1) Under Emperor Trajan, Rome's military focus was on the Danube River region involving conflict with the Dacians, and the Euphrates River region involving conflict with the Parthians. 2) Previously under Emperor Domitian, attention had shifted from Britain westward to the Danube region, requiring troop withdrawals from Britain. 3) Along the Danube, Domitian had dealt with invasions by the Dacians and wars against the Marcomanni and Quadi, but the region remained unstable when Trajan took power.

1. FLAVIAN DEFENCE POL.ICY AS BACKGROUND TO
TRAJAN’s MILITARY ACTIVITIES
As will be seen, under Trajan (AD 98 – 117) who saw the
empire reach its greatest extent, the focus was almost
exclusively on
a) The Danube (involving conflict with the Dacians) and
b) The Euphrates (involving conflict with the Parthians).
BRITAIN
1. It had been principally under Domitian (AD 81 – 96) that
the focus of attention had moved from further west to the
Danube.

2. 2. This shift in emphasis had necessitated not only
abandoning further conquest in Britain but also the
withdrawal of troops.
3. Gnaeus Julius AGRICOLA had been governor of Britain
since AD 77 or 78.
4. Before Domitian became Princeps in 81, Agricola had
been very active as far north as central Scotland, reaching
the western end of the River Tay.

3. 5. In the fighting seasons of AD 81, 82, and 83 he
consolidated the Forth-Clyde line with forts, moved
around the Galloway Peninsula, and then, concentrating his
efforts along the eastern seaboard, advanced to the eastern
Tay.
6. In AD 84 (his 7th
season) he moved up the east coast
around the Grampians to the Moray Firth and
at the battle of ‘Mons Graupius’ [the site of which is yet to
be identified definitively] defeated the native leader
Calgacus.
7. Everywhere Agricola built forts.

5. 8. BUT at the end of the 84 season he was recalled to Rome
by Domitian – after a governorship of six years.
9. Central policy was changing: Domitian and his advisors
appear to have been asking if the total conquest of
Scotland (along with the invasion of Ireland which
Agricola may have been contemplating) was worth the
returns.
10. Developments along the Danube were beginning to
command more attention.

6. 11. It was probably one of Agricola’s immediate successors
who was responsible for the Gask Ridge limes (“border”)
as the withdrawal from the far north got underway.
The new fortress
for legion XX Valeria
Victrix at INCHTUTHIL
(north of Perth) was totally
abandoned in the move
INCHTUTUHIL
PERTH

7. 12. a) By AD 87 legion II Adiutrix at Chester had been
withdrawn from Britain (for service on the Danube).
b) Legion XX Valeria Victrix replaced it, after leaving
the new fort at Inchtuthil before it was complete.
13. a) A very large area south of the Gask Ridge was
abandoned, and
b) the line that was then garrisoned was that of the
Stanegate (essentially where Hadrian’s Wall was later
built).
14. All attempts to occupy land north of that line appear to
have ceased for the next 50 years.

8. THE GASK RIDGETHE GASK RIDGE
THE STANEGATETHE STANEGATE

9. GERMANY and THE RHINEGERMANY and THE RHINE
LIMES

10. 1. Under Vespasian (AD 69 – 79) much had been done to
begin the incorporation of the area of the ‘Black Forest’
between the Rhine and the Danube, and a limes with
defensive forts appears to have been taking shape.

11. 2. Under Domitian attention was directed particularly to the
territory of the CHATTI, long troublesome to Rome.
CHATTICHATTI

12. 3. a) How important Domitian’s ‘German Wars’ were is a
matter of debate.
b) Suetonius says they were of no significance at all.
4. Only FRONTINUS (fl. ca. AD 100) in his Strategemata
(1.3.10) gives us any detail, telling us that 75 km of
roads were built with respect to the territory of the Chatti
(the Taunus region north of Frankfurt).
5. But it is unclear whether the roads were 75 km
a) into the territory of the Chatti – to open up the way to
their formidable fortresses; or
b) along the frontier and so part of the parallel limes.

13. 5. We do know that
a) Domitian celebrated a triumph in AD 83 and took the
title “GERMANICUS”;
b) the Chatti were not totally subdued (since they were
willing to join Saturninus in January 89); BUT
c) the region was sufficiently stabilized to allow the
military emphasis to switch to the Danube without
endangering the Rhine front.
6. In short, Domitian was probably more successful in
Germany than the sources admit.
7. The point is that TRAJAN would not need to pay more
than a passing attention to the RHINE frontier.

14. Victories
against
“Germany”
Domitian
spearing a
German

15. THE DANUBE
1. On the Danube, Domitian followed Vespasian’s
practice of strengthening defences and developing
stronger client relations with peoples beyond the river.
2. In the early 80s, although extra auxiliary forces were
moved into Pannonia and Moesia (immediately below the Danube),
the number of legions was the same as under Nero –
namely 6.
3. BUT in the winter of AD 84-85 the DACIANS (from north
of the Danube in part of modern Romania) invaded Moesia
(south of the central-eastern sector south of the river) and even killed the
governor, Oppius Sabinus.
4. It is likely that legion V Alaudae was lost at the time.

16. MOESIAMOESIA

17. MOESIA

18. 5. The situation was so serious that Domitian, with the
Praetorian Prefect, Cornelius Fuscus, came himself from
Rome to Moesia in AD 85.
6. Dacian overtures for peace were rejected and Cornelius
Fuscus was sent over the river against the Dacians.
7. Details are not available but enough was achieved for
Domitian to be hailed “imperator” for the 10th
and 11th
times by the troops and to return to Rome in the summer.
8. BUT in AD 86 Cornelius Fuscus himself was killed in
action and Domitian hurried to the Danube again.

19. 9. Domitian divided Moesia into two provinces (Upper and
Lower) and moved three extra legions to the Danube front
(IV Flavia from Pannonia, I Adiutrix from the Rhine, and II
Adiutrix from Britain).
10. No action is recorded for AD 87, but in 88 the governor
of Upper Moesia went as far as the Dacian capital
(Sarmizegetusa) and won a major victory at Tapae – leading
to Domitian’s 15th
and 16th
salutations as imperator……
19. BUT the Dacians, under their assertive king
DECEBALUS, were by no means defeated.

20. Later
province
of
DACIA

21. The “Iron Gates” on the Danube

22. DECEBALUS
the Dacian king

23. 11. At this point eyes turned to the Rhine because of
Saturninus’ rebellion.
12. Although it was crushed before Domitian arrived, it was
probably there that he learnt that Suebian Germans
(Marcomanni and Quadi) were acting in a hostile way.
13. Very soon a treaty was signed with the DACIANS: Rome
would pay an annual subsidy to them and provide technical
assistance in return for “friendship”.
14. Hawks in Rome will have seen this as shameful BUT it was
probably a sound move so that war did not have to be
fought on two fronts at the same time.

25. The Marcomanni and the Quadi (Suebian Germans)
1. Cassius Dio (Roman History 67.7) refers, under AD 89, to
trouble with the Marcomanni and Quadi but without
details.
2. This is usually called “the First Pannonian War”, but
we do not know anything about it!
3. Domitian was back in Rome by November 89 and
celebrating a double triumph but because of victories
over the Chatti (punished for siding with Saturninus) and
over the Dacians!
4. During AD 90 and 91 his administration was using
diplomacy to strengthen ties with Germans beyond
the Marcomanni and Quadi:

26. a) Domitian received the king and the high priestess of
the Semnones and
b) offered military assistance to the Lugii.
5. Both tribes were also Suebian Germans.
6. We get the distinct impression that Rome was trying to
“surround” the Marcomanni and Quadi.
7. But by AD 92 it was clear the Sarmatian Iazyges were
forming close ties with the Marcomanni and Quadi

27. MARCOMANNI and QUADI (north of the upper Danube)
IAZYGES
(east of the
Danube)
DACIANS
(east of the
Iazyges and
north of the
lower Danube )

28. 8. Domitian himself again went to the Danube front
and a second “Pannonian War” lasting 8 months
was fought in AD 92
9. All we know is that:
a) the Dacians allowed Roman forces to pass through their
territory so that the Iazyges could be attacked from the
rear
b) detachments from nine different legions were active as
an expeditionary force under Velius Rufus
c) a legion was lost (possibly XXI Rapax)

29. d) Domitian celebrated an “ovation” rather than a
“triumph”. Were the successes minimal or was the
business unfinished?
[Note: If the future emperor Trajan was governor of Pannonia at this
time (an inscription from 1985), he will have been involved in a major way]
10. There appears to have been a build-up of auxiliary forces
on the Danube in Pannonia and Upper Moesia by 12th
July
AD 96.
All we can suggest is that Domitian was working
seriously to stabilize the Danube front when he was
assassinated in September AD 96.
Clearly there was still work to do along the Danube.

30. ASIA MINOR
Vespasian had created a huge militarized province of
Cappadocia- Galatia, stationing two legions on the
upper Euphrates at MELITENE and SATALA
Black Sea
Mediterranean
Sea
MELITENE
SATALA

31. Relations were also established with two peoples in
the Caucasus and probably with one south-east of
the Caspian Sea.
Caucasus
1. The Iberi (Iberians) [in modern Georgia] became Roman
“clients”
2. The Albani (Albanians) [in modern Azerbaijan] became
“clients” too and from AD 84 there was a unit from legion
XII Fulminata deep in their territory
It is most likely that it was Domitian (AD 81 – 96) who
established these contacts.

34. South-East of the Caspian Sea
1. The Hyrcanians had allowed the Alans to pass
through their territory from the north during the
reign of Vespasian when the Alans were attacking
Parthian territory.
2. The Hyrcanians were not necessarily Roman clients but
Domitian probably continued to ensure their friendship by
maintaining relations with them.
3. Parthia will not have appreciated the Roman state
building up these relationships (including those in the
Caucasus to the north of Armenia)

35. BUT the agreement over Armenia still held: Parthia
named
the king; Rome bestowed the throne on him

36. THUS when Trajan became Princeps in AD 98
a) The situation along the Danube was far from
satisfactory, not least with the DACIANS. Many in Rome
will not have found it totally to their liking that Rome
was paying an annual subsidy to a foreign king (albeit a
‘client’) who had demonstrated considerable
aggression and ambition.
b) Rome, in building up its military defences on the Upper
Euphrates and strengthening its diplomatic ties in the
Caucasus, is likely to have increased tensions with
Parthia - which might spark confrontation at the
slightest provocation.

37. Trajan added ‘DACIA’, ‘ARABIA’, ‘ARMENIA’,
and ‘MESOPOTAMIA’ [‘ASSYRIA’ is mentioned in late sources too]

38. Trajan added ‘Dacia’, ‘Arabia Petraea’, ‘Armenia’,
and ‘Mesopotamia’ [+ ‘Assyria’?]