and other new barbarian groups in the 9th and 10th
centuries, kings lost power. They

weren’t able to protect their people from attack, and so people
turned instead to lords who had
the armies and castles needed to defend them. Fearing that these
increasingly powerful lords
would try to unseat them from their thrones, the kings
developed the concept of divine right. By
portraying themselves as chosen by God to rule, kings
discouraged lords from trying to rise up
and overthrow the current kings. The concept of divine right
was generally pretty successful, but
that was the only tool that kings had, and they remained pretty
weak. This changed in the 12th
and 13th centuries. At this time, the kings of Europe took steps
to expand their power and enforce
their authority, and of all of these kingdoms, the kings of
England and France became the most
powerful. What’s interesting, though, is that the kings of
England and France attained this status
through different means. So, I want to look at England and
France separately to give you a better
sense of how this happened.
[SLIDE] Let’s first look at France. So, if you remember, back
in the late 8th and early 9th
centuries, France was part of Charlemagne’s kingdom. It was
part of a region that was called
Gaul. But after Charlemagne, the kings of what would become
France were pretty insignificant.
They could barely control their tiny domain that was centered
around Paris. But the French kings
had one important thing going for them- dynastic continuity. At
the end of the 10th century, a
French king named Hugh Capet came to power and began the
Capetian Dynasty. For nearly 350
years afterwards, the Capetian kings all had biological sons that
could take their place. Adding to
this, most of those kings ruled for 30 years each on average.

This sort of longevity, both in terms
of individual lifespans as well as consistency in producing male
heirs, created stability in France.
There were no civil wars in which different people fought with
each to be king. Instead, they
could focus on defending and expanding on the borders of their
kingdom. And each new king
could keep building on the accomplishments of the rulers before
them. And as a result, the kings
developed institutions, like universities, and found ways to
expand the reach of their authority in
their kingdoms. For example, King Philip II of France created a
new royal office called the
bailiff. These officials worked on a local level to make sure that
the people were obeying the
king’s laws and paying their taxes.
[SLIDE] The rulers of England didn’t have the same dynastic
continuity as the French kings, so
they took a different approach. When William of Normandy
conquered England in 1066, he
claimed all of the land in England for himself. And then, gave it
out-- piece by piece-- to people
as rewards for their loyalty. This policy ensured that every
landowner in England was a vassal of
the king and loyal to him. This made William very powerful and
enabled him to focus on
government rather than warfare. And as you can imagine, less
warfare and better government led
to more stability in England. Like the kings of France, the
subsequent kings of England used
royal officials to expand the reach of their authority in the
kingdom. The son of William of
Normandy, a guy named Henry I, created a system of traveling
judges to hear complaints and
court cases in the name of the king and hand out judgements.
Henry also appointed a new official

known as the Exchequer, whose sole job was to keep track of
tax collection and revenue for the
king. [SLIDE] Henry I’s grandson, similarly named Henry II,
took all of this a step further. He
managed to expand England by marrying a lady named Eleanor
of Aquitaine. Eleanor had
initially been married to the King of France, but left him for the
more powerful King of England.
And with Eleanor went some large chunks of French territory
that she owned. Finally, Henry II
grew his power by taking on the Roman Catholic Church. If you
recall, the pope and his papacy
were pretty powerful by the 12th century, and the popes had
done their best to demonstrate that
they were superior even to the kings of Europe. Well, Henry
began to eat away at the power of
the papacy in England by declaring that the priests, bishops, and
archbishops in his kingdom
were subject to his authority. If they committed serious crimes,
they would be tried and punished
by his officials rather than Church officials. Furthermore, Henry
declared that if they were
declared guilty of whatever crime they had been accused of, he
could strip them of their office.
This, of course, made some officials in the Roman Catholic
Church pretty upset, including the
English Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket. When
Becket tried to argue that Church
officials were not the jurisdiction of the king, Becket was first
exiled. When Becket tried to
return to continue the argument, Henry was furious. He
declared, “What sluggards, what
cowards have I brought up in my court, who care nothing for
their allegiance to their lord. Who
will rid me of this meddlesome priest?!” This outrage inspired
four of Henry’s knights to take

matters into their own hands. Recognizing the intent of these
knights, Becket fled to the
Cathedral of Canterbury where a service was in progress. But
this didn’t deter the knights.
Finding Becket at the altar, the knights drew their swords and
killed him. Although King Henry
was compelled to do some public penance for his role in
Thomas Becket’s murder, this event
succeeded in boosting his power in England and over the
Catholic clergy in the kingdom.
[SLIDE] Unfortunately, the kings of England didn’t get to keep
all of their power for much
longer. The sons of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine were
Richard and John. Richard, better
known as Richard “the Lionheart” was the eldest, and when he
became king, he spent most of his
reign crusading in the Holy Land. When Richard was killed, his
younger brother John became
king. King John governed the kingdom well, but he wasn’t as
skilled at predicting the outcome
of wars. And as a result, he lost battle after battle with France
and consequently, most of the
territory in France that John’s mother, Eleanor, had brought
with her to her marriage to Henry.
The battles that King John waged and loss were expensive, so
he decided to raise taxes. This
issue is actually what Disney’s Robin Hood story is based on.
Eventually, the English lords got
tired of being taxes, and in 1215, they refused to pay any more
until John signed a charter that
came to be known as the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta
established some general principles that
still form the basis of English laws- and also American laws-
today. The Magna Carta stated that
the king could not establish any more taxes without the consent
of his people. This statement led

to the establishment of Parliament, which was made up of
representatives elected by the people.
From here on out, the kings of England would have to consult
with Parliament before making
decisions about the kingdom. This is similar to our Congress
today, in which elected
representatives work with the President to make decisions. Now,
to be clear, at the time that
Parliament was first established in the 13th century, only
members of the upper class- the
nobility- could be representatives in Parliament. And these
representatives tended to push for
things that benefited them specifically. But, it was still
progress. In addition to Parliament, the
Magna Carta also declared that no man could be punished until
he had been judged guilty by a
jury of his peers and that no one could be arrested or
imprisoned without a warrant. Again, this
should sound pretty familiar. In terms of the larger picture, the
Magna Carta was important
because it emphasized that the king was not above the law. The
king of England could no longer
just do what he wanted to do; he would have to actually listen to
the will of the people.
[SLIDE] We talked about the Crusades in my last lecture. And I
explained that only the First
Crusade was truly successful. In 1095, Pope Urban II called for
a Crusade to retake the Holy
Land and defend the Christians living in the East, and in
response, hundreds of thousands took
up the cross and helped to establish crusader kingdoms. But
soon after, Muslim rulers, like the
famous Saladin, retook much of the region. Between 1099 and
1291, eight more Crusades took
place, most of which failed spectacularly. But even though the
Crusades weren’t entirely

successful, the idea of crusade- this idea of fighting in the name
of God- remained in Europe and
it was applied to other endeavors. We’ve already seen how Pope
Innocent III used a crusade
against the Cathars and Waldensian heretics in order to
establish uniform religious practice in
Europe. In addition to this, kings in Europe also began to use
the concept of crusade to expand
their territory and power. If you remember back to when we
discussed the expansion of Islamic
Civilization, I explained that Muslim armies conquered territory
as far as Spain in the early 8th
century. And Muslim rulers maintained control over much of
Spain until the 12th century. But,
during those four centuries of Muslim rule, Christian kings kept
control of a tiny sliver of
territory in the northern most part of Spain. And eventually,
they began to look for ways to
conquer Muslim territory. They found a good tool in the form of
crusades. Remember- the First
Crusade began at the end of the 11th century, and it emphasized
this idea of carrying out the will
of God, which was something that everyone could get behind.
Seeing this, the Christian kings of
Spain decided to carry out their own crusades in Spain. They
declared that it was God’s will that
Christians throughout Europe should come to Spain and
“reconquer” their lost territory. This
declaration led to the more common name of this event- the
Reconquista, which translated to the
“Reconquest.” These Christian rulers even got some popes to
promise the same sort of rewards
that they had given crusaders in the Holy Land- forgiveness of
sins if they fought and immediate
salvation if they died. This use of crusade in Spain proved
pretty successful- Europeans from

different kingdoms arrived to fight alongside Spanish
Christians. By the beginning of the 1200s,
most of Spain was in the hands of Christian rulers and it had
been divided into four major
kingdoms- Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and Portugal. As you can
imagine, the success of the
crusades, which were headed by the Christian kings, boosted
their power and authority in their
individual kingdoms. From their perspective, their victories
were reflective of God’s approval.
[SLIDE] Since we've been talking about kings, we need to talk
about castles. Kings lived in
castles, but so did the lords of the regions. In fact, there were a
growing number of castles in the
kingdoms of Western Europe between 1000 and 1300. The
castle was the residence of the king
or lord and his family, as well as his officials and servants. But
castles were not just homes. They
were also defensive structures, built to withstand war. [SLIDE]
Most castles were surrounded by
large stone walls, sometimes multiple sets of stone walls that
would make it harder for the enemy
to break through. [SLIDE] They often had a moat that
surrounded the castle. The walls and
surrounding castles had battle parapets that archers could hide
behind as they shot arrows at the
enemy. The gate had a drawbridge that could be raised from
within the castle. [SLIDE] And
castles were normally constructed on the edges of cliffs or on
top of the hill so that an enemy
could be seen approaching. When a castle came under attack,
the lord would bring all of his
vassals-- including the serfs and peasants who worked the
surrounding land-- into the castle and
shut the door.
[SLIDE] But while castles were intended as defensive

structures, they were still houses for kings
and lords, and kings and lords liked to have fun. As the power
of the power of kings in Europe
increased in the 12th and 13th centuries, so too did the prestige
of their royal courts. These royal
courts were the places to be if you wanted to be someone. And
if you made it to the royal court,
you had to act that you belonged. It was within the environment
of the royal court that the
concept of nobility and courtliness evolved. No longer was
being noble just an economic class, it
was also reflective of your lineage and behavior. You had to
come from a good family-
preferably an aristocratic one-, you had to be educated, you to
be loyal to the king, and you had
to be a brave fighter. It was no longer enough to just own a
sword and a horse, to be a knight fit
for the royal court, you needed money to afford a full set of
armor made of iron, a visored
helmet, a broadsword, a spear, a shield, and several warhorses
capable of carrying all of this
gear. In addition to this, you needed your own assistances-
squires or grooms to take care of all
your stuff. And more importantly, you needed to show off just
how awesome you were at
fighting and how cool your gear and horse were by participating
regularly in tournaments.
[SLIDE] In the 12th century, kings throughout Europe began
holding tournaments for
entertainment in which knights essentially beat the crap out of
each other. At first, these
tournaments consisted of the melee, in which warriors on
horseback fought with blunted
weapons, in a free-for-all combat. The goal was to take
prisoners, who would then be ransom. In
other words, if you beat someone in this free-for-all combat,

they have to pay you for their
freedom. Being the last man standing could make you pretty
rich in these tournaments. In one
case, an English knight named William Marshall, defeated 203
other knights in a series of
tournaments over the course of eight months. He made so much
money, that he had to hire
financial advisors to take care of it. [SLIDE] But by the 12th
century, the melee evolved into the
joust, which was a combat between two individuals, who ran at
each other on horseback with
lances. The goal was to knock the rider off the horse.
[SLIDE] So the Middle Ages, it wasn't just about war and
religion, people were interested in
having fun, and they were also interested in learning.
Universities and colleges with faculty,
students, and degrees, were a product of the Middle Ages. In the
sixth and seventh centuries, the
only schools available were in monasteries. The schools in
monasteries were intended to train
monks how to read the books available in their libraries. When
Charlemagne became king in the
eighth century, he created palace schools, which created more
places for people to gain an
education. In the 11th and 12th centuries, as the governments of
kingdoms grew more complex,
new schools developed in cathedrals. In response to the growth
of towns and cities, more
churches were being built and there was a need for more priests,
bishops, and archbishops who
were educated enough to carry out their duties properly. So, in
1179, Pope Alexander III decreed
that all cathedrals should set aside income for at least one
schoolteacher. At first, these cathedral
schools only taught people who wanted to become priests. But
overtime, they expanded to teach

more men the skills necessary to work in government or get jobs
as notaries, estate managers, or
merchants. Students started at these cathedral schools between
the ages of 12 and 16. And the
classes were mostly taught in Latin, which provided a common
means of communication for
students, regardless of country of origin. [SLIDE] Their
curriculum consisted of two parts. The
first part was the trivium, which included grammar, rhetoric,
and logic. The second part was the
quadrivium, which included arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, as
well as music. When you
completed this curriculum, you received a bachelor's degree.
Some students stayed on for a
Master of Arts degree, after which, you could teach. The
lectures that students attended mostly
consisted of the instructor reading from a book and then,
offering an explanation of what they
read. This was because books were still very expensive and few
students could afford them. In
fact, the instructor normally had the only copy of the textbook.
[SLIDE] By 1200, however,
schools began to form outside of cathedrals and outside of the
oversight of religious leaders.
These schools were known as universities, and they form the
basis of the universities and
colleges we see today. The first two universities developed in
Paris and Bologna, but they were
established using two different approaches. The university in
Paris was established by instructors
who came together to create a guild, which is sort of like a
union. These instructors agreed on the
price of tuition and rules of conduct. The university of Bologna
was established by students, who
came together and used their tuition to hire teachers, and these
students could fine or fire

instructors who didn’t meet their standards. These universities
that developed in Europe kept the
same sort of curriculum that cathedral schools had, but they
developed education programs
further, eventually forming four programs of studies. These
included the liberal arts, theology,
law, and medicine.
[SLIDE] There are obvious similarities between medieval and
modern students. Many students
took their studies seriously and worked hard, but others spent a
lot of their time entertaining
themselves. Alcohol, sex, and other vices were common. In fact,
university towns attracted the
biggest population of prostitutes. In medieval universities,
handbooks provided foreign letters
that students could use in requesting money from fathers,
guardians, or patrons. And like today, a
lack of studiousness was also a problem. This is illustrated by a
letter from a medieval father to
his son. It says, “I have recently discovered that you live
desolately and slothfully, preferring
license to restraint and play to work and strumming a guitar
while the others are at their studies,
whence it happens that you have read but one volume of law
while your more industrious
companions have read several. Wherefore I have decided to
exhort you herewith to repent utterly
of your dissolute and careless ways, so that you may no longer
be called a waster and your
shame may be turned into good repute.” Finally, medieval
universities could be very violent
places. Records from law courts reveal many disturbances in
European universities. Here are a
couple of examples. In one case, a German Professor was finally
dismissed for stabbing
colleagues in a faculty meeting. At the University of Leipzig,

they initiated a series of graded
penalties for students who picked up objects to throw at
professors. These penalties differed
depending on whether the student did so through a miss or hit
their target. But despite the
pervasive violence, medieval universities did provide the
trained personnel who served as
teachers, administrators, lawyers, and doctors in the Western
kingdoms. The increase in number
of schools and people's desire to learn instead of just fight, led
to what many historians call the
Renaissance of the 12th Century.
[SLIDE] We talked last week about the Carolingian Renaissance
during which Charlemagne
encouraged learning and the spread of knowledge. And now,
we're seeing another Renaissance--
another rebirth of knowledge. In the case of the 12th Century
Renaissance, people began reading
the works of the Greeks and Romans again. People began to
read what the ancient Greeks had to
say about medicine, and geography, and astronomy, and
mathematics. People were learning all
sorts of things that had been previously forgotten. The people in
Western Europe lost this
information when the barbarians invaded. Interestingly, it was
Muslims who re-introduced
ancient Greek and Roman knowledge to Western European
kingdoms. The Muslims appreciated
ancient civilizations and when they conquered areas in the
seventh and eighth centuries, they
translated the old Greek and Roman books there into Arabic. As
trade increased between the
kings and kingdoms of Western Europe and Islamic civilization,
people began translating these
texts into Latin, making the information more accessible. In
addition to reintroducing ancient

works to northern Europe, the Muslims also had their own
intellectuals, like the famous Averroes
(Ah-ver-oh-ayz), who developed concepts of logic and
philosophy. Similarly, Jews scholars, like
Moses Maimonides, created important commentaries on Jewish
law that shaped Christian
theology and history.
But literature during the 12th Century Renaissance wasn't just
about learning, it was also for
enjoying. Courtly Love literature became very popular,
particularly among the elite society-- The
kings, queens, lords, and ladies. Courtly Love literature often
emphasized romantic subjects like
brave nights, virtuous ladies, evil, magicians, and bewitched
palaces. And the stories of Courtly
Love literature, authors demonstrated that a true knight was to
love, serve, and protect women-
elite women in particular. But knights in this type of literature
tended to fall in love with women
they couldn't have. You may know the tales of King Arthur. In
these tales, Lancelot falls in love
with Guinevere-- King Arthur's queen. And the whole kingdom
essentially falls apart when
Lancelot and Guinevere have an affair.
[SLIDE] Finally, we can't forget the development of cathedral
architecture. Prior to the 12th
century, most churches were built in a style of architecture
called Romanesque. These churches
had massive walls and pillars. The reason for this was that
people still hadn't quite figured out
how to increase the height of the building without also having
to increase the width of the walls.
Consequently, Romanesque churches tended to have very small
slitted windows, which made the
church's very dark on the inside. [SLIDE] The image on her
screen shows an example of a

cathedral built with Romanesque architecture. [SLIDE] But the
spread of new knowledge of the
12th Century Renaissance, encouraged the development of
Gothic architecture. The most
important architectural innovation was the flying buttresses.
Flying buttresses were a heavy
arched pier of stone built on the outside of the wall, which made
it possible to distribute the
weight of the wall and ceiling outwards and downwards.
[SLIDE] The image on your screen
shows a cathedral with flying buttresses. The flying buttresses
are the structures on the left side
of the picture that look a little like the cathedral sprouted legs.
[SLIDE] In these pictures, you
can see the flying buttresses a little bit closer. [SLIDE] By
using flying buttresses, architects
could create tall, thin walls that were filled with magnificent
stained glass windows. Medieval
craftspeople of the 12th century, perfected the art of stained
glass. Small pieces of glass were
stained in glowing colors, like jewels. For people in the 12th
and 13th centuries, the color light
that filled Gothic cathedrals represented the divine light of God.
[SLIDE] Let’s return to the questions we started with. We first
asked how kings gained power in
the 12th and 13th centuries. Kings throughout Europe regained
power during this time after
centuries of weakness due to Viking attacks and other
circumstances. However, kings used
different means to regain power, and we looked at a few
kingdoms individually to see this. In
France, the kings were lucky enough to all have biological sons
for about 350 years straight. This
dynastic continuity helped to establish stability in the kingdom
and it allowed the kings to
develop institutions and expand their reach by creating new

royal positions like the bailiff. In
England, we see the expansion of royal power starting with
William of Normandy, who gave out
land in England piece by piece to loyal subjects after he
conquered the kingdom. His descendants
continued to expand royal power by creating new institutions,
like a circuit court, and new
positions like Exchequer. They also made smart marriages that
brought new territory to England
and took steps to assert authority over the Roman Catholic
Church. In Spain, the Christian rulers
conquered Muslim territory and expanded their kingdoms by
using the concept of crusade. And
finally and more generally, rulers throughout Europe developed
their royal courts to become
centers of culture and prestige that anyone who was someone
wanted to be part of.
[SLIDE] Our second question asked how the Twelfth Century
Renaissance affected society. And
I told you, that people had access to new information from the
works of the ancient Greeks and
Romans. New ideas about logic, philosophy, and theology were
introduced by Muslim and
Jewish scholars. Europeans began to write Courtly Love
literature. And the introduction of
Gothic architecture helped to create light-filled cathedrals with
lots of windows and tall, thin
walls.

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