Geological Field Work Report.pdf

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Shri Madan Mohan Upadhyay, the
state convener of INTACH Bhopal Chapter, for giving us the opportunity to be part of
this project and do the geological field work on Purani Pahadi, Udaypur, Vidisha
District. He has been a source of inspiration and guidance for us, as he is an eminent
scholar of ancient history and culture.
I would also like to thank Dr. R S Raghuwanshi, the head of department of geology at
Govt. Motilal Vigyan Mahavidhyalaya, Bhopal, for his support and supervision
throughout the project. He also provided us with the necessary equipment and
instruments for the field work. The faculties of the department too helped us to develop
our skills and knowledge in geology and to understand the concepts and methods of
field work.
We are grateful to Mr. Nilesh Bhargav, the outsourcing guard, for his assistance and
cooperation during the field work. He accompanied me and my project partner
throughout the field work and helped us in every possible way, such as arranging
lunch, providing transportation, and treating us like young brothers. He also
introduced us to the local people and helped us to communicate with them.
We would like to thank the local people of Udaypur, Vidisha District, for their
hospitality and kindness. They welcomed us warmly and shared their knowledge and
stories about the place. They also allowed us to access their lands and properties for
the field work.
We would also like to thank Mr. Pankaj Wankhade, the mining inspector, for his help
and advice before and during the field work. He helped us to know the area and its
geological features and history. He also helped us to solve the problems and challenges
that we faced during the field work.
We feel lucky to be a part of this project, and we hope to keep in touch with the people
with whom we worked, and learn from them in the future as well.

INDEX
S.No Content Page No
1. Introduction 1
2. Geomorphology 8
3. Objective & Scope of the study 11
4. Methodology 13
5. Geology 17
6. Geomorphology 26
7. Geological Structures 33
8. Conclusion 51
9. References 52

LIST OF FIGURES
S.No. Content Page
No
1. Neelkantheshwar Temple 2
2. Ganesha Rock-cut Sculpture 4
3. Saptamatrika Rock-cut Sculpture 4
4. Tirthankara Sculpture 5
5. Dharanendra Sculpture 6
6. Gomukha Sculpture 6
7. Weathered Jain Sculpture 7
8. Toposheet Map of Udaypur 8
9. Base Map of Udaypur 11
10. Satellite Image of Purani Pahadi 12
11. Geological Hammer 14
12. Brunton Compass 15
13. Lithology Map of Udaypur 20
14. Sandstone with varied beds 22
15. Flagstone Sample 23
16. Exposed beds of Flagstone 24
17. Geomorphology Map of Udaypur 26
18. Slope Map of Udaipur 28
19. Landform Map of Udaypur 31
20. Drainage Map of Udaypur 32
21. Weathering and Erosional Structure 33
22. Thick bed 35
23. Choti Pahadi (Purani Pahadi) 36
24. Plan view of Cross Bedding 38
25. The terminology and defining characteristics of cross
bedding
39
26. Trough bedding 40
27. Gradational Bedding 41
28. Sand movement in flumes under unidirectional flow conditions 42
29. Symmetric Ripple Marks 43
30. Ripple Mark under thick bed 44
31. Asymmetric Ripple Marks 45

32. Mud Cracks 46
33. Cave 1 47
34. Cave 2 48
35. Natural Arch 49

LIST OF TABLES
S.No Title Page No.
1. Population of Udaypur 1
2. Lithostratigraphy of Vindhyan Supergroup 18
3. Lithostratigraphic Succession of the Rewa Group 19
4. Geological Succession with their Geological age 25
5. Slope Classification 27
6. Earthquake Zones with regions and effect 29
7. Scale of Stratification of thickness 37

GEOLOGICAL FIELD WORK REPORT | 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Udaypur is a village near Ganj Basoda in the Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is famous
for its well-preserved Shiva temple, which is a monument of national importance protected by
the Archaeological Survey of India. It covers an area of approximately 41.907 square kilometers.
Udaypur is located 15 kilometers from Ganj Basoda, providing access to additional amenities and
services.
The Udaypur area lies between coordinate ranging from 78°2'E 23°55' N to 78°8'E 23°48'N.
Udaypur is surrounded by Bareth, Muradpur, Pathari (Badoh) and Bawli villages.
According to the 2011 census, the population of Udaypur is 6,383 people. Out of this, the male
population is 3,405 and the female population is 2,978. The literacy rate of Udaipur village is
54.28%, out of which 60.70% males and 46.94% females are literate. There are about 1,247
houses in Udaipur village.
Table 1: Population of Udaipur
1.1 HISTORY
➢ Udaypur is a town in the Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh, near Ganj Basoda. It is the
site of a well-preserved Śiva temple, a monument of national importance protected by
the Archaeological Survey of India
➢ Udaypur’s history dates back to at least the ninth century, but it became prominent and
got its name under the Paramara king Udayaditya (c. 1060-87). He was a successor of
the legendary king Raja Bhoj, who is said to have ruled from Udaypur and built the Shiva
temple
➢ The Shiva temple, also known as the Nilakanthesvara, was built in the second half of the
eleventh century and is the only surviving royal temple of the Paramara kings. It has a
complex Saiva iconography and a spire that belongs to the bhumija style of architecture.
During the field trip, we met the people in the village and learned about the history of Udaypur
Village. According to the popular legend related to Udaypur Village, which the villagers told us,
that: -
PARTICULARS TOTAL MALE FEMALE
Total Population 6,383 3,405 2,978
Literate Population 3,465 2,067 1,398
Illiterate Population 2,918 1,338 1,580

The palace in Udaipur village and the famous Neelkantheshwar temple there was built by
King Udayaditya, King Uday Aditya belongs to the Paramara dynasty and he was a resident of
Ujjain.
Fig1. Neelkantheshwar Temple
Once King Udayaditya came from Ujjain to play hunting in Udaipur with his queen, and
there is a place named Barakhambi in Udaipur, where he rested at night. Suddenly, there was a
fire in the forest, the king's companions, soldiers and ministers were trying to extinguish the
fire, at this time a snake burning in the fire came and said to King Udayaditya, 'Listen, sahiban,
keep me in your mouth so that my jealousy will calm down. Seeing the condition of the snake
that the creature is in trouble, the king took pity on him and he kept the snake in his mouth, but
the snake went into the stomach of the king, due to which the king's stomach started growing,
and the king's health deteriorated.
Due to which the queen became upset and sad, at the same time where the king and queen
were resting, it was a treasure in Barakhambi, in which also a snake lived. Seeing this condition
of the king, the snake of the treasure said, 'Listen, sahiban, the king gave peace, but if the snake
betrayed, then I tell the remedy for its death. ' If you mix strong chillies in whey and give it to
the king, then the snake will melt and come out through the feces, the queen noted. Hearing
this talk of the treasure snake, the stomach snake said, 'Listen, sahiban, he has told the remedy
for my death, so I will tell the remedy for his death. If you heat the oil and pour it on it, it will kill
and you can take out the treasure. The Queen noted both things.

He asked for whey from Amera village near Udaipur and mixed strong chillies and gave it to the
king, so that the snake got out and the king became healthy.
Then he heated the oil and poured it on the snake of the treasure, which killed the snake and
the treasure was found by the king queen. From the same treasure, King Udayaditya built the
palace and the Neelkantheshwar temple. It is also said that the entire treasure was not used
and the remaining treasure is still under Barakhambi.
During the Mughal period, there was an invasion here, due to which the temple and palace
were destroyed but could not be completely destroyed because Hinglaj Mata appeared from
the Hinglaj Mata temple located in Udaipur village and helped the king. The special feature of
Hinglaj Mata temple is that the idol installed in it changes three forms during the day, in the
morning it resembles a child, in the afternoon it resembles a puberty form, and in the evening,
it depicts an aged form.
The hill set for our Geological Survey is called Purani Pahadi. On that hill, there is a remnant of
fort which might be there during the time of King Udayaditya, but at present it is completely
destroyed.
1.2 ROCK-CUT SCULPTURES
Rock-cut sculpture, which is a type of architecture that is created by carving out structures from
solid rock. We have found the sculptures on our field area i.e. Purani Pahadi. We found 3
sculptures spot.
I. Ganesha and Saptamatrika Sculpture.
The sculpture found in the northern part of Chhoti Pahadi (Purani Pahadi). It is of the Hindu
deity Ganesha, who is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and
sciences, and the deva of intellect and wisdom. Ganesha is easily recognized by his elephant
head and human body, which represent the soul and the physical world. He is also honoured as
the god of beginnings and is invoked at the start of rites and ceremonies.
Another sculpture found on the left of the Ganesha is Saptamatrika, (Sanskrit: “Seven Mothers”)
in Hinduism. It is having a group of seven mother-goddesses, each of whom is the shakti, or
female counterpart, of a god. They are Brahmani (wife of Brahma), Maheshvari (wife
of Shiva), Kaumari (wife of Kumara), Vaishnavi (wife of Vishnu), Varahi (wife of Varaha, or the
boar, an avatar [incarnation] of Vishnu), Indrani (wife of Indra), and Chamunda, or Yami (wife
of Yama). One text, the Varaha-purana, states that they number eight, including Yogeshvari,
created out of the flame from Shiva’s mouth.

Fig 2 .Ganesha Rock Cut Sculpture. Size-41cm by 29 cm.
Fig 3. Saptamatrika Rock-cut Sculpture. Size- 204cm by 70cm.

II. Jain Rock-cut Sculptures
The Jain sculpture in the center of the image is of a tirthankara, a spiritual teacher who has
attained liberation from the cycle of rebirth. The tirthankara is seated in a yogic posture on a
throne, with a pointed headdress. The two smaller sculptures on either side of the tirthankara
are yakshas, nature-spirit deities who serve as guardians and protectors.
Fig 4 .Tirthankara Sculpture. Size of Centre Sculpture-80cm by 75cm.
The yaksha on the left is Dharanendra, the king of the nagas (serpents) who protected the
twenty-third tirthankara, Parshvanatha, from a storm. He is depicted as a standing figure with a
pointed headdress and a snake hood. The yaksha on the right is Gomukha, the elephant-headed

deity who is associated with the twenty-second tirthankara, Neminatha. He is depicted as a
seated figure with a pointed headdress and an elephant trunk
Fig 5. Dharanendra Sculpture. Size-40cm by 30cm.
Fig 6. Gomukha Sculpture. Size-35 cm by 23 cm.

III. Weathered Jain Sculpture
The sculpture found on the northeastern part side of the Badi Pahadi (Purani Pahadi). This Jain
sculpture is of a tirthankara, a spiritual teacher who has attained liberation from the cycle of
rebirth. This sculpture is showing the high degree of weathering.
Fig 7. Weathered Jain Sculpture. Size-65 cm by 25 cm.

2. GEOGRAPHY
Geography is the science of the earth’s surface, its environment, and the human activities that
take place on it. Geography involves the study of both the physical and the human aspects of
the world, and how they interact and influence each other.
2.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY
Fig 8. Toposheet map of Udaypur
The area lies between coordinate ranging from 78°2'E 23°55' N and 78°8'E 23°48'N. The area
falls in the survey of India Toposheet number 55I/1. The elevation ranges in the area varies from
340 to 480m amsl. It has an average elevation of 410 meters.

2.2 CLIMATE AND RAINFALL
I. Rainfall
Based on the information from the nearby places, it can be estimated that the average rainfall
of Udaipur village is around 800 mm per year, which is the same as the average rainfall of the
semi-arid agro-climatic zone of Madhya Pradesh, where Udaipur village is located. The rainfall
distribution is uneven and erratic, and the area often faces droughts and floods. The rainfall is
influenced by the south-west monsoon winds, which bring moisture from the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal.
II. Temperature
The climate of Vidisha district characterized by a hot summer and general dryness except during
the southwest monsoon season. The year may be divided into four seasons. The cold season,
December to February is followed by the hot season from March to middle of June. The period
from the middle of June to September is monsoon season. October and November form the
post-monsoon or transition period. The January is the coldest month of the year. The individual
day temperature comes as low as 1 or2°C. From March onwards, the temperature starts rising
and maximum temperature is observed during the month of May. On the arrival of monsoon,
the weather becomes pleasant. In October, on the retreating of monsoon the temperature rises
lightly during the day time and nights become pleasant.
III. Humidity and wind
The driest part of the year is the summer season, when relative humidity is less than 39%. April
is the driest month of the year. The wind velocity is higher during the pre-monsoon period as
compared to post monsoon period.
2.3 SOIL COVER
The higher elevations i.e. the hilly regions have a cover of murum which is made up of small
rounded pieces of weathered trap. The Vindhyans has a thin cover of sandy loams,alluvium is
derived from hills slopes by numerous streams and water courses. Sandy loams finds in this
area.
2.4 AGRICULTURE

Udaypur village produces soybean, pigeon pea and maize in Kharif and wheat, gram and lentil in
Rabi season. The Kharif area is 90% rain fed and Rabi area is 34% rainfed.
2.5 RIVER AND WATER BODY
It lies in the Betwa river basin. north west of the village lies the Keptan river which is use for
irrigation and domestic purposes. The village is also depended on lakes and ponds which usually
dried during the summer season.

3. OBJECTIVE & SCOPE OF THE STUDY
3.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this field work is to investigate the geology, stratigraphy, landforms,
composition, and history of the Purani Pahadi, using various methods and techniques, such as
geological mapping, sampling, analysis, and interpretation.
The field work aims to identify and characterize the different rock units, structures, and
processes that have shaped the area over time, and to understand their spatial and temporal
relationships.
The field work also seeks to evaluate the natural resources, hazards, and environmental issues
associated with the area, and to provide recommendations for further research and exploration.
Fig 9. Base Map of Udaypur

3.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
To conduct a geological field work in the Purani Pahadi, Udaypur which is located in Vidisha
district near Ganj Basoda. The area is of interest because it has historical as well as geological
features and properties, such as leftover fort and caves.
The study aims to investigate the geology, stratigraphy, landforms, composition, and history of
the area, using various methods and techniques, such as geological mapping, sampling, analysis,
and interpretation. The study will also evaluate the natural resources, hazards, and
environmental issues associated with the area, and provide recommendations for further
research and exploration.
Source-Google Earth
Fig 10. Satellite image of Purani Pahadi, Udaypur

4. METHODOLOGY
The systematic and logical procedures and techniques that geologists use to collect, analyze,
and interpret data and information about the earth’s surface, structure, composition, and
history. The methodology for geological field work can vary depending on the purpose, scope,
and scale of the study, but generally it involves the following steps:
✓ Planning and preparation: This step involves defining the research question or problem,
reviewing the literature and background information, selecting the study area and site,
designing the sampling and mapping strategy, obtaining the necessary equipment and
permissions, and ensuring the safety and ethics of the field work.
✓ Data collection: This step involves conducting the field work, which may include
observing, measuring, recording, and sampling the geological features and properties of
the area, such as rocks, minerals, fossils, soils, water, landforms, structures, etc. The
data collection methods and tools may include geological mapping, sampling, analysis,
and interpretation, using a geological hammer, a Brunton compass, a lens, a meter tape,
a field notebook, a chisel, and other instruments and tests.
✓ Data analysis: This step involves processing and examining the data collected in the
field, using various techniques and software, such as microscopy, spectroscopy, X-ray
diffraction, geochronology, stratigraphic correlation, structural analysis, etc. The data
analysis aims to identify and characterize the different geological units, processes, and
events that have shaped the area over time, and to understand their spatial and
temporal relationships.
✓ Data interpretation: This step involves integrating and explaining the data and results,
using various methods and models, such as geological maps, cross-sections, diagrams,
charts, tables, etc. The data interpretation aims to answer the research question or
problem, and to evaluate the natural resources, hazards, and environmental issues
associated with the area.
✓ Data presentation and communication: This step involves summarizing and highlighting
the main findings and conclusions of the study, and providing recommendations for
further research and exploration. The data presentation and communication may
include a geological report, a geological database, a geological presentation, and a
geological publication, using various formats and media, such as text, images, graphs,
maps, etc.

Description of the Geological tools used in the field
a) Field Notebook: A field notebook is a special type of notebook that has a hard
cover and water-resistant paper. It is used to record the observations,
interpretations, sketches, and measurements that geologists make in the field.
b) Geological Hammer: geological hammer is a special type of hammer that has a
flat head and a pointed end. It is used to break rocks, collect samples, and create
fresh surfaces to examine the rock and the minerals within it. A geological
hammer is also known as a rock hammer or a rock pick.
Fig 11. Geological Hammer.

c) Brunton Compass: A Brunton compass is a specialized instrument that allows
geologists to make accurate measurements of angles and directions in the field.
It is also known as a Brunton pocket transit. It has a compass card, a compass
needle, a clinometer scale, a clinometer level, a bull’s eye level, a vernier, a
mirror, and a sighting arm. A Brunton compass can be used to determine the
magnetic declination, measure the attitude of planes and lines, find the bearing
of a line between two points, and solve the two-point problem.
Fig 12. Brunton Compass
d) Meter tape: A meter tape is a flexible measuring device that can be used to
measure the length, width, height, and thickness of rocks, minerals, fossils, and
other features in the field. A meter tape can also be used to measure the
distance and direction between two points, the strike and dip of a plane, the

plunge and trend of a line, and the area and volume of a body. A meter tape is
also known as a measuring tape or a tape measure.
e) Lens: A lens is a simple magnifying glass that helps geologists to observe the
details of rocks and minerals, such as their color, texture, shape, luster, cleavage,
fracture, and crystal form. A lens can also be used to identify some minerals by
their optical properties, such as birefringence, pleochroism, and interference
colors. A lens is also known as a hand lens or a loupe
f) Chisels: A chisel is a metal tool that has a sharp edge and a flat end. It is used to
break rocks, collect samples, and create fresh surfaces to examine the rock and
the minerals within it. A chisel should be used carefully and safely, as it can cause
injury or damage to the rock or the user.

5. GEOLOGY
Geologically, Purani Pahadi is totally made up of Upper Rewa sandstone of Rewa group. The
Upper Rewa Sandstone Formation of the Rewa Group in the Vindhyan basin is composed mainly
of medium to very fine grained, iron pigmented arenaceous rocks variously interpreted as
fluvial, marine or continental deposits. They are reddish and brownish color due to weathering
and presence of iron oxide.
5.1 VINDHYAN SUPERGROUP
The Vindhyan basin is the spectacular, sickle shaped largest single Proterozoic basin in the
Indian Peninsular shield situated on the Bundelkhand craton (Figs. 4.1 and 4.6). The Vindhyan
Supergroup is a large sequence of sedimentary rocks that are Proterozoic in age, spanning from
about 1.7 billion years ago to about 650 million years ago . The ENE trending Vindhyan basin
spreads over the parts of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar extending from
Sasaram in Bihar to Chittaurgarh in Rajasthan. Vindhyan sediments, spreading over an area of
100,000 sq. km of which about 60,000 sq. km is exposed for direct observation and rest is
covered by Deccan Traps in the south-west and Indo-Gangetic alluvium towards the north. The
basin is separated from Aravalli-Delhi orogenic belt by westerly dipping Great Boundary Fault
Zone (GBFZ) in the west.
The Vindhyan basin has been divided into three sub-basins (from west to east) Rajasthan,
Bundelkhand and Son valley sector of which the latter two are larger. The Vindhyan succession
in the Bundelkhand sector is dominated by carbonates while siliciclastics (sandstones and
shales) and carbonates are equally prevalent in the Son valley and Rajasthan sectors.
The first Director of Geological Survey of India, Thomas Oldham in 1856 introduced the term
‘Vindhyan’ for this Supergroup. The name ‘Vindhyan’ is derived from the great ‘Vindhyan
Mountains’ of Central India. The Vindhyan Supergroup consists of about 4500m thick
sedimentary pile comprising a sequence of sandstone and shale in almost equal proportion with
subordinate carbonates, in the lower part. Vindhyan rocks show the excellent preservation of
sedimentary structures.
5.1.1 Stratigraphic Classification
The studies on Vindhyan basin commenced from the work of D.H. Williams in 1848. Three-fold
division of the supergroup: Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander was proposed by T. Oldham in 1856.
Lower Vindhyan was designated as Semri by F.R. Mallet in 1869.

Table 2: Lithostratigraphy of Vindhyan Supergroup
VINDHYAN
SUPERGROUP
GROUP FORMATION ALTERNATIVE NAMES
Bhander Group
(1300-1500m)
-------------------
Rewa Group
(100-300m)
-------------------
Kaimur Group
(400m)
-------------------
Semri Group
(3000-4000m)
-------------------
Maiher Sst.
Sirbu Sh.
Bundi Hill sst.
Lakheri Lst.
Ganugarh Sh.
---------------------------
Govindgarh Sst.
Drummondganj Sst.
Jhiri Sh.
Asan Sst.
Panna Sh.
---------------------------
Dhandraul Quartzite
Mangesar Formation
Bijaigarh Shale
Markundi Sandstone
Ghurma Shale
Sasaram Sst.
---------------------------
Suket Sh.
Rohtas Lst.
Chorhat Sst.
Bargawan Lst.
Kheinjua Sh.
Chopan Porcellanite
Kajrahat Lst.
Arangi Sh.
Deoland Sst.
---------------------------
(Upper Bhander Sst.: Divided into Bhavpura Sh.,
Balwan Lst., Shikaoda Sst.)
(Lower Bhander Sst.)
(Bhander Lst., Nagod Lst.)
(Simrawal Sh.)
----Discontinuity/ Gradational Contact---------------
(Upper Rewa Sst., Gahadra Sst.)
(Variegated Sh.)
(Lower Rewa SSt., Itwa Sst., Kanar Sst.)
----Normal Contact/Facies Change-------------------
(Upper Kaimur Sst., Scarp Sst.)
(Ghaghar Sst.)
(Susnai Breccia)
(Lower Kaimur Sst.)
---Unconformity/ Normal contact--------------------
(Baghwar Sh.)
(Nimbahera Lst.,: Divided into Bari Sh., Jiran Sst.
And Khori Malan Cong.)
(Glauconite Bed, Rampur Sst., Basuhari sst., Tirohan
Lst.)
(Salkhan Lst., Fawn Lst., Chorhat Lst., Tirohan Lst.)
(Olive Sh., Koldaha Sh., Binota Sh.)
(Deonar Porcellanite)
(Kuteshwar Lst., Bhagwanpura Lst., Tirohan Lst.,
Lohar Dolomite)
(Khardeola Sst., Pandwafall Sst.)
---Angular Unconformity/ Non-conformity----------
Granites and Supracrustals
Sst.- Sandstone; Sh.- Shale; Lst.- Limestone; Cong.- Conglomerate
.

Vindhyan Supergroup has been divided into four groups by Auden in 1933 as follows in
chronological order:  Bhander Group  Rewa Group  Kaimur Group  Semri Group The
common terms in usage are the Lower Vindhyan (for the Semri Group) and the Upper
Vindhyans (for Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander groups). The general stratigraphic scheme of the
Vindhyan Supergroup is summarised in Table.
5.1.2 Lithology
Rewa Group:
This name is derived from the then Rewa State. This group is composed chiefly of sandstones
and shales. It conformably overlies the Kaimur Group. It has been subdivided by Krishnan (1968)
into four different lithostratigraphic units. Sastry and Moitra (1984) have redesignated the
Lower Rewa Sandstone and the Upper Rewa Sandstone as the Asan Sandstone and the
Govindgarh Sandstone respectively. Table-6 gives the comparative lithostratigraphic successions
of the Rewa Group in Son Valley and Chambal Valley.
Table 3: Lithostratigraphic Succession of the Rewa Group.
GROUP SON VALLEY CHAMBAL VALLEY
(After prasad,1984)
After Krishnan,1968 Sastry and Moitra,1984
REWA
GROUP
Upper Rewa Sandstone Govindgarh Sandstone Govindgarh Sandstone
Jhiri Shale Jhiri Shale Jhiri Shale
Lower Rewa Sandstone Asan Sandstone Indergarh Sandstone
Panna Shale Panna Shale Panna Shale
I. Jhiri Shale
It is made up of red, reddish brown to greenish yellow shales and minor fine and medium
grained sandstone. The shale dominated facies shows lenticular bedding. The sand-dominated
horizons are characterized by flaser bedding. Rai et al. (1997) have recorded Chuaria –Tawuia
association from this horizon.

Fig 13. Lithology Map of Udaypur
II. Govindgarh Sandstone (Upper Rewa Sandstone)
It conformably overlies the Jhiri Shale and forms an escarpment facing south, close to
Govindgarh in Rewa district, Madhya Pradesh. The Upper Rewa Sandstone has been
redesignated as the Govindgarh Sandstone by Sastry and Moitra (1984).
Based on the study in the the Drummondganj area, Chakraborty and Choudhuri (1990) have
further divided this unit into Drummondganj Sandstone and Govindgarh Sandstone.
The thickness of the Govindgarh Sandstone varies from ≈100-250 m. It comprises pink, light
pink with light yellowish brown and yellowish white fine to medium-grained massive sandstone.
It shows profuse development of trough and planar mega cross-bedding.

Other sedimentary structures commonly associated with this unit include parting lineation,
ripple marks and clay-gals. At places due to increase in iron content, a purple brown colour is
imparted to the sandstone with effect of laterization.
In the Panna township, this horizon has yielded diamonds in the upper part in a pebbly to
cobbly ortho-conglomerate horizon.The basal Panna Shale, without any basal conglomerate,
indicates continuity of deposition from the Kaimur Group.
Panna Shale and Asan Sandstone consisting of red shales, limestones, barytes and glauconitic
siltstones indicate a lagoonal environment. This is overlain by the Jhiri Shale by a gradational
contact and is separated from the Asan Sandstone by a diamondiferous conglomerate at Panna.
Red shale, with glauconitic siltstones indicate lagoonal, lacustrine or offshore environment. The
overlying Drummondganj Sandstone is deposited in shore face environment. This is overlain by
the Govindgarh Sandstone which is poorly sorted and texturally immature, indicating either
fluvial, deltaic or near shore muddy tidal flat environment.
5.1.3 Rocks Found
I. Sandstone
Sandstones are all those medium-grained sedimentary rocks that comprise more than 50%
sand-size (0.063–2mm) grains.Iron oxide can give a reddish or brownish hue to the rocks,
especially if they are oxidized or altered by water or other fluids.
Composition Sandstones can include almost any preexisting mineral or rock fragment but, due
to removal of unstable grains by the very efficient agents of chemical and physical weathering,
the typical composition is much more restricted. The principal components of most siliciclastic
sandstones are quartz grains, feldspar grains and rock fragments. Other components can
include micas, clay minerals, biogenic fragments (calcareous, siliceous and carbonaceous), and
over 100 species of heavy minerals (specific gravity >2.9).

Fig 14. Sandstone with thick and thin beds. These types of formations are present all over the
Purani Pahadi.
II. Flagstone
Flagstone is a type of sedimentary rock that is split into layers along bedding planes. It is usually
used for paving slabs, walkways, patios, flooring, fences and roofing. It may also be used for
memorials, headstones, facades and other construction. The sediment must be deposited in
layers or strata that are parallel or nearly parallel to the surface of the Earth. These layers form
the bedding planes that allow flagstone to split easily.

Fig 15. Flagstone sample. Size reference Indian 10rupee coin
Flagstone can be found in places where there are bedded sedimentary rocks with fissile
bedding planes. A fissile bedding plane is a type of bedding plane that is thin and easily split into
smaller units. These rocks are formed by the accumulation and cementation of sand or other
particles in various environments, such as deserts, riverbeds, or coastal areas. Flagstone can
have different colors depending on the mineral composition and impurities, ranging from white
or light gray to red, brown, or even green.
Flagstone is composed mainly of sand-sized mineral particles or rock fragments. It is formed by
the compaction and cementation of sand in various environments, such as deserts, riverbeds, or
coastal areas.

Fig 16. Area represents the base of the Purani Pahadi. Thick beds of Sandstone and Flagstone
are exposed here.
5.2 UNIDIFFERENTIAL FLUVIAL/ ALLUVIAL SEDIMENTS, QUATERNARY:
Unidifferential fluvial/ alluvial sediments are sediments that are deposited by different agents of
transport, such as rivers, or waves, in different environments, such as floodplains, deltas, or
beaches. The Quaternary is the most recent geological period, spanning from about 2.6 million
years ago to the present day.
The unidifferential fluvial/ alluvial sediments of the Quaternary overlie the Vindhyan rocks
unconformably. These sediments are mainly composed of sand, silt, clay and gravel, and reflect
the climatic and tectonic changes that occurred during the Quaternary. Pediments surrounding
the Purani Pahadi have sandy loams and alluvium.

Table 4: Geological succession with their geological age
GEOLOGICAL SUCCESSION GEOLOGICAL TIME
Quaternary Deposits Quaternary Period
Basalt (Deccan Trap) End of the Cretaceous Period
Upper Rewa Sandstone (Vindhyan
Supergroup)
Upper Proterozoic Eon
Jhiri Shale (Vindhyan Supergroup) Upper Proterozoic Eon

6. GEOMORPHOLOGY
Maximum part of Udaypur Village is covered by the Sandstone and quaternary deposits and
most of the land forms in the area is the landforms of these rocks.
The geomorphological features of the area have been identified in the Landsat satellite image
and demarcated using the GIS platform.
Purani Pahadi shows the Butte formation which is very small, steep-sided, flat-topped plateau.
Fig 17. Geomorphology Map of Udaypur

6.1 SLOPE
The slope of Udaypur Village ranges from moderate slope to strong slope.
The slope of the block area is divided into (degree) basis in to (seven) categories. The major
Portion of the slope area falls under the moderately gentle slope region. The slope of the Purani
Pahadi comes under moderate to strong slope.
Table 5: Slope Classification
S NO SLOPE CLASS (DEGREE) NATURE OF SLOPE
1 < 0.5 Flat
2 0.5 to 1 Nearly Flat
3 1 to 3 Gentle slope
4 3 to 5 Moderately Gentle Slope
5 5 to 10 Moderate Slope
6 10 to 30 Strong Slope
7 > 30 Very Strong Slope

Fig 18. Slope Map of Udaypur
6.2 EARTHQUAKE ZONES
Earthquake zones are the areas that are classified according to the level of seismic activity or
the risk of earthquakes. Earthquake zones help in planning, designing, and constructing
buildings and infrastructure that can withstand or minimize the damage caused by earthquakes.
Udaypur village comes under the Zone 2 i.e. this area has a very low level of seismic hazard.

Table 6: Earthquake Zones with regions and effect
ZONE DESCRIPTION
Zone 5 This zone includes areas that are highly susceptible to earthquakes and
includes parts of the northwest, northeast, and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Buildings in this zone are required to be designed and constructed
to withstand the highest level of seismic activity
Zone 4 This zone includes areas that are moderately susceptible to earthquakes
and includes parts of the Himalayan region, the western and eastern
coasts, and parts of the central and southern regions of the country.
Zone 3 This zone includes areas that have a low to moderate level of seismic
hazard and includes parts of the central and southern regions of the
country.
Zone 2 This zone includes areas that have a very low level of seismic hazard and
includes parts of the northeastern region of the country
6.3 GEOLOGICAL LANDFORMS
Geological landforms are natural features that shape the Earth’s surface. They are the result of
various geological processes and can be found across the planet, encompassing a wide range of
shapes, sizes, and formations. Landforms provide valuable insights into the Earth’s history and
are crucial in understanding the dynamic processes that have shaped our planet over millions of
years.
Some of the main factors that influence landform development are:
✓ Tectonic activity: Landforms are significantly influenced by tectonic forces, which result
from the movement and interaction of Earth’s tectonic plates. Tectonic processes like
plate collisions, subduction zones, and faulting can give rise to landforms such as
mountains, rift valleys, and volcanic features.
✓ Geological composition: The underlying geological composition of an area plays a crucial
role in landform development. Different types of rocks and minerals have varying
resistance to erosion, which can lead to the formation of distinct landforms. For

example, resistant rocks like granite may form rugged mountain ranges, while softer
rocks like sandstone are more prone to erosion and can create unique formations such
as arches or hoodoos.
✓ Erosion and weathering: Erosion and weathering processes shape landforms over time.
Water, wind, ice, and gravity contribute to the erosion and transportation of rocks and
sediments. Rivers can carve out valleys and canyons, glaciers can sculpt mountains and
valleys, wind can shape sand dunes, and coastal erosion can create cliffs and
beaches. Weathering, which involves the breakdown of rocks and minerals, can also
contribute to the formation of specific landforms.
✓ Climate and weather: Climate and weather patterns influence landforms by affecting
erosion rates, sediment transport, and deposition
Sedimentary rocks that remain more or less horizontal once the sea has retreated or after they
have been uplifted form characteristic landforms. Purani Pahadi shows the Butte landform.
A mesa or table is a small plateau, but there is no fine dividing line between a mesa and a
plateau. A butte is a very small plateau, and a mesa becomes a butte when the maximum
diameter of its flat top is less than its height above the encircling plain. When eventually the
caprock is eroded away, a butte may become an isolated tower, a jagged peak, or a rounded hill,
depending on the caprock thickness.
Cuesta Ridge formed in gently dipping strata with an asymmetrical cross-section of escarpment
and dip-slope. Cuestas form in beds dipping gently, perhaps up to 5°.
A Pediment is a gently sloping landform that develops at the foot of a mountain or hill, where a
thin layer of debris covers the underlying bedrock.
A Pediplain is a broad, flat landform that covers a large area, where several pediments have
merged together.

Fig 19. Landform Map of Udaypur
6.4 DRAINAGE PATTERN
A river system can be considered as a network in which nodes (stream tips and stream
junctions) are joined by links (streams). Stream order is used to denote the hierarchical
relationship between stream segments and allows drainage basins to be classified according to
size. Stream order is a basic property of stream net - works because it relates to the relative
discharge of a channel segment.

Fig 20. Drainage Map of Udaypur
In Strahler’s ordering system, a stream segment with no tributaries that flows from the stream
source is denoted as a first-order segment. A second-order segment is created by joining two
first-order segments, a third-order segment by joining two second-order segments, and so on.

7. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
Geological structures are variations in the properties of the Earth’s crust that can tell us about
its history and processes. There are three main types of geological structures: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
As Purani Pahadi is made up of sedimentary terrain and maximum area of Udaypur is having
sedimentary structures. So, our report focuses on the sedimentary structures only.
Sedimentary structures are formed when sediments accumulate and undergo compaction or
cementation. They include sedimentary basins, which are large depressions filled with
sediments; sedimentary layers or strata, which are horizontal or inclined sequences of
sediments; sedimentary features, such as cross-bedding, ripple marks, sand dunes, and
fossils. Some examples of sedimentary structures are alluvial fans, deltaic plain deposits,
sandstone formations, shale layers, coal seams, and limestone caves.
Fig 21. This structure may be form by the weathering and erosion activity during the fluvial
and aeolian activity. This structure is secondary type, which is formed after the deposition.
Hammer 35 cm.
Sedimentary structures are large-scale features of sedimentary rocks that are best studied in the
field, formed from aggregates of grains and generated by a variety of sedimentary processes.
They occur abundantly in siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and also occur in non-siliciclastic

sedimentary rocks. Whereas "sedimentary texture" applies mainly to the properties of
individual sediment grains.
Significance of sedimentary structures
1) Reflect environmental conditions that prevailed at or very shortly after the time of
deposition, as a tool for interpreting ancient depositional environments (sediment transport
mechanisms, paleocurrent flow directions, relative water depths, and relative current
velocities).
2) To identify the tops and bottoms of beds and thus to determine if sedimentary successions
are in the right depositional stratigraphic order or not.
Classification of sedimentary structures are described below.
7.1 PREDEPOSITIONAL (INTERBEDED) STRUCTURES (EROSIONAL)
It occurs on surfaces between beds, before the deposition of the overlying bed by erosional
processes. These are called sole marks (bottom structures). The convex structures on the upper
bed are termed "casts." The concave hollows in the underlying bed are termed "molds".
7.2 SYN-DEPOSITIONAL (INTRA-BEDED) STRUCTURES (DEPOSITIONAL):
They are constructional structures that are formed during depositional activities, thus they are
present within sedimentary beds.
I. Beds:
Beds are tabular or lenticular layer of sedimentary rock that can be distinguished from strata
above and below by difference in color, composition and texture. Bedding (Bed) is thicker than 1
cm whereas lamination (Lamina) is thinner than 1 cm. Bedding is composed of beds; lamination
is composed of lamina.
II. Bedding planes or bedding surfaces:
Bedding planes are primary surface in a sedimentary rock separating the upper and lower
surfaces of beds, which represent period of nondeposition, erosion, or changes in composition
(reflect changes in depositional conditions). Some bedding surfaces may be post-depositional
features formed by diagenetic processes.

Fig 22. Thick bed of thickness more than 60cm. This cross section belongs to the base of the
Purani Pahadi.
In sandstones massive bedding is rare. It is most frequently seen in very well-sorted sands,
where sedimentary structures cannot be delineated by textural variations. Purani Pahadi is full
of beds with planar bedding.
III. Flat-bedding (planar bedding):
Flat-bedding is planar beds that are deposited horizontally parallel to the bedding plane
surfaces. It occurs in sand-size sediments (terrigenous and carbonate) in diverse sedimentary
environments (fluvial channels, beaches, delta fronts and Aeolian sand sheets).
Internal, bedding surfaces may show parting-lineations in which sand grains are arranged with
the long axes parallel to the flow direction.
It is attributed to sedimentation from a planar bed form under shooting flow or a transitional
flow regime with a Froude number of approximately 1.

Fig 23. This is the image of Choti Pahadi (Purani Pahadi) showing the thick bed (more than 60-
100 cm) at the bottom and thin bed found towards the top of it.

Table 7: Scale of Stratification of Thickness. (Source: Inzram, 1954).
THICKNESS(CM) TERMINOLOGY
>100 Very Thickly Bedded
30-100 Thickly Bedded
10-30 Moderately bedded
3-10 Thinly Bedded
1-3 Very thinly bedded
0.3-1 Thickly laminated
IV. Cross-bedding:
It is one of the most common and most important of all sedimentary structures (the most
important paleocurrent indicators). Cross-bedding, consists of inclined dipping bedding,
bounded by sub-horizontal surfaces.
• It is ubiquitous in traction current deposits in diverse environments.
• Individual beds range in thickness from a few tens of centimeters to a meter or more.
• It is used to determine current flow directions in ancient rocks (very excellent paleocurrent
indicators).
• Each of cross bedded units (Isolated cross-bed) is termed a set. Vertically contiguous sets are
termed cosets. The inclined bedding is referred to as a foreset. Foresets may grade down with
decreasing dip angle into a bottomset or topset.

Fig 24. Plan view of Cross Bedding. This Picture is taken from the area between badi Pahadi
and choti Pahadi. Direction of flow towards the pen cap. Pen 14.5 cm.
Cross-beds are divided on the basis of:
1. Overall geometry (foresets shape).
2. The nature of the bounding surfaces of the cross-bedded units. They are divided into:
A. Tabular cross-bedding
It consists of cross-bedded units bounded above and below by planar bounding surfaces. The
foreset laminae are also commonly planar, but are curved at the basal surface.

Fig 25. The terminology and defining characteristics of cross-bedding
B. Trough cross-bedding
It consists of cross-bedded units having upward concave foreset lie within erosion scours which
are elongated parallel to current flow, closed up current and truncated down current by further
troughs.
C. Gradational cross bedding
It shows a gradual change in grain size from the bottom to the top of each set. It is usually
formed by the migration of ripples or dunes in a unidirectional flow, such as a river or a wind.
The coarser grains are deposited first at the base of the lee slope, and the finer grains are
carried farther up the slope by the flow. Gradational cross bedding is a common feature of
fluvial and aeolian deposits, and it can also be found in some turbidites.

Fig 26. Trough bedding. Hammer 35 cm.
Formation of cross bedding:
Formed mainly by the migration of the crested dunes and mega-ripples
• Migration of dune during lower flow regime conditions.
• Migration of anti-dunes in upper flow regime conditions to deposit upcurrent dipping cross-
beds.
• In river channels (braided type) a single set of cross-bedded strata deposited in the steep side
of obstacles.
• Channel may be infilled by cross-bedding paralleling the channel margin

Fig 27. Gradational Bedding. Forearm- 45 cm
V. Ripples:
Ripples are small-scale alternating ridges and troughs formed on the surface of sediment layer
by moving water or wind. They are generated under low flow regime condition (F<1).
Types of ripples:
a. Symmetrical Ripples (wave or oscillation ripples) form in shallow water by
wave action under oscillatory (bimodal current) flow and tend to be
nearly symmetrical in shape and have fairly straight crests.
This ripple marks indicate the shallow sea in the palaeo-environment.

Fig 28. Bed Form, Flow Power and Grain size. The diagram is based on sand movement in
flumes under unidirectional flow conditions.
b) Asymmetrical ripples (current ripples) formed by wind or water flowing in one
direction (unidirectional current). They are asymmetrical in shape, and the steep
or lee side faces downstream in the direction of current flow. When ripples
migrate on unconsolidated non-cohesive sediment with simultaneous upward
growth forming climbing ripples with cross lamination.
This ripple marks indicate the fluvial action of water in the palaeo-environment.

Fig 29. Symmetric Ripple mark or Oscillation ripples. Shape of the crest is straight and sinous.
Pen 14.5cm

Fig 30. Ripple mark found under the thick bed or Lower bedding plane of the thick bed.
Exposed length – 45 cm
In the plan view, the crests of current ripples have a variety of shapes: straight, sinuous,
catenary, linguoid, and lunate. The plan-view shape of ripples is apparently related to water
depth and velocity.

Fig 31. Asymmetrical Ripple marks. This found near the Weathered Jain Sculpture. Arrow
shows the flow direction. Pen 14.5cm.
7.3POST DEPOSITIONAL STRUCTURES (DEFORMATIONAL)
These are deformational structures, that disturb and disrupt pre- and syn-depositional
structures (inter- and intra-bed structures). They develop during, or shortly after deposition
of unconsolidated sediments. They indicate slumping or compression of layers before
complete lithification.
7.4MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURES
There are sedimentary structures of diverse origin that are not fit conveniently into a simple
classification. These include shrinkage cracks (Mud cracks and Syneresis cracks), Caves and
Natural Arcs are also found on the Purani Pahadi.

a. Desiccation cracks (Mud cracks)
These are downward-tapering cracks in mud, which are infilled by sand and displaying
polygonal pattern in plain view. The area between the cracks is commonly curved
upward into a concave shape.
✓ They form subaerially when mud exposed to air is dewatered, shrinks and leaves a crack.
✓ They are commonly preserved on the tops of bedding surfaces as positive-relief fillings
of the original cracks.
✓ They are good indicator of subaerial exposure and may be associated with raindrops or
ripple marks, and vertebrate tracks.
✓ They occur in both siliciclastic and carbonate mud (in estuarine, lagoonal, tidal flat, river
floodplain, Playa Lake, and other environments), where muddy sediment is exposed to
air.
Fig 32. – Mud cracks. Pen 14.5 cm.

Mud-cracks are commonly preserved on the tops of bedding surfaces as positive-relief. fillings
of the original cracks (Fig. 41). Mud-cracks occur in estuarine, lagoonal, tidal-flat, river
floodplain, playa lake, and other environments where muddy sediment is intermittently
exposed and allowed to dry.
b) Caves
It is an Erosional Caves that are carved out by a stream of water that carries sand and gravel.
The water erodes the weaker portions of the rock, creating hollows or tunnels. Caves are
important in archaeology because they can provide valuable information about the past human
societies and cultures.
Fig 33. This cave found West part of the Badi Pahadi (Purani Pahadi). The large entrance to
the cave indicates a high probability of a way to the other side of the Pahadi.
Caves can also preserve plant and mineral remains, such as seeds, pollen, charcoal, shells, and
crystals, that indicate the environmental and climatic conditions, as well as the natural
resources and activities, of different regions and periods.

Fig 34. Another Cave found in the eastern face of the Pahadi near Natural Arch. It has a quite
small entrance, but there is also the chance of connectivity to the previous cave or to the
other side.
c) Natural Arch

Natural arches are formed in sandstone by a combination of erosion and stress. Erosion
removes the weaker or less resistant portions of the rock, such as the grains or the cement, by
the action of water, wind, or temperature variations. Stress redistributes the weight of the
remaining rock, causing the grains to interlock and resist further erosion.
Fig 35. Natural Arch found in the eastern face of the Badi Pahadi.
The interlocking grains form impervious networks that support the arch span. The shape and
size of the arch depend on the direction and magnitude of the stress, as well as the initial

fractures or joints in the rock. The stress distribution, which involved the redistribution of the
weight of the remaining rock, causing the grains to interlock and resist further erosion. The
interlocking grains formed impervious networks that supported the arch span.

8. CONCLUSION
The aim of this study was to investigate the sedimentary structures, geomorphology, and
cultural heritage of the Purani Pahadi, Udaypur Village, Vidisha district, Madhya Pradesh. The
field work revealed the presence of ripple marks, cross bedding, mud cracks, thick and thin
beds, caves, and natural arches in the succession of the Badi Pahadi. These indicating various
depositional environments and processes due to the activity of the fluvial, marine or shallow
sea. The field work revealed the area belongs to Govindgarh Sandstone of Upper Rewa Group.
The field work also documented the rock-cut sculptures of Ganesha, Saptamatrika and Jain, and
the history of the village, reflecting the cultural and religious diversity of the region.
The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of the sedimentary history,
geomorphology, and geology of the Purani Pahadi. The findings also demonstrate the
importance of preserving the natural and cultural heritage of Purani Pahadi, which is threatened
by mining and environmental degradation.
The field work was limited by the time, access, and equipment available. Some of the
sedimentary structures and rock-cut sculptures were partially eroded or covered by vegetation,
making them difficult to identify and measure. The field work also faced some ethical issues,
such as respecting the religious and cultural sensitivities of the area.
Future research on the Purani Pahadi could include more detailed analysis of the sedimentary
structures, geochemistry as well as geophysical and geotechnical surveys, to better understand
the depositional history, geomorphology, and geology of the area. Future action on Purani
Pahadi could include more conservation and education efforts, to protect and promote the
natural and cultural heritage of the area.

9. REFERENCES
✓ Data collected during the field visit
✓ Sketches drawn and photo taken in the field
✓ Sengupta S.M. (2007) Introduction to Sedimentology. CBS Publishers and Distributors
Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi
✓ Stow Dorrik A.V. (2006) Sedimentary Rocks in the Field, A Color Guide. Academic Press
✓ Fundamental of Geomorphology -Richard John Huggett 3rd Edition
✓ Seismic Zones of India, Map, Types of Seismic Zones (studyiq.com)
✓ CGWB- Aquifer Mapping and Management of Ground Water Resources- Vidisha District
✓ PSI - Field Guide Vindhyan Basin, Son Valley Area, Central India S. Kumar
✓ villageinfo.in
✓ BMTPC-Vulnerability Atlas of India
✓ Wikipedia

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