Overview of urban developments in Rome during late Roman Empire

1. Transformations in Roman Europe in Late Antiquity
By the time of Hadrian, the Roman Empire was a very stable melting pot. So much
so that many emperors were “provincial”: e.g., Septimius Severus was from Libya
and his wife, Julia Domna from Syria. But problems would arise:
• Increasing conflict amongst Roman leaders that would lead to civil war,
ca. AD 217-284 and an East-West rift in Empire (4th-5th c. AD);
• Increasing movement amongst free native Europeans and pressure from outside
groups, such as the Huns;
• Natives’ increasing knowledge of the Empire – benefits of civilization, social and
military organization, law, economy;
• Part of East/West rift involved Christianity – East more strongly Christian, viewed
West as still largely “pagan” – therefore sometimes let barbarians in the back door
(perhaps with view that East could claim West).

2. Third century AD crisis
Factors:
Breakdown in dynastic system and rise of usurpers with personal ambitions;
Strength of army and Praetorian Guard coupled with weakening of the Senate;
Pressure from “barbarian” groups.
Intellectual challenges – what did “Roman” mean? Augustus lay 250 years in the
past.

3. Senate and People of Rome
Sacred in Republic and Early Empire, although disregarded by certain emperors
such as Caligula and Nero.
The more “Rome” meant the Empire, rather than city, SPQR were less effective.
Still yearly elections; also aristocracy increasinging non Italian – spread
throughout Empire; thus inability to convene in a serious manner. People more
frequently seeking election for power and wealth rather than to serve the State.
Nevertheless, solid through early Severan period.
Government was increasingly bureaucratic – Empire thrived well, but not so
many strong and ambitious leaders amongst the political ranks.

4. Army and Praetorian Guard
Army, at first, highly mobile – troops not maintained in same place for very long
and Auxiliary troops mixed (Tower of Babel theory – if soliders do not develop
strong ties to each other, they cannot pose an internal threat.
With relative peace, soldiers often in given location for long time and cohorts
based in frontier zones for generations. Psychologically – this leads to greater
sense of power. Strong ties to governors who are seeing to their upkeep and
pay.
Praetorian Guard (10,000 men) =
Emperor’s body guard and elite military
unit. Praetorian Prefect was leader.
Already at time of Tiberius, there was a
conspiracy vs. the Emperor. Few
Emperors were killed, though, but
increased violence and plots in late 2rd
and early 3rd century until the Crisis.
Dissolved by Constantine.

5. With the exception of the Marcomannic-Sarmatian wars under Marcus
Aurelius, the frontier zone was quite stable for much of Imperial period.
Economic exchange/reliance – “barbarians” frequently provided basic goods
and services in exchange for money.
Movement across border – natives entering Empire for trade or enlisting in
auxiliary forces; Romans crossing into Barbaricum for trade. Opportunity for
natives to comprehend Roman culture, see benefits and understand the system,
including military and political organization. Some “barbarian” kings began to
rule their populations like a mini-Roman emperor and populations adopted some
aspects of Roman culture (dress, coinage, Christianity).
With Roman political crisis in 3rd century, some native groups became
aggressive and attempted to gain Roman territories – Germans and Goths.

6. Germans and Goths waged war on Roman frontier

7. As strong and centralized as the government was, regions were also strong
and (too) many individuals had access to power: at any given time Emperor
(and co-regents), Praetorian Prefect, ca. 40 governors, 24 legionary generals.
Constant warfare along European frontier and in East.
In AD 214, all residents of the Empire granted citizenship under Caracalla;
therefore, while a great democracy, anyone now had access to power and
would use any means at their disposal to achieve power
General state of uncertainty – life and death? right and wrong? who should
people pay alligence to? who were Romans? what did Roman mean?
Religion did not necessarily play a direct role in Fall of Rome, but
philosophical thinking and nature of “monotheistic” religions had an influence
on leaders and the people.
Basis of 3rd century crisis.

8. General events:
Death of Septimius Severus, AD 211;
his sons Geta and Caracalla to co-rule,
BUT Caracalla with Praetorian Guard
backing him eliminated his brother;
Caracalla, in turn killed in AD 217,
setting off sequence of civil wars. One
emperor, Severus Alexander almost re-
established Imperial system, but killed
in AD 235.
Aurelian (AD 270-275) nearly settled
matters, but Diocletian (AD 284-305)
would have the ultimate solution…at
least for the next 20 years…

9. During these years little attention to city of Rome; even in Severan period,
not much building
Septimius: Arch of SS, Arch of Argentarii, Baths of Severus on Palatine and
Septemzodium (monumental fountain) also some major re-building (Forum of
Peace, Porticus of Octavia, Pantheon)

11. Temple of Elagabulus – Palatine Hill
Short-lived Severan emperor, AD 218-222
Deus Sol Invictus – Eastern sun god, which would become strongly worshipped.
(Romans ready for a new divinity – search for new identity, new greatness. Third
century also height of many mystery cults, such as Mithras).

12. Arch of Gallienus, Esquiline Hill
Gallienus, AD 253-268 (longest-lived
Emperor of crisis years, but only sole
emperor 260-268).

13. Aurelian Wall (AD 270-275)
Unified Empire once again after Gaul and Britiain formed a separate empire and
Syrians/Palmyrenes formed separate kingdom.

14. Diocletian – from Split, Dalmatia from
plebian family; skilled military commander
who rose through the ranks, trusted by
Emperor Carus; came to power 284 AD
following death of Carus and his sons.
Tetrarchy 293 AD – four-man rule:
Diocletian Aug. in East with Galerius as
Caesar
Maximian – Aug. In west with Constantius
as Caesar
Price Edict – AD 301 – set maximum
prices on goods and services

15. Diocletian’s period
AD 284-305
Monumental building and reconstruction,
But Diocletian himself only visited Rome
once, AD 304.

16. Diocletian and Maximian retired in AD 305
Constantius Chlorus and Galerius rose to rank of Augusti
Maximinus Daia and Severus named Caesars BUT
Constantine and Maxentius (sons of Constantius and Maximian) thought they
should have been chosen…
Constantius died in York 25 July 306, Constantine named emperor; Maxentius
named emperor a few months later……AND THEN THERE WERE FIVE…
Severus died in 307 in attempt to take Rome from Maxentius, prompted by
Galerius. Maximian had been brought back as emperor by Maxentius…
Galerius would elevate Licinius to Augustus…AND THEN THERE WERE SIX
Galerius, Licinius, Maximian – Augusti
Maximinus Daia, Constantine, Maxentius - Caesars
Maximian would go against his son, Maxentius, but lost; sought aid from
Constantine. Maximian forced to abdicate power…AND THEN THERE WERE
FIVE…

17. Galerius and Licinius – AUG
Constantine, Maxentius, Maximinus Daia – CAES
Galerius died 311 AND THEN THERE WERE FOUR…
Maximinus Daia self-elevated to AUG upon death of Galerius
Licinius and Constantine would form an alliance
Maximinus Daia and Maxentius would form an alliance
WAR – 312 – Constantine stormed down Italy, gaining support from cities as he
approached Rome
Verona
Milvian (Mulvian) Bridge – October 28 – Sibylline prophesy – “enemy of Rome
will be defeated”; famous sign of Cross
Licinisu defeated Maximinus Daia in 313
Constantine and Licinius victors…AND THEN THERE WERE TWO…

18. Maxentius in Rome
AD 306-312
Construction in Rome – Villa and circus of Maxentius, via Appia; re-built
Temple of Venus and Roma

19. Maxentius in Rome
AD 306-312
Characterized as ruthless / a tyrant, but everyone was fighting each other,
including Constantine. Supported Senate and People of Rome – probably
not as bad as Constantine portrayed him. Damnatio memoriae.

20. Reign of Constantine (Licinius in East)
Legalized and promoted Christianity, although how deep his faith was is still a
matter of debate:
AD 313 – Edict of Milan – Christianity legalized, all religions tolerated, Christian
property confiscated during Diocletian to be returned
AD 325 – Council of Nicea – in opening speech
Constantine urged harmony and deplored dissention,
saying that it was worse than war or disaster. Established
basis of Catholicism.
Brief wars vs. Franks, Sarmatians and Visigoths
AD 316-324 – Civil War between emperors
with Constantine as victor
During most of this time, Constantine’s base
was Trier, where his father had been based.

22. Building in Rome
Arch of Constantine
Monumentality
Triumph
Integration of art from
different periods.

28. Church building in Rome
About a dozen, including
St. Peter’s
St. John in Lateran
Catacomb churches
San Martino
Santa Croce
True, as Marina indicated, that most churches were outside city limits.
Reasons:
• Most pre-Constantinian Christian features were outside walls (catacombs
and villas used for congregations; saints and martyrs buried here;
• Space = grandeur – not much space available inside walls except on Lateran
property and the (small) San Martino;
• Did not want to compete (yet) with State religion (?). Unsure how
conservative pagans might react; Christianity still somewhat marginal?

29. St. John in Lateran, begun 312-315.
Estate owned by Laterani family in 1st c. AD, ownership changed hands;
belonged to Fausta (wife of C.), donated to Pope Miltiades. Baptistry adjacent.

30. Helena resided on Sessorian Estate – directly opposite St. John’s
Her grandsons built Santa Croce in Geraselemme

31. Development of Constantinople
Founded as Byzantium by Greeks, 7th c. BC, control Bosporus, linking
Black Sea and Aegean
Taken by Rome in early 1st c. BC – increasingly important port as Rome
claimed territories in Anatolia, Balkans and lower Danube.

32. Destroyed by Septimius Severus in late 2nd c. AD, but immediately
rebuilt. Original Roman features included the Hippodrome.
Summer 324 AD – Constantine became sole emperor – battle vs. rival
Licinius nearby; reportedly fell in love with the city and decided to
construct a “New Rome”
“New Rome” founded May 11, 330 AD
(20 days after April 21) – festivities
in Hippodrome.
Enlargement and embellishments
under later emperors: Theodosius,
Arcadius, Justinian…
Capital of the Byzantine Empire
Until AD 1453 ; then capital of the
Ottoman Empire…

33. Assessment of Constantine…
• Clearly interested in power/wealth/status
• Genuine interest/vision to unite Empire
• Perhaps did not immediately develop this Vision, nor did he understand, at first,
how to achieve this
• Eventually understood unifying elements of society and what elements cause
dissolution
• Displays of might and triumph – inspires awe
• Element of regality – Emperor as above all and in contact with God(s)
• Religion and superstition – can unite, but can also cause dissent. On this
note, while he promoted Christianity, all religious beliefs were tolerated;
always tried to intermediate between and within religions. Would ultimately
use Christianity as new and widely accepted mythology into which he,
himself, was placed, just as Caesar and Augustus had placed themselves in
pagan mythology (Venus – Aeneas – Romulus (Mars) – Caesar – Augustus).
Considered himself to be 13th Apostle (he was buried in Church of Holy
Apostles, Constantinople).
• Did he give up on Rome, the city? New city for a new age?

34. CONSTANTINOPLE:
THE “NEW ROME”