Lecture delivered at the Post Graduate Institute of Humanities and Social sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka on 10th September 2017 with following contents: Introduction; Indigenous Knowledge in Sri Lanka; Traditional Agricultural Technology; Practicing Agricultural Rituals in Sri Lanka; Natural Disasters in Sri Lanka; Drought -Hambantota; Tidal Waves – Galle; Flood – Kaluthara; Landslides – Rathnapura; Cyclone – Ampara; Fate of Indigenous Knowledge

1. P.B. Dharmasena
0777 - 613234, 0717 - 613234
dharmasenapb@ymail.com , dharmasenapb@gmail.com
https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/contributions
http://www.slideshare.net/DharmasenaPb
Indigenous Knowledge and Disaster Risk Reduction
in Agricultural Sector
Course code: GGY 622
10.09.2017 from 8.00 am to 11.00 am.
Post Graduate Institute of Humanities and Social sciences,
University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

2. Content
• Introduction
• Indigenous Knowledge in Sri Lanka
• Traditional Agricultural Technology
• Practicing Agricultural Rituals in Sri Lanka
• Natural Disasters in Sri Lanka
• Drought -Hambantota
• Tidal Waves – Galle
• Flood – Kaluthara
• Land slides – Rathnapura
• Cyclone – Ampara
• Fate of Indigenous Knowledge

3. This visualization of a gravity model was created with
data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate
Experiment (GRACE) and shows variations in Earth’s
gravity field.

4. Where Sri Lanka is located?
2500 BC
1903
1903 – Wright Brothers’ Air plane
2,500 BC – Lanka – India Air planes

5. On December 17, 1903, Orville Wright piloted the first powered airplane 20 feet above
a wind-swept beach in North Carolina, USA

6. FLYING MACHINES
Mercury technology
Their method of propulsion, was "anti-gravitational―
"a centrifugal force strong enough to counteract all
gravitational pull."

7. Ravana with 10 heads??

8. Kevesastha
(Northern)
Upulwangiri
Rakungiri
Mahagiri
Chalaka
Neelagiri Kawasthalabha
Dhumaka Kaddeera Indra
Agni

9. Kevesastha (Northern)
Upulwangiri (Kala
Oya)
Rakungiri (Malwathu Oya)
Mahagiri (Samanala
mountain area) –
Kelani, Kalu, Walawe,
Mahaweli
Chalaka (Mi Oya)
Neelagiri
(Modaragam Aru)
Kawasthalabha (Yan oya)
Dhumaka Kaddeera
(Deduru Oya) Indra (Maduru Oya,
Mundeni Aru, Gal oya)
Agni (Kumbukkan Oya,
Menik Ganga, Kirindi
Oya

10. Agriculture based evolutionary process

11. Potential for agriculture is around the equator

12. EVOLUTION OF SMALL
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN SRI LANKA
Three Stages of Evolution
Wild animals
Customs
Natural disasters
External invasions
Primary
Agricultural
Society
Discipline
Traditions
Sharing
Rearing
Farming
Water
Protection
Beliefs
Food Primary
Community Practices
Gathering
Hunting
Secondary
Agricultural
Society
Trading
Industry
Agriculture Culture
Technology
Politics
Kingship - leadership
Transport

13. Asurēndran, son of Tārakan, went to
Surapadman and informed him of Tārakan's
death and wept.
Surapadman upon hearing that Murugan, a
mere child, had killed his mighty brother
Tārakan, became furious.
Lord Murugan had camped on the bank of the
river Manni with his army.
Surapadman was sitting upon a throne
decorated with diamonds and pearls.
Veerabahu introduced himself as Lord
Murugan's messenger, but Surapadman
ignored him and did not invite him to sit
down.
Lord Murugan too decided to fight with the
asuras and eliminate them. He went to Sri
Lanka with his army and camped at
Emakudam.
Kanda Puranam

14. Narada reported this to Surapadman,
who became very angry and vowed
to kill Murugan as soon as possible.
On the fourth day of battle Murugan
killed Agnimukhan and on the fifth
day he killed Banugopan and
Tarumagopan. Surapadman wept in
sorrow, seeing his followers being
killed.
Murugan hurled his Vel and split the
mango tree. The Vel split
Surapadman's indestructible body in
two, one half becoming a cock and
the other half a peacock. Lord
Murugan made the peacock to be
His vehicle and the cock to be the
emblem on His battle flag.
Kanda Puranam

15. Queen Devayani Sister Mandratha
Prince Tharaka
(Kelaniya)
Prince Soorapadma
(Thissamaharama)
Prince Singhemukha
(Lankapura)
Prince Kuwera
(Alakamanda)
King Ravana
(2554 – 2517 BC
Chithrakuta)
King Vibhishana
(Kelaniya) Kashyapa (479-496
AD) Sigiriya

16. What is Indigenous Knowledge ?
• Unique to a given culture or society.
• Techniques, practices, customs,
traditions and beliefs in rural life
(agriculture, health care, food
preparation, education, natural
resource management, social unity
etc.)
• Information base
• Dynamic and changing (creativity,
trial and error).
• Wealth of the community established
over time
• Adapted to local culture and
environment.
16

17. 17
Systems of knowledge are many.
Among these, modern science is only one,
though the most powerful and universal.
Rural people’s knowledge is in contrast
‘situated’, differing both by locality and by
group and individual, and differing in its
modes of experimenting and learning:
different people know different things in
different places, and learn new things in
different ways.
– Robert Chambers, 1994

18. • Rural people understand the soil
salinity by observing the plants
found in an area.
– Vetakeya (Pandanus kaida),
– Diwul (Feronia limonia),
– Keeriya (Acacia chundra),
– Indi (Phoenix zeylanica),
– Ikiriya (Hygrophila spinosa),
– Pothu-pan (Scleria poaeformis),
– Illuk (Imperata cylindrical).
• Good rains are expected if they
observe more flowers in wood
apple trees.
Very common Examples of Indigenous Knowledge
18

19. Indigenous knowledge
• Indigenous knowledge has two powerful advantages
over outside Knowledge
– It has little or no cost and is readily available.
– Indigenous knowledge systems and technologies are
found to be socially desirable, economically affordable,
sustainable, and involve minimum risk to rural farmers
and producers
• Above all, they are widely believed to conserve
resources.
• There are situations in which modern science is not
appropriate, and use of simpler technologies and
procedures are required. Thus, indigenous knowledge
provides basis for problem solving strategies for
local communities, especially the poor.

20. Indigenous knowledge
• Indigenous knowledge has always placed human
being within the context of total environment.
• As such it pays attention to all living things including
plants, animals, water, soil and other natural
resources.
• It tries to achieve human well- being without
jeopardizing the environmental totality.
• For example, people are not permitted to destroy
woods haphazardly, although clearing jungles is
needed for cultivation.
• There is a jungle low to which people should obey.
Forests cannot be burned without following certain
rituals.

21. Traditional Agricultural Technology
Special features:
• Understanding the
nature
• Water and moisture
• Social cohesion
• Leaving out
• Practicing
agricultural rituals

22. Cosmo-spiritual
powers
Socio-cultural
dimension
Bio-physical process
Native agriculture

23. Native classification of months
Sinhala month Period
Duruthu Mid December – mid January
Nawam Mid January – mid February
Medin Mid February – mid March
Bak Mid March – mid April
Wesak Mid April – mid May
Poson Mid May – mid June
Esala Mid June – mid July
Nikini Mid July – mid August
Binara Mid August – mid September
Wap Mid September – mid October
Ill Mid October – mid November
Unduwap Mid November – mid December

24. • Yala season (2017)
– Medin (mid Feb. – mid
March)
– 15th crescent – 12th March
– Yala commences with
rains and thunderstorms
on 11th crescent of the
moon month ‘Medin’ (8th
March 2017)
• Maha season (2017)
– Nikini (mid July – mid
August)
– 15th crescent – 7th August
– Maha commences with
Nikini palu wessa (rains
and thunderstorms) on
jalawaka (4th day after
15th crescent of Nikini) –
11th August
– Chena cultivation begins
with akwessa in pre maha
Understanding the Nature - Whether forecasting

25. 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Rainfall
(mm)
Date
Daily rainfall data at Mahailluppallama – March 2017

26. 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Daily rainfall data at Mahailluppallama – August 2017

27. Understanding the Nature – Drought forecasting

28. 1. Leaves of many trees show wilting unusually.
2. When they receive relatively low rainfall in a maha season,
they expect a long drought until next maha season. Dry
winds blowing across the village aggravates the drought
condition.
3. Tanks go dry early. When they observe fast drying of tanks
they get prepared to face a drought.
4. Dark clouds are hardy observed and the wind speed
increases. Clouds do not move and hot condition prevails.
Wind carries dust and makes surrounding warm.
5. Before a drought people will notify that the morning is cold
and it becomes warm gradually. People use to seek for tree
shades when they feel uncomfortable due to hot condition
during day time. The body is dehydrated due to dry wing
rather than from hot sun.
Understanding the Nature – Drought
forecasting

29. Understanding the Nature – Flood forecasting

30. 1. People can hear unusual thundering sounds. It seems to be
that the sounds come from underground. The sound makes
children frightened.
2. The surrounding shows strange dark look. It is darker than
the darkness one can see just before a usual rain spell.
3. Dogs bark for a long time without having a rest. They bark
as a group or from different locations in the village.
4. People observe that white ants move upward along trees as a
track.
5. The surrounding becomes colder than that they feel in
normal rainy days.
Understanding the Nature – Flood forecasting

31. 6. People observe some kinds of insects such as
grasshopper, dragonfly etc. move out of their places
and fly around.
7. Snakes attempt to creep into houses. People make
special attention about snakes when observed.
8. Ant tracks can be observed moving into houses.
9. Clouds appear becoming darker than usual.
10. People can observe lightning, but it does not follow
any rains.
Understanding the Nature – Flood forecasting

32. Rains come soon
• Cocks eat sand
• Swallow (wahi lihiniya)
flies at low levels
• Rainbow appearance
• Bud of Daluk plant
becomes round
• Flowering midella
• Termite in coconut
spathe
• Lapwing (Kirala)
roaming in paddy fields
• Crow baths mud water
• Western sky is red
• Night misting
Understanding the Nature - Whether forecasting

33. If the bird lapwing lays eggs close to dead storage,
maha rains will be poor
If the bird lays eggs at the upstream end of the tank
bed, maha rains will be high
Whether forecasting

35. • If the weaver bird makes the nest at high level the tank
water level will be high
• If the weaver bird makes the nest at low level the tank
water level will be low

37. Maha Oya in 2013

38. Vavuniya in 2014

39. • If the tamarind tree buds early, maha rains will come early
• If the wood apple tree blooms more, maha rains will be
high
• If the Sept. rains are low, maha season rains will be high
• If the Sept. rains are high, maha season rains will be poor

40. 600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
September rainfall (mm)
Rainfall relationship between September and remaining maha
season (Oct. – Feb. ) Mahailluppallama (1905 – 2003)
Oct.
–
Feb.
Rainfall
(mm)

41. Social cohesion
• Working together – ‘Ekathu pada nowi hari haman wedak noran’
• Sharing
– Hada beda ganeema and beda hada ganeema (grow and
share and share and grow)
– Bethma - It is a practice that temporarily redistributes plots of
land among shareholders (paddy landowners) in part of the
command area (territory) of a tank (reservoir) during drought
periods.
– ‘Pangu’ method—The tank had to be maintained properly to
avoid breach, leak, and excess seepage. Repair and desiltation
of tanks and cleaning of canals during dry periods are shared
tasks assigned to each farmer proportionately to land
ownership
• Village commons (common ownership)
– Micro-landscapes are utilized to reduce tank water losses,
mitigate salinity effects, prevent tank sedimentation and so on

42. Land sharing in chena
cultivation
Share equally the extent,
soil productivity and
security
Mulketa hena
Social cohesion (Sharing)

43. Social cohesion - Land sharing in chena cultivation
Land sharing in chena
cultivation
Share equally the extent,
soil productivity and
security
Irawili hena

44. Leaving out
• Chena cultivation – lands after cultivation are left out for
years. Reason behind is to rejuvenate the land productivity
• Kurulupaluwa – cultivation is left out for birds
• Village commons – ownership is left out
• Forest tanks are left out for wild life

46. Practicing agricultural rituals in sri
lanka
⪤Most of the traditional practices are
used extensively in the north
central, northwestern, southern and
Uva provinces.
⪤In the more developed provinces
these practices have largely
disappeared due to the extensive use
of chemicals.
⪤In the north and east they are used
as well, but with some variations
due to Tamil and Hindu influence
46

47. Spirits and Supernatural Beings
⪤The majority of Sri Lankans are Buddhists (70%)
and 10% are Hindus. People believe in gods and
other deities and it is customary to invoke their
blessings.
⪤People also believe in a category of spirits that are
neither gods nor demons: bahirawas, who are
believed to live underground and within air space.
⪤When gods are angered or not treated properly,
deaths, epidemics, quarrels, crop failures, animal
losses, and many more disasters occur in society
47

48. Spirits and Supernatural Beings
⪤All matter is believed to exist in three
physical forms: solid (apo), liquid
(theyo) or vapour (vayo).
⪤Rural people have learned to handle this
multitude of forces.
⪤local priests and shamans who live a
pious life can perform rituals at
auspicious times and at specific
locations during which mantras
(sounds), yantras (symbols), and plants
are used to create the good vibrations
for plant and animal life and human
health
48

49. Astrology
⪤Astrology also plays a dominant role in agriculture,
especially in the cultivation of rice. Farmers believe
that certain days are good for beginning cultivation.
⪤Most farmers follow the astrological calendar or
pancha suddiya to ensure success and avoid bad luck.
⪤Pancha suddhiya involves the following five aspects
⪤Adherence to 'good' and 'bad' days
⪤The position of the moon in relation to the earth
⪤The auspicious hora or one -hour period
⪤Avoid facing certain directions on certain days
⪤The evil period
49

50. Eco-friendly practices
⪤Minimal tillage of the land
⪤Mixed cropping and seeding
wherever possible
⪤Fencing activities at auspicious
moments
⪤Crop protection like the cultivation
of a small portion of land to attract
birds for pest management in
paddy
⪤Use of plants or plant extracts (bio-
pesticides)
50

51. Spiritual practices
⪤Rituals have been used in Sri Lankan agriculture to
support crop growth and animal husbandry and to
chase away wild animals or pests that damage the
crops.
⪤Frequently they are being practiced away from the
eyes and ears of outsiders.
⪤One of the most important rituals is the pooja or
offering, carried out during the annual festival that
is called Mangalya.
⪤Pirith chanting is used to obtain protection for
crops and cultivation.
51

52. Spiritual practices – Yanthra manthra
⪤Farmers often chant pirith to prevent or obtain relief from
crop diseases, animal epidemics and evil effects.
⪤A mantra is a certain type of verse, a combination of
carefully selected sounds that together create a nucleus of
spiritual energy
⪤There are mantras to ask rats to leave the field, mantras to
enhance a healthy crop and mantras to reduce the damage
by paddy bugs.
⪤Yantras are used to secure protection from one s enemies,
the anger of the gods or evil spirits, ill effects of planets,
forces of nature, envy and the evil eye.
52

53. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤The term Kem is derived from the Sanskrit kshema
which means protection. The earliest references to Kem
are found in the thirteenth century literary works
Pujavaliya and Saddharmaratnavaliya but it is possible
that kem practices existed in society from earlier times.
⪤ A kem is a kind of practice, technique or custom that is
followed in order to obtain some favourable effect such as
relief from a specific illness.
⪤ Some kems are mechanical methods, like the lighting of fire
torches.
⪤ There are various conditions that have to be met to make the
working of kems successful. For example, the farmer should
not visit the field being treated for a specific period.
53

54. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤They believe that that plant diseases could
be remedied, pests could be controlled
and harvest could be protected by
resorting to certain Kem measures.
⪤14th – 15th centuries in some Tamil
literary texts it states that
⪤ Ashes of the burnt wood of a ruined house
or hut were spread on the ridges of the
paddy field to protect the crop from birds,
insects and wild animals.
54

55. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤At present spreading ash on paddy
plants in the morning
⪤ Before smearing ash, water is
drained from the field and after
smearing, the field is kept dry for
four days.
⪤ Due to the effect of ash, insects on
paddy plants move downwards from
the plant and on to the soil.
⪤The eggs of the insects are also
wiped out by the farmer with a
bundle of Keppetiya (Croton
laccifer) leaves. After four days the
field is inundated again and the
insects that moved down due to the
effects of ash die in water.
55

56. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤In remote areas of the
Kurunegala district,
insects that harm the
paddy plants were
removed by burning
dried leaves of
Gandapana (Lantana
camara), Keppetiya,
Dodampana (Glycosmis
pentaphylla) and Sera
(Cymbopogon citrates).
⪤ It is believed that
fumigating would dispel
the flies and insects.
56

57. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤ The Kem measures associated with
smearing the crushed plant parts
⪤Madu (Cycas circinalis),
⪤Valdel (Atrocarpus
nobilis),
⪤ Kokkana or kokun
(Kokoona zeylanica),
⪤Godapara (Dillenia
retusa),
⪤Demata (Gmelina
asiatica)
⪤Kukuruman (Randia
dumetorum)
Most of these emanate a
strong smell which is
disliked by insects and so
they leave the paddy field.
57

58. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤ juice obtained by crushing roots
or leaves of
⪤ Katurumurunga (Sesbania
grandflora),
⪤ Devata (Carallia brachiata),
⪤ Kapparavalliya (Coleus
amboinicus),
⪤ Daluk (Euphorbia
antiquorum),
⪤ Vara (Calatropis giganta),
⪤ Endaru or castor (Ricinus
communis),
⪤ Niyangala (Gloriosa superba),
⪤ Keppetiya,
⪤ Karanda (Pongambia glabra)
These are mixed with
water in the paddy field
by farmers to wade off
the pests.
58

59. Spiritual practices - Kem
⪤ In Nuvarakalaviya and
Tamankaduwa, farmers prepare
a concoction (mixture) of
⪤Magnesium sulphate
(Sahinda lunu),
⪤ Potash alum
(Seenakkaran),
⪤Copper sulphate
(Palmanikkam)
Mixture is applied to water
of the paddy field in
order to get rid of
harmful pests. 59
⪤In Siyane Korale,
Hopitigam Korale, Alutkuru
Korale, Hanguranketha and
Kotmale farmers
⪤Wet a large piece of
cloth by soaking it with
a mixture of resins
(dummala) oil
⪤Fit on to a rope.
⪤Before sunrise the rope
was dragged through the
paddy field by two
persons holding the ends
and insects got trapped
in the sticky cloth.

60. Spiritual practices - Kem
• The oil lamp or torch Kem (pahan
kema).
– Tiny clay pots or seedless raw
papaya (Carica papaya) pieces
were used as lamps.
– The oils of either coconut (Cocos
nucifera), Kohomba, Mee
(Madhuka longifolia), Sesame or
Kekuna (Scutinanthe zeylanicum)
is poured into these lamps and the
wicks of the lamps were burnt for
three nights.
60

61. Spiritual practices - Kem
• The oil lamp or torch Kem (pahan
kema).
– Tiny clay pots or seedless raw
papaya (Carica papaya) pieces
were used as lamps.
– The oils of either coconut (Cocos
nucifera), Kohomba, Mee
(Madhuka longifolia), Sesame or
Kekuna (Scutinanthe zeylanicum)
is poured into these lamps and the
wicks of the lamps were burnt for
three nights.
61

62. They Believe Beyond Scientific
Principles – Time Tested Facts
Risks of farming due to
factors such as flood,
drought, pest and
diseases, damages from
wild animals etc. were
reduced through
adoption of auspicious
times and spiritual
powers in farming
operations, timely
cultivation, crop
management etc.
62

63. Natural Disasters

64. What are the natural disasters?
Disastrous events occurred naturally due to
various differences happened in nature
without human interventions

65. Natural disasters occurred in
general
• Flood
• Volcano explosions
• Landslides
• Cyclone, hurricane,
tornado
• Drought
• Wild fire
• Thunderstorm
• Earthquake
• Tidal waves (tsunami)

66. Natural disasters found in Sri Lanka
• Flood
• Landslides
• Cyclone
• Drought
• Thunderstorm
• Tidal waves (tsunami)

67. Areas subject to frequent flooding
Kelani, Kalu, Gin, Walawe,
Nilwala river basins
Ratnapura, Galle and
Matara districts

68. Reasons for floods
• Heavy rains due to climate change
• Removal of forest cover
• Illegal constructions and blocking water
ways
• Filling depressions
• Impact of global warming

69. Landslides
Slipping of upper portion of land
carrying boulders, soil, buildings,
vegetation etc. to a lower area.

70. Reasons for landslides
• Heavy rains
• Earthquakes
• Mis-management of land
• Blocking natural water ways
• Mining
• Forest removal

71. Earthquakes
Movement of earth due to instant release of
energy built up slowly on the earth surface

72. Common impacts of natural disasters
• Loss of lives and injuries
• Stagnation of development
affairs
• Spread of diseases
• Property losses and
displacements
• Damage to crops
• Economic constraints
• Shortage of food

73. Management of Natural Disasters

75. Family
Institutional Framework
Community
Community
Institutional Framework
Strengths
and
weaknesses
Threats and
Opportunities

76. Family
Institutional Framework
Community
Community
Institutional Framework

78. Regulating Services
Drought – water
storage, reduced
seepage and
evaporation, clean
water
Flood – rainwater
absorption, excess
water drainage, flow
regulatory mechanism
Cyclone –
gasgommana,
kattakaduwa, tis-
bambe, forest
Epidemics –
malaria, water
purification, waste
recycling

79. The Drought: frequently stricken
in Hambantota – A study in 2008
• Location – Bundala, Lewagoda, wellagamgoda

80. FACING DROUGHT - HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT
• Pre-signs
– Leaves of many trees show
wilting.
– Tanks go dry early
– Hot condition, no dark
clouds, cloud appears still,
high wind speed and wind
carries dust.
– Before rain begins tamarind
trees begin to produce golden
colour tender leaves.
80
Leonard Woolf (1908 – 1911) at Meegaha
Jandura

81. Pre-signs
• People hear unusual shouts of lizards and
hawks.
• Poisonous ants (black ants, brown ants etc.)
come out of the ground.
• Nonpoisonous small ants move along
ground surface with white eggs.
• Elephants roam around the village.
• Monkeys’ dead silent.
• Direction of moon rise.
– If moon rises over the land - a drought
– If moon rises over sea - rain will come soon.
• Before a drought - morning is cold and
gradually warming.
• Dehydrated due to dry wing.
FACING DROUGHT - HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT
81

82. Preparedness
• Planting trees - drought tolerant species such as neem, wood apple,
tamarind etc.
• Water Conservation - Deepening the tank bed, constructing new
canals, repair tanks at houses to collect rainwater.
FACING DROUGHT - HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT
82

83. Preparedness
• Preservation of food
– store the paddy harvest (bissa),
kurakkan (atuwa)
– Vegetables - pumpkin, ash
pumpkin etc. are hung in dry
places, brinjal, cucumber etc.
sliced and store near fire place
(dum-messa)
– Cowpea, mungbean etc. are stored
in clay pots placing two layers of
ash above and below but without
covering the pot mouth.
– Maize cobs – hung in dry places
– Red chill is sun dried and kept for
long time.
FACING DROUGHT - HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT
83

84. Response to drought
• Praying (puja) for gods to stop
spreading epidemic diseases such
as blood diarrhea, fewer etc.
• Diseases - could be cured
traditional practitioners of local
medicines and rituals.
• They pray to the God
Katharagama to relieve drought
effect
• People organize pirith sajjayana (a
religious pray in Buddhism) and
pirith pan (holy water) is
distributed to villagers for escaping
drought hazards.
FACING DROUGHT - HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT
84

85. Economic
Social
Livelihoods
Institutional
Environ
mental
Physical
Build up capacity of the community based organizations
Make Palmyra fence in zigzag form around the village to
protect from wild elephants
Obtain technical advices to reduce salt condition of the
soil
Remove invasive plants of the area plant suitable tree
species
Establish wind belts to reduce wind velocity and dust
problem
Rehabilitate feeder canal to feed tanks
Develop a community water supply scheme with a water
filtering plant to obtain salt free water
Repair drainage canal of Baminiyawa tank and construct
an irish culvert
Bundala Model
Develop community grass lands and cattle sheds
Prepare bathing places in the Panu tank
Increase livelihood programs and encourage people for
self employment

86. Galle in 2004

89. Struggling Against Water Waves in Galle
District – A study in 2008
• people have considerable
knowledge on Warakan
situation, by which they do
not expect any loss of life,
damage to houses and other
properties and loss of harvest.
• Warakan affects the
community in two different
ways.
– It affects the livelihood of the
fishery community as the
fishermen can not go to sea
during that time.
– Tidal waves raise the water
level of Lanka Ela causing
flood damage and soil salinity.
Location: Kahawa, Uduwaragoda

90. Preparedness for sea water
floods (Warakan)
To mitigate effect of tidal waves
– They stop using small boats
with large fishing nets and short
nets. They can do fishery sitting
on wood poles (Ritipanna).
– They use tank boats or multi-
day boats to go to sea observing
wind direction.
– Fishermen bring all boats to the
land and attend repairs.
– Some fishermen temporarily
migrate to other side of the
island.
– Working in coir industry sites,
cinnamon processing, building
sites etc.
90

91. Preparedness for sea water
floods (Warakan)
To mitigate effect of tidal
waves
– Flood from Lanka ela -
change the crops (from
gotukola to kankun)
– Women tend to start self
employment activities such as
tailoring, confectionary etc.
– Conservation of mangrove
vegetation along Lanka Ela
– Clean water holes for coir
industry
– No harmful effect of brackish
water on banana cultivation.
91

92. Economic
Livelihoods
Institutional
Environ
mental
Physical
Promote coconut cultivation by providing
facilities
mitigation
Provide sufficient health facility by
establishing a health centre in the area
preparedness
Provide the access to pipe borne water
Promote coir industry and establish a
marketing mechanism
mitigation
Provide deeds or permits to Mahawela marshy
land to assure the land ownership
Provide effective drainage by removing debris
in all canals and streams.
Construct stone bunds across the shore line
to reduce the velocity of tidal waves
Widen Lanka Ela bridge and construct two
more small bridges
Kahawa – Uduwaragoda Model
mitigation
mitigation
preparedness
mitigation
mitigation
Social

93. Living With Floods in Kaluthara
District – A Study in 2008
• Location: Midalana

94. LIVING WITH FLOODS - KALUTHARA DISTRICT
• Pre-signs
– Unusual thundering sounds like hearing from underground
– Strange dark look not like before a usual rain spell
– Dogs bark continuously as a group or from different
locations
– Raining continuously for a long time
– White ants move upward along trees, ants move into
houses
– Insects (grasshopper, dragonfly etc.) appear and fly around
– Sounds of snakes (python, wiper etc.) and animals (cattle,
frog, fox, owl etc.)
– Lightning without rains
– Snakes creep into houses
94

95. Pre-signs just before flood
– Crow-pheasant (atikukula) and
cicada (rehaiya) start shouting
– Water becomes muddy
– Receiving rains on upper areas
– Uproars of people
– Raised water levels in rivers
and streams
– Cloudy appearance of
mountains
– Dense formation of clouds
– Swallows (wehi-lihini) fly as
groups in the sky
– Cattle roar in unusual times
LIVING WITH FLOODS - KALUTHARA DISTRICT
95

96. Economic
Livelihoods
Institutional
Physical
Rehabilitate Elabada Anicut mitigation
Change cropping patterns to escape
undesirable weather periods
Supply boats for different localities
(gamgodali) in the village
Establish resources and operation center
Construct a large well at a higher elevation
and plant warm water – pump system for
the whole area
Midalana Model
mitigation
preparedness
preparedness
preparedness
Environ
mental
Increase number of bridges or culverts and
raise the road
Clean Hadigalla canal mitigation
mitigation
Social Provide mobile health protection services
during the time of flood response

97. Location: Palawela, Batakada, Batakada watta, Paragahahena,
Palawela watta, Galahitikanda
Living on Sliding Lands – Ratnapura District
– A Study In 2008

99. Pre-signs of the disaster observed
• Several coconut trees had inclined to the
mountain direction about five days before
the landslide.
• Several trees died including two large jak
trees a weak ago before the landslide.
• People observed turbid water in wells
below the landslide area.
• There was a water stream crossing the
landslide area. They observed water level
rise twice, two days before the landslide.
• Three days before the landslide, dogs
showed unusual bawling and roaming with
excitement.
• Just before 10-15 minutes, house floors
were cracked and cement layer was flaked.
• Water emerged from cement block walls.
99

100. Community decisions
– Avoid cultivation on direct slopes;
– Avoid cultivation on upper mountain
areas;
– Adopt soil conservation practices (stone
bunds, drains covered by stones)
– Plant cover crops in rubber plantations
– Stop building houses in areas vulnerable
to landslides
– Stop making roads to upper mountain
areas.
– Plant less valuable plants in upper areas
– Construct proper drainage system in the
area already showing the signs of land
slides.
– Protect and guard the mountain areas
from illicit felling.
– Provide protection to wild animals.
LIVING ON SLIDING LANDS - RATNAPURA DISTRICT
100

101. Social
Institutional
Environmental
Physical
Implement soil conservation programs
preparedness
Establish a common communication system
mitigation
Provide land and houses from protected places
Investigate the lands for risk levels and take necessary
steps accordingly
mitigation
Make the community aware of the landslide through
landslide experts
Remove risky rock pieces and boulders from
vulnerable areas to protect trees
Fix rain gauges in the village
Construct a bridge across the river to reach Weragala
school
Giripagama Model
mitigation
mitigation
mitigation
mitigation
preparedness
Livelihoods Promote making bamboo (bata) products using for
gemming
preparedness
Economic
Support for self-employments such as tea and rubber
nursery management
preparedness

102. Cyclones in Ampara District – A Study in 2008
Location: Diwiyagala, Thibirigolla, Madawalalanda

103. CYCLONES IN AMPARA DISTRICT
Pre-signs
– Feel much cold about 2 – 3 days
before the cyclone. Environment
appears to be moist.
– Wind velocity increases gradually.
– Huge trees show more flexible
and sensitive to wind
– Rains come before the cyclone.
– If the wind velocity is increasing
during the rain - converting to
cyclone
– Suddenly animals’ behaviours
change. Unusually, people hear
that cattle shout, dogs bark and
birds fly in unusual manner.
103

104. People have identified following
measures to reduce the wind effect.
• Open doors, windows of the houses to flow
wind across the houses.
• Put heavy materials such as logs, tires etc. on
the roof.
• Move out of the house and stay in an open area
• Lay down if the wind velocity increases.
• Try to select a flat land without trees.
• Keep goods, instruments on the floor. Remove
goods from the wall cupboards.

105. Activities in Recovery Phase
• Immediately they begin to help victims. More risky area is closer
to Nelli Kele forest area and they start from that location.
• Immediately they take care of injured people if any.
• People organize to provide water and food for victims.
• They collect a fund to buy food and medicine for victims.
• Village leaders including Grama Niladhari immediately assess
the damage.
• They provide timber, cadjan, illuk etc. to affected people.
• They clean roads by removing debris and cutting trees fallen over
the road.
• They clean drinking water wells and canals by shramadana
campaign.
• They organize to obtain relief aids from the government and
NGOs. People provide information to the District Secretary and
try to take necessary aids.

106. • Cyclone disaster mitigation
practices
– Land use decisions according to
wind direction and wind effects
– Abandon all chena cultivation
areas near the forest
– Select lands with large trees not
damaged due to cyclone
– Remove all trees within the
premises of 30 m distance
around dwelling
– Protect water sources (wells,
water holes etc.)
– Do not use upper areas of the
land catena for cultivation and
other constructions and keep
them as natural vegetation
CYCLONES IN AMPARA DISTRICT
106

107. Economic
Social
Livelihoods
Institutional
Physical
Place culverts to obtain water for the paddy
field
mitigation
Provide latrine facility for the families, who do
not have it
preparedness
Construct houses for poor people
Provide library facility
mitigation
Establish a protected place or permanent
building to gather at the disaster
Construct drinking water wells
Construct a water tank for use in emergency
occasions
Diwiyagala Model
mitigation
preparedness
preparedness
mitigation

108. Fate of traditional knowledge
• Efficiency
– IK is cost effective
– IK uses appropriate technology
• Effectiveness
– IK improves chances of adoption
– IK is integral to local
communities
• Sustainability
– IK facilitates mutual adaptation
and learning
– IK empowers local communities

109. Scientific Interpretation
• Kem and bio-
pesticides
• Weather
forecasting
• Soil and water
management
• Food preservation
and grain storage

110. Kem and bio-pesticides
Kem
• Ash spreading with chanting
manthra
• Oil lamp or fire torch
• Fumigation (keppetiya,
gandapana, sera)
• Plant extracts (Madu, Valdel,
kokun, Godapara, Demata,
Kukuruman)
Bio-pesticides
• Ash spreading
• Light trap
• Fumigation (keppetiya,
gandapana, sera)
• Plant extracts (Madu, Valdel,
kokun, Godapara, Demata,
Kukuruman)

111. Weather forecasting
• Reaction from
animals
• Observation from
environment (trees,
cloud, moon)
• Signals from wind,
temperature and
humidity
• Long-term
experience (passing
from generation to
generation)

112. Soil and water management
• Selection of crop on soil
fertility level:
– Nawadali hena – very fertile:
mustard, legumes, vegetables
– Ath danduwawa – fertile:
legumes, vegetables, coarse
grains
– Landu hena – moderately
fertile: coarse grains,
sesame
– Kanathu, piti – less fertile:
sesame, meneri
– Goda wee hena – imperfectly
drained: paddy, vegetable

113. Soil and water management
• Chena cultivation
– Sharing land based on
productivity
– Burning the vegetation to
obtain high biomass, ash and
debris – soil conservation
– Mixed cropping
• Paddy cultivation
– Shallow tillage – water and
nutrient conservation
– Drainage – dispose of
polluted water
– Maintenance of rice – weed
ratio for pest management
– Varietal selection
– Top – down field to field
irrigation

114. Food preservation and grain storage
Traditional methods of food
preservation began from the
essential need to store
supplies when they were
plentiful and to keep the food
fresh for as long as possible
to last through the winter
months.
Although food preservation
has been in use for thousands
of years, it is only in the last
two centuries that many of
the ‘new’ food processing
techniques have been
developed.

115. Food preservation and grain storage
• The principles underlying methods of
preservation used in the past are still
the same as today.
• The aim of preservation is to prevent
food spoilage as a result of growth of
micro-organisms and breakdown of
food by enzymes.
• As soon as food is harvested,
slaughtered or manufactured into a
product it starts to change. This is
caused by two main processes:
• autolysis – self destruction,
caused by enzymes present in the
food;
• microbial spoilage – caused by
the growth of bacteria, yeasts and
moulds.

116. Food preservation and grain storage
Principles of food preservation:
Factors:
 Temperature
 Chilling or freezing the food to
retard growth of micro-organisms
and inhibit enzyme activity.
 Alternatively, heating the food to
destroy micro-organisms and
prevent enzyme activity.
Dehydration – dummessa, sun
drying
 Oxygen
 Food kept in an airtight container
will deprive micro-organisms of
oxygen and prevent contamination.

117. Food preservation and grain storage
Principles of food preservation:
Factors:
 Moisture
 Reducing the moisture
content of the food to make
water, (which is essential for
growth), unavailable to
micro-organisms.
Alternatively, placing food in
a sugary solution will make
water unavailable for the
growth of micro-organisms.
 pH level
 Placing food in an acidic or
alkaline solution will inhibit
the growth of micro-
organisms.

118. Food preservation and grain storage
• Two
traditional
modes of
storage were,
and are the
outdoor "wee
bissa" found
mostly in the
drier plains
and the
Atuwa, which
is a large

119. Parameter Modern
farming
Traditional
farming
%
change
Total input cost (Rs./ha) 100,827 102,420 + 1.6
Yield (kg/ha) 4,148 3,177 - 23.4
Cost of production (Rs./kg) IFL 24.31 32.24 + 32.6
Cost of production (Rs./kg) EFL 16.47 16.98 + 3.1
Selling price (Rs./kg) 30.00 40.00 + 33.3
Seed productivity 29.6 32.5 + 9.8
Land productivity (Rs./ha) 23,613 24,660 + 4.4
Labour productivity (Rs./day) 664 869 + 30.9
Investment productivity (Rs./Rs.) 1.50 1.52 + 1.3
Net return (Rs./kg) IFL 5.69 7.76 + 36.4
Net return (Rs./kg) EFL 13.53 23.02 + 70.1
Comparison of modern farming and traditional farming
Results of a study conducted in Moneragala district during 2007 - 2019

120. The Traditional system practiced
by farmers included:
1. Cultivation of traditional rice
varieties;
2. Use of organic fertilizers
(straw, green manure, cow
dung, poultry manure, liquid
fertilizer etc.);
3. Management of weeds through
hand weeding, mechanical
weeding and water
management;
4. Management of pest and
diseases by practicing
Kemkrama (rituals),
maintaining biodiversity and
using bio-pesticides; and
5. Management of available
water without leading to
moisture stress.

121. Target for self sufficiency
1990 2025 2025
Population (millions)
Rice production requirement (million tons)
Yield (bushels/acre)
Irrigable extent (million ac.)
Irrigation water requirement (mil. ac.ft.)
Water use effectiveness (from reservoir to
crop)
Cropping intensity
17.2
2.2
70
1.4
7.0
37 %
1.3
24.9
3.5
70
2.3*
11.2
37 %
1.3
24.9
3.5
100
1.7
7.0
45 %
1.6
* - will need this increase
to feed the nation

122. Traditional Knowledge with Climate Change
Impact of climate change
1. Temperature
• dry regions become more dry
– high water loss from open water
bodies
2. Rainfall
• High variability in seasonal
rainfall
– Increased frequency of floods and
droughts affect
3. Problem of soil erosion
– steep slopes are highly vulnerable
– siltation of reservoirs
– land degradation –marginal lands
Traditional knowledge

123. Some drawbacks of using IK
• Mostly confined to
rural communities
• Scattered and not well
documented – does not
reach the development
personnel
• Modern society does
not place much faith on
IK
• Modern education and
technology claims it to
be non-scientific

124. Strategies to harness the potential of IK
• Raising awareness: identity –
record – disseminate –
exchange IK
• Validation and Valuation: study
– test-compare – challenge –
fund – protect
• Mainstreaming: pilot – adapt –
integrate into comprehensive
development framework
• Technology transfer: adoption
of IK in other locations requires
validation eg. testing herbal
medicines for efficacy and
safety
• Building Local Capacity: train –
facilitate IK exchange

125. Areas, which need improvement
• Policy and legal frameworks for incorporating
traditional knowledge practices in place
• Collection and compilation of traditional/indigenous
knowledge scattered in the country.
• Information, communication and educational strategy to
be operational
• Research in traditional knowledge programmes that can
be implemented
• Capacity building of stakeholders using existing
traditional knowledge
• Institutional mechanism for
incorporating/mainstreaming traditional knowledge