Dedicated roads for autonomous vehicles

MT5009:
Dedicated Roads for Autonomous Vehicles
Team Members:
Chang Poo Hee - Chin Mei Yin - Lin Rong Bin - Lua Xiang Lian - Tee Kim Chuan

Overview
Introduction
Concepts of Dedicated Road
Technologies for Dedicated Road
Singapore: Adoption of Autonomous Vehicles
Entrepreneurial Opportunities

Introduction
-What are AVs? – The Need for Dedicated Roads for AVs -

Introduction
Autonomous Vehicles
Self-Driving, Driver-free Cars
Fulfils transportation capabilities of a traditional car
AV senses environment with
Radar
Lidar
GPS
Computer Vision

Road Congestion
High Mobility
Ref: Self-Driving Cars: The Next Revolution by KPMG, 2012
Cost
Safety Human
Toll
Demographic
Trends
Running Out of
Space
The Need of Dedicated Road for AVs
Growing
Population
More vehicles
Road Congestion
Maximize road
capacity
High Vehicle Cost
(US21K~US$40K)
Less Usage
(Unused avg.
22Hrs/day in 5 years)
High Infra. Cost.
New: US$8~12M/mile
Main: US$1.25M/mile)
Low Productivity
(Total Hrs spent on
road 250hrs /year)
Distraction
(accounted for 21%
crashes)
High economic cost
US$300 Billion p.a.
Mobility challenges
(older drivers those
with disabilities)
Change in perception
Shared!!!!
Accidents Deaths
32,788 deaths,
2.2 millions injury
93% human errors
Population density
(1 car for 2.4 to
1 car for 1.2 people)
Lack of
parking lots / garages
Introduction

Where ARE we now?
Introduction
Ref: http://future-observatory.blogspot.sg/2014/01/fully-self-driving-cars-expected-by.html

Concepts of Dedicated Roads
V2V –V2I – Platooning – SMART Traffic Management Systems

Concepts: V2V V2I – Platooning – SMART
What is V2V V2I ?
V2V : Vehicle to Vehicle
V2I : Vehicle to Infrastructure

Communication Technologies for Car

Why Communicating Vehicles ?
Ref: http://www.toyota-global.com/innovation/intelligent_transport_systems/images/The_Future_of_Mobility.pdf

Applications
Vehicles exchange information to
determine location, speed and heading
Forward collision warning
Emergency electronic brake light
Blind spot / Lane change warning
Do not pass warning
Intersection movement assist
Left turn assist
Infrastructure sends situation to
vehicles to allow mapping of
intersection, signal phase and signal
change timing
Curve speed warning
Red light violation warning
Transit pedestrian detection
Ref: http://www.toyota-global.com/innovation/intelligent_transport_systems/images/The_Future_of_Mobility.pdf

What is Platooning ?
The goal of vehicle platoon control is to ensure that all the vehicles move
in the same lane at the same speed with desired inter-vehicle distances.
Types of Platooning
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC)

Functions of Vehicle Platooning
Longitudinal Control
• Speed
• Distance
Lateral Control
• Lane Tracking
• Lane Changing
Maneuver Coordination
• Platoon Formation
• Platoon Split

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
Ref: http://openroadautogroup.com/blog/active-cruise-control-systems

Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC)
Cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC)
uses V2V communication to provide enhanced
information to the ACC controller so that
vehicles can follow each other automatically
with higher accuracy, faster response, shorter
gaps, enhanced traffic flow stability and possibly
improved safety.
Ref: http://openroadautogroup.com/blog/active-cruise-control-systems

Smart Traffic Management System

Smart Traffic Management
System is an intelligent
transportation system that
comprises of data collection
and processing through DSRC
for users, roads and vehicles
Allow vehicles / infrastructure
to communicate and respond
Enhance mobility, reduce
emissions and fuel consumption,
improve safety and economic
competitiveness
Elimination of traffic lights via
Intersection movement assist
More funding is being dedicated to
traffic management system to help
address growing demand for
transportation assets without making
major new capital investments.
Ref: http://www.navigantresearch.com/blog/smart-transportation-systems-still-a-good-bet-in-tough-times-2

Less Traffic light delays:
From 100% human to fully
autonomous
Higher Speeds and Fuel Efficiencies:
By dedicating roads to AVs
Less congestion
Denser cities lower energy expenditures
Reduce accidents
Fuel savings by vehicle spacing and
platoon size of Buick LeSabres (1999
field tests), and of minivans derived from
wind tunnel drag
Ref: Intellimotion, Research Updates in Intelligent Transportation Systems Volume 9 No. 2 2000 Advances in Performance Measurement (Website:
http://www.path.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/documents/Intellimotion%209-2%202.pdf) A multiagent Approach to Autonomous Intersection Management. Kurt Dresner and Peter Stone, 2008

Supporting Technologies for
Dedicated Roads Concepts
Communication – Computation – Localization

Supporting Technologies for Dedicated Road Concepts
Communication Technology
Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC)
Infrastructure Data Networks
Computation Technology
Video Recognition
In-Vehicle Computing
Localization Technology
Radar
Radio-Frequency Identification
Magnets

Supporting Technologies for Dedicated Road Concepts
Overview
Computation
(Camera In
vehicle
computing)
Localization
(Rader, RFID
Magnets)
Communication (DSRC
Infrastructure data
network)

Technologies: Communication – Computation – Localization
Wireless Access for Vehicular Environments (WAVE)
Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication
enable autonomous driving in dedicated lanes
V2V: vehicles communication directly with neighbouring vehicles
V2I: two vehicles communicate indirectly by infrastructure
Infrastructure can include buildings or roadside units (RSU) or lamp poles,
traffic lights, gantries, etc.
Communications can be done via wireless, satellite and cellular. However, focus
will be made on wireless communication mode – DSRC where telematics need
to be embedded in the vehicle for communication to take place

DSRC Performance Envelopes
IEEE802.11P ~ 5.9GHz
Vehicular
Communication
Network
75MHz Spectrum
ADVANTAGE:
No interference from “Data
Transfer and Internet Access
Services” allow overlapping
communication zones
Existing DSRC network
12MHz Spectrum
DISADVANTAGE:
No protection, allowing
interference from other “Data
Transfer and Internet Access
Services” only allow 1
communication zone at any
point of time
Ref: http://groups.engin.umd.umich.edu/vi/w5_workshops/guo_DSRC.pdf

Requirements for DSRC
Changes will need to be made in IEEE 802.11 standards
Give raise to IEEE 802.11p
Support longer range of operations
High speed of vehicles
Extreme multipath environment
Need for multiple overlapping ad-hoc networks to operate with
extremely high quality of service
Nature of automotive applications to be supported
Ref: http://www.academia.edu/6055445/Intelligent_Transportation_Systems_Wireless_Access_for_Vehicular_Environments_WAVE

DSRC protocols defined by IEEE 802.11p
and IEEE 1609 standards for wireless
access in vehicular environments –
Vehicular Communication System
DSRC based intelligent transport system
can be done with a network of Road Side
Equipment (RSE) and On Board Equipment
(OBE) mounted in vehicles
A dedicated spectrum that allow vehicular
communication to be done safely avoiding
interruption from other traffic signals in
the network
Ref:
http://adrianlatorre.com/projects/pfc/img/vanet_full.jpg
http://www.atip.org/atip_content/download_root/ATIP%20Reports/1998/AP98080R.HTM

Distance vs. DSRC Signal Strength Performance
RSE should be placed within a gap of
300m in order for DSRC to achieve
maximum performance in V2V and
V2I
Within 300m, 5.9GHz DSRC signal is strong
Beyond 300m, the signal weakens and becomes unstable
Street lights along the road could serve as RSE Ref: http://www.itsasiapacificforum2014.co.nz/files/5314/0192/3941/Vehicle-to-Vehicle_and_Vehicle-to-
Infrastructure_Trial_with_Dedicated_Short_Range_Communication_5.9GHz_in_Singapore_by_Musthafa_Ibrahaim.pdf

DSRC for Active Safety Applications
Ref: http://www.pcb.its.dot.gov/eprimer/module13p.aspx

Steps to Kick Start Autonomous Vehicles in Dedicated Lanes
DSRC – IEEE 802.11p is needed to have a cooperative, active safety system
Dedicated 5.9GHz
Multiple overlapping of communication zones
Longer range of communications
Short latency
Government to provide the roadside infrastructure
DSRC transceiver to be embedded in vehicle

Potential Market Forecast of DSRC Potential Cost Forecast of DSRC
Global Growth Forecast for Embedded Vehicular
Telematics
17 times
Ref: http://www.gsma.com/connectedliving/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/gsma2025everycarconnected.pdf
Cost to Install Embedded Telematics in Vehicles
(including DSRC and Connected Vehicle
Technology Required
http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mdot/09-27-2012_Connected_Vehicle_Technology_-_Industry_Delphi_Study_401329_7.pdf
65% drop

Huge amounts of Data handling V2I communications
High performance of networking needed

Networking Trends
Bandwidth Improvements Over Time
Lower Latency
Ref:
http://www.automotiveworld.com/megatrends-articles/ethernet-fast-track-connected-car/
http://dupress.com/articles/from-exponential-technologies-to-exponential-innovation/
http://www.bomara.com/Garrett/wp_traffic_control.htm
Cost Decreasing

In IJCNN 2011, German Traffic
Sign Recognition Benchmark
Video Recognition
Machine can recognise traffic signs
at better standards than average
human!
Ref: Man vs. Computer:
Benchmarking Machine Learning Algorithms for Traffic Sign Recognition
J. Stallkampa, M. Schlipsinga, J. Salmena, C. Igelb

Video Recognition
Deep Learning-Requires Very intensive
machine computation!
In 2012, Google used Deep learning with
16,000 processors(cost US$ 1 million )
to recognise cats from YouTube Videos.
Ref: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/26/technology/in-a-big-network-of-computers-evidence-of-machine-learning.html?pagewanted=all_r=0

Cost of computing is going
down
Video recognition is
expected to improve its
accuracy along with
cheaper computing
Video Recognition

Cloud-Based Routing System
A centralised management system
Predicts transportation needs on various conditions
Learns from previous events that affects traffic flow
During times of excess road demand, a routing system will divert traffic to
other roads with excess capacity.
Many developing algorithms for traffic network optimisation
such as one described in “ Fast model predictive control for urban road networks
via MILP” by S Lin
Ref:
https://www.behance.net/gallery/2422404/Autonomo-2030-Concept-The-Details
http://www.dcsc.tudelft.nl/~bdeschutter/pub/rep/11_001.pdf

In-Vehicle Computing Platform
• Connected AVs will send and receive more
sensor and communication data
• More data for in-vehicle computing to handle
Ref: http://www.nexcom.com/applications/DetailByDivision/on-road-vehicle-computing-solutions

Rates of Improvement of Computing
Moore’s Law: No. of transistor in hardware ↑
Ref:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore's_law
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer
Speed of Calculation ↑
Cost of Computing ↓

Radar
long range radar
medium range radar
short range radar
adaptive cruise control (77GHz)
side impact assistance
blind spot detection
collision avoidance
auto-parking

Radar
What are the components in radar system?
Mostly Electronics!
Ref: http://www.ifp.illinois.edu/~varshney/cornell/publications/radar%20system%20components%20and%20system%20design.pdf

Radar

Radar
Trends of Automotive Radar
Higher Frequency Radar Chips(79 GHz band)
More reliable higher resolution
Much smaller antenna
Lower risk of mutual interference
Declining costs
Reducing cost of chips
Now cost about $100
Ref:
https://itunews.itu.int/en/3935-Future-trends-for-automotive-radars-Towards-the-79GHz-band.note.aspx
http://www.wireless-mag.com/Features/30286/advanced-radar-the-car-industry%E2%80%99s-autonomous-future.aspx

How about
LIDAR?
GPS?
Others
We will present on other technological alternatives…

Localization Technology in Harsher Environment
Rain
Tunnel
Snow Fog
Where am I ?
Where to Go?
No signals Multipath Propagation

Volvo’s project uses small magnets
(40x15mm) embedded 200mm under
the road surface
Car fitted with magnetic field sensors
Communicates to AVs where the road
is and where it is going
“The magnets create an invisible 'railway' that literally
paves the way for a positioning inaccuracy of less than
one decimeter. We have tested the technology at a
variety of speeds and the results so far are promising,”
says Jonas Ekmark, preventive safety leader at Volvo
Car Group.
Source: http://www.gizmag.com/volvo-road-magents-autonomous-cars/31172/
Magnets

Magnets
Advantages
Especially good at identifying lane division under debris (e.g.mud, snow, etc)
Can be used for safety (e.g. lane markings) and automatic switch for activating car’s
safety system off-road
GPS- and camera-based systems have far more potential for general-purpose
location-awareness, navigational, parking and collision-avoidance systems, but are
severely limited in poor visibility and at very close distances. Poor weather or poor
light can impinge on a camera's performance, whereas a GPS system can lose the
signal.
Magnets are also better than reflectors or other surface-mounted vison-assisting
road decorations because they can be mounted flush or even underneath a thin layer
of asphalt, and let road designers be far more precise in defining lane boundaries.

Cost
Vehicle Sensor rig = $109 (at
production scale of 50,000 units)
Highway infrastructure = $22,179/km
Total Cost of Implementation is about
$183 million
Volvo tested their sensor system at speeds
of up to 90 mph.
Source: http://www.wired.com/2014/03/volvo-magnets-autonomous/
Magnets

Infrastructure Cost
Magnets
Types of Roads Length (Km) Cost ($)
Total 3,453 76,584,087
Expressways 164 3,637,356
Arterial Roads 662 14,682,498
Collector Roads 571 12,664,209
Local Access Roads 2,055 45,577,845

Vehicle Modification Cost
Magnets
Types of Vehicles No. of Vehicles Cost
Total 969,910 $ 105,720,190
Cars (includes private and
company cars)
605,149 $ 65,961,241
Rental Cars 14,862 $ 1,619,958
Taxis 28,210 $ 3,074,890
Buses 17,162 $ 1,870,658
Motorcycles Scooters 144,110 $ 15,707,990
Goods Other Vehicles 160,417 $ 17,485,453

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
Frequency Ranges
1) Low-frequency (30 KHz to 500 KHz)
2) Mid-Frequency (900KHz to 1500MHz)
3) High Frequency (2.4GHz to 2.5GHz)
Components
A basic RFID system consists of three components:
Host System ( Transceiver with decoder)
An antenna or coil (Reader)
A transponder (RF tag)

http://www.ibtechnology.co.uk/rfidanswers.htm

Operation Modes
Passive • Also called ‘pure passive’, ‘reflective’ or ‘beam powered’
• Obtains operating power from the reader
• The reader sends electromagnetic waves that induce current in the tag’s antenna,
the tag reflects the RF signal transmitted and adds information by modulating the
reflected signal
Semi-passive • Uses a battery to maintain memory in the tag or power the electronics that enable
the tag to modulate the reflected signal
• Communicates in the same method, as the other passive tags
Active • Powered by an internal battery, used to run the microchip’s circuitry and to
broadcast a signal to the reader
• Generally ensures a longer read range than passive tags
• More expensive than passive tags (especial because usually are read/write)
• The batteries must be replaced periodically

Rates of Improvement of RFID for Tag Range VS. Chip Power Sensitivity
(Year 1997 – 2011)

Cost
RFID Tag = $0.50
Infrastructure Cost = $2,500/km
(Assuming 5 RFID tags are required for every
metre)
RFID Reader = $100
(Based on Mid Frequency Readers)
Total Cost of Implementation is about
$106 million
Source: http:///sunxran.wordpress.com/rfid-the-future-to-be
http://www.rfidjournal.com/faq/show?85

Infrastructure Cost
Types of Road Length (Km) Cost ($)
Total 3,453 8,632,500
Expressways 164 410,000
Arterial Roads 662 1,655,000
Collector Roads 571 1,427,500
Local Access Roads 2,055 5,137,500

Vehicle Modification Cost
Types of Vehicles No. of Vehicles Cost ($)
Total 969,910 96,991,000
company cars)
605,149 60,514,900
Rental Cars 14,862 1,486,200
Taxis 28,210 2,821,000
Buses 17,162 1,716,200
Motorcycles Scooters 144,110 14,411,000
Goods Other Vehicles 160,417 16,041,700

Magnets RFID
MAGNETS
RADIO FREQUENCY
IDENTIFICATION (RFID)
Infrastructure Cost $ 76,584,087 $ 8,632,500
Vehicle Modification Cost $ 105,720,190 $ 96,991,000
Total Implementation Cost $ 182,304,277 $ 105,623,500
Per Vehicle Cost
(Total Implementation Cost/Total
No. of Vehicles)
$ 187.96 $ 108.90
Cost

Magnets RFID
At current state of technology,
The reliability and accuracy of technologies such as LIDAR and GPS are subject to
certain conditions such as weather, GPS coverage, etc
With the implementation of localization technologies such as Magnets and RFID,
The local infrastructure will be ready for a fully AV system with higher reliability and
accuracy.
There is a potential to replace the need for expensive equipment such as LIDAR and
GPS for localization due to the lower implementation cost per vehicle. With the
removal of localization equipment from AVs, the price of AVs will drop significantly.
The overall cost of implementation of AVs will also decrease.

Equipment Costs for Vehicles
Conclusion
COMPONENTS ESTIMATED COST
Communications Technologies
Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) $500
Computation Technologies
In-Vehicle Computing Platform1 $2,000
LocalizationTechnologies
Radar $100
Magnets $109
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) $100
Source [1] http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/157099-2014-lexus-is-hands-on-review-500-adaptive-cruise-handling-to-match-the-bmw-3-series

Conclusion
The local infrastructure will be ready for a fully AV system with higher reliability and
accuracy.
Shift of implementation costs from consumers
• Portion of the implementation costs will be infrastructure costs which will likely to be borne by the
government. This will lower the cost of AVs to the consumers.
Lower implementation costs of AVs due to replacement technologies
• Replacement of expensive equipment costs due to LIDAR and GPS
With higher reliability and accuracy of AVs and lower cost of AVs, the adoption of AVs
will likely increase at a faster rate.
Potentially, less vehicles may be required on the road.

Singapore: Adoption of
Autonomous Vehicles

Political
Economic
Environmental
Technological Social
Legal
PESTLE Analysis

Political
CARTS (Committee on Autonomous Road Transport for Singapore)
provide thought leadership and guidance on the research, development and deployment of AV
technology and AV-enabled mobility concepts for the city-state, and study the associated
opportunities and challenges.
Singapore Autonomous Vehicle Initiative (SAVI)
Autonomous Vehicles: The research partnership will look at the feasibility of having AV (e.g.
driverless buses) for a mass transport service that operates on fixed routes and scheduled
timings.This can alleviate Singapore’s heavy reliance on manpower.
Autonomous mobility system: Another area of exploration is a new mobility system for
intra-town travel in future residential developments using a network of customised and
demand-responsive shared vehicles. This can potentially serve as a convenient first mile/last mile
transport mode within a residential town, and can pave the way for towns which are less
oriented towards car-based mobility.
Automated road system: The collaboration will also aim to prepare technical and statutory
requirements for the mass adoption of driverless vehicles in Singapore, and explore applications
which can enhance traffic management.

Benefits
Economic
Reduce crashes, energy consumption and pollution
Reduce the costs of congestion
Occupants of vehicles could undertake other activities
Increased throughput on roads due to more efficient vehicle operation and reduced delays
from accidents
Freeing up of land space due to parking space leading to greater development
Over time, as the frequency of crashes is reduced, vehicles can be made lighter, increasing fuel
economy even more
Challenges
Jobs displacement for many occupations such as taxi, truck and bus drivers
Decline in insurance companies, body shops, medical services, etc, due to reduction in
accidents
Increase in overallVehicle MilesTravelled (VMT) due to decreased cost of driving

Ref: Singapore Traffic Police
Economic
Singapore Road Accident Rate

MOTOR VEHICLE POPULATION BY TYPE OF VEHICLE
Ref: Singapore Land Transport Authority
Singapore Motor Vehicle Population 2013
62%
1%
2%
3%
15%
17%
2013
company cars) (605,149)
Rental Cars (14,862)
Taxis (28,210)
Buses (17,162)
Motorcycles Scooters
(144,110)
Economic

Benefits
Social
Increase mobility for those who are currently unable or unwilling to drive
Independence, reduction in social isolation, and access to essential services
Commuters more willing to travel longer distances to and from work.
Car-sharing to potentially increase interaction
Challenges
People may not be willing to accept driverless vehicles (i.e. previous experiences of
LRT breakdowns)

Ref: Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predications, 4 Jun 2014
By Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Social
Vehicle Technology Deployment Summary

Autonomous Vehicle Sales, Fleet and Travel Projections
Ref: Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predications, 4 Jun 2014
By Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute
Social

Technological
Benefits
As the frequency of crashes is reduced, cars and trucks could be made much lighter and
hence many of the issues limiting the use of electric and other alternative vehicles are
reduced
Decreased number of crashes and associated lower insurance costs that these
technologies are expected to bring about will encourage drivers and automobile-insurance
companies to adopt these technologies.
Challenges
Manufacturers’ product liability may increase leading to delays in the adoption of AVs
Concerns may slow the introduction of technologies likely to increase that liability, even
if they are socially desirable.

- NAIVA(autonomous electric shuttle), partnership
between NTU, JTC and Induct Technologies
- Supported by the Singapore Economic Development
Board (EDB)
Shared Computer Operated
Transport (SCOT)
- Collaboration between Singapore-MIT
Alliance for Research and Technology
(SMART) and NUS
- Funded by the Singapore National
Research Foundation (NRF) through
SMART at the Campus for Research
Excellence And Technological Enterprise
(CREATE)
Autonomous
Unmanned
Ground
Vehicle
(AUGV)
- Developed by
ST Kinetics
Technological

Challenges
Legal
Standards and Regulations for Autonomous Vehicle
Technologies
Currently no standards or regulations in Singapore on AVs
Liabilities of drivers and insurance
Potential increase in manufacturers; product liability which could lead to delays
in adoption
Warnings and consumer education will play a crucial role in managing
manufacturer liability but concerns may slow the introduction of technologies
likely to increase that liability, even if they are socially desirable

Environmental
Benefits
Over time, as the frequency of crashes is reduced, cars and trucks could be made
much lighter. This would increase fuel economy even more.
AVs might reduce pollution by enabling the use of alternative fuels. The light vehicle
body may enable the use of electric and other alternative vehicles
The use of AVs would allow a viable system with fewer refueling stations than would
otherwise be required.
A platoon of closely spaced AVs that stops or slows down less often resembles a train,
enabling lower peak speeds (improving fuel economy) but higher effective speeds
(improving travel time).
Challenges
On the other hand, decreases in the cost of driving, and additions to the pool of
vehicle users (e.g., elderly, disabled, and those under 16) are likely to result in an
increase in overall VMT. While it seems likely that the decline in fuel consumption and
emissions would outweigh any such increase, it is uncertain.

1) Auto OEMs Suppliers
•↑ Demand for Communicating Vehicles
• AV Testing Servicing Industry
2) Components Manufacturers
•↑ Demand within Automotive Semiconductor industry: sensors, display, data storage, communications.
3) Software Vendors/
Data Mgnt Analyst Companies
• OEM Design for AVs
• Dedicated Road System, e.g. Smart Traffic Light on roads
• Big Data within V2X : Cloud system, real-time traffic monitoring.

4) Telecommunication Service Providers
• Must have: Full coverage of all highways road in dedicated roads
•↑

- I
y
.
5) Media Advertisers
• In-Vehicle TV Subscription Services
• Outdoor Advertising on Dedicated Road
6) Transportation Svs Companies: Cargo
Passengers Svs
• Fleet mgnt svs for delivery trucks e.g. UPS, FedEx
• Car Rental Svs; Car Sharing; Auto-Taxi Scheme

Intersection Movement Assist
The future with no traffic lights
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pbAI40dK0A#action=share

Trend of Wi-Fi Technology
General increasing trend of
wireless network
Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11

Plot of signal attenuation at sea level and 20°C vs frequency
Ref:
http://electronicdesign.com/communications/millimeter-waves-will-expand-wireless-future
Radar
shows how oxygen (at 60 GHz) and water at the other peaks
in the atmosphere significantly increase signal attenuation.

Ref: http://radar-detectors-review.toptenreviews.com/
Radar

SINGAPORE: TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
Types of Roads Description
Expressways
Refer to roads that provide planned long-distance mobility from one
part of the island to another without the interruption of traffic lights.
Arterial Roads
Refer to roads connecting an expressway with roads surrounding or
passing through estate developments. They also improve traffic
circulation between adjacent towns.
Collector Roads
Refer to roads forming links between local roads and arterial roads
and providing links to building or land developments.
Local Access Roads
Refer to roads that provide direct access to buildings and other
developments and that only connect with collector roads.
Source: LTA

Dedicated roads for autonomous vehicles

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